Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

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Precambrian Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres

Geochemistry of ne-grained clastic sedimentary rocks of the Neoproterozoic

Ikorongo Group, NE Tanzania: Implications for provenance and
source rock weathering
Charles Kasanzu , Makenya A.H. Maboko, Shukrani Manya
Department of Geology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35052, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 2 November 2007
Received in revised form 23 April 2008
Accepted 27 April 2008
Keywords:
Ikorongo Group
Mudrocks
Geochemistry
Weathering
Provenance

a b s t r a c t
The Neoproterozoic Ikorongo Group, which lies unconformably on the late Archaean Nyanzian Supergroup
of the Tanzania Craton, is comprised of conglomerates, quartzites, shales, siltstones, red sandstones with
rare agstones and gritstones and is regionally subdivided into four litho-stratigraphic units namely the
Makobo, Kinenge, Sumuji and Masati Formations.
We report geochemical data for the mudrocks (i.e., shales and siltstones) from the Ikorongo basin in an
attempt to constrain their provenance and source rock weathering. These mudrocks are compositionally
similar to PAAS and PS indicating derivation from mixed macfelsic sources. However, the siltstones
show depletion in the transition elements (Cr, Ni, Cu, Sc and V) and attest to a more felsic protolith than
those for PAAS and PS. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA: 5282) reveal a moderately weathered
protolith for the mudrocks. The consistent REE patterns with LREE-enriched and HREE-depleted patterns
((La/Yb)CN = 7.338.3) coupled with negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.71 on average), which characteristics are similar to the average PAAS and PS, illustrate cratonic sources that formed by intra-crustal
differentiation.
Geochemical considerations and palaeocurrent indications suggest that the provenance of the Ikorongo Group include high-Mg basaltic-andesites, dacites, rhyolites and granitoids from the Neoarchaean
Musoma-Mara Greenstone Belt to the north of the Ikorongo basin. Mass balance calculations suggest relative contributions of 47%, 42% and 11% from granitoids, high-magnesium basaltic-andesites and dacites,
respectively to the detritus that formed the shales. Corresponding contributions to the siltstones detritus
are 53%, 43% and 4%.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In clastic sedimentary rocks, the trace elements such as rare
earth elements (REE) and Th are said to be relatively insoluble
and as a result their original compositions are not upset during
weathering, erosion and transportation from the parent rocks to
depositional environments (Taylor et al., 1986). Although, processes such as weathering, hydraulic sorting, and post-depositional
diagenesis have been reported to distort geochemical information about the source area (e.g., Nesbitt and Young, 1982), yet,
ratios of the immobile trace elements normally reect those of
the source rocks rather than the effects of sedimentary processes
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985). It is on this basis, therefore, that the
chemistry of ne-grained clastic sedimentary rocks has been long
utilized for making inference on source rock compositions, palaeo-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +255 784 77 56 56; fax: +255 222 41 00 78.
E-mail address: kcharls16@yahoo.com (C. Kasanzu).
0301-9268/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2008.04.007

climatic conditions and tectonic setting (Taylor and McLennan,

1985).
The geology of Tanzania (Fig. 1) can generally be subdivided into
ve tectono-stratigraphic units: (1) Archaean cratonic rocks (i.e.,
the Dodoman Belt, Nyanzian and Kavirondian Supergroups); (2)
early to late Proterozoic sedimentary covers and metamorphic terranes (e.g., the Karagwe-Ankolean; the Bukoban Supergroup, the
Ubendian-Usagarani Supergroups; and the Ikorongo Group); (3)
Pan-African metamorphic rocks (i.e., the Mozambique Belt) located
in the eastern margin of the Tanzania Craton; (4) Phanerozoic sedimentary basins (e.g., The Karoo); (5) Neogene volcanic rocks of
northern and southern Tanzania (Cloutier et al., 2005 and references therein).
The Ikorongo Group of clastic sedimentary rocks, which is the
focus of this study, has been correlated to the Neoproterozoic
Bukoban Supergroup (e.g., Shackleton, 1986) which overlies the
Tanzania Craton in western and northwestern Tanzania (Fig. 1).
Geochemical studies in Tanzania to date have mainly concentrated
on the Archaean crustal rocks (e.g., Messo, 2004; Manya, 2005;

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C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Fig. 1. Generalized tectono-stratigraphic map of Tanzania (modied from ASGA/UNESCO, 1968). The regional setting of the study area shown in Fig. 2 is indicated in the inset
box.

Manya et al., 2006, 2007a,b; Mtoro, 2007) and the Pan-African

orogeny (e.g., Maboko, 1995; Muhongo et al., 2001) in the context of deciphering the geological evolution of the Tanzania Craton
and the neighboring mobile belts. On the other hand, sedimentary
covers have received little or no attention. In this paper, therefore, we present major and trace element geochemical data of the
ne-grained sedimentary rocks (i.e., siltstones and shales) from the
Ikorongo basin. The purpose of the study is to constrain source(s)
of the Ikorongo clastic sedimentary rocks and to understand the
weathering conditions in the source region(s).
2. Geological setting
The Ikorongo basin lies in the northeastern part of the Tanzania Craton (Fig. 1). It is comprised of clastic sedimentary
rocks which unconformably overlie Archaean basement rocks
composed of highly deformed metamorphic rocks, granites and
greenstone sequences which form part of the Nyanzian Supergroup
(Stockley, 1936). The Ikorongo Group is composed predominantly of
conglomerates, quartzitic sandstones, brown and green shales, siltstones, red sandstones and subordinate agstones and gritstones
(Macfarlane, 1965; Kasanzu, 2007).
The general geology of the Ikorongo Group has been discussed in
Pickering et al. (1959) and recently summarized in Kasanzu (2007).
Regionally, the group is comprised of four litho-stratigraphic formations namely, from bottom to top, the Makobo, Kinenge, Sumuji
and Masati. However, the Makobo Formation is not exposed in the
study area. The Kinenge Formation, which unconformably overlies basement rocks, is comprised of quartzites and conglomeratic
sandstones that are overlain by shales and siltstones of the Sumuji
Formation (Fig. 2). The Sumuji Formation is overlain, through a

gradual transition, by thick bedded, ne- to medium-grained crossbedded red sandstones of the Masati Formation. On the basis of
their geographical distribution, the rocks of the Ikorongo Group
were most likely derived from weathering, erosion and deposition
of rocks that constituted the exposed upper continental crust of the
Tanzania Craton during the late Proterozoic (Kasanzu, 2007).
3. Sampling and analytical methodology
Samples presented here include shales and siltstones (here
termed as mudrocks) collected from the Sumuji Formation in view
of the fact that ne-grained clastic sedimentary rocks are more useful in geochemical studies than the coarser ones (e.g., Taylor and
McLennan, 1985). Mudrocks are ne-grained siliciclastic rocks rich
in clay minerals (Yong, 2002). Clays preserve source rock chemical signatures due to the fact their mineralogy is rarely affected
during diagenesis and metamorphosis (Weaver, 1989). Fifty-four
mudrock samples collected after careful geological mapping were
trimmed to remove weathered surfaces and subsequently crushed
in a jig-saw crusher for size reduction. The particles were washed
and oven-dried at 70 C overnight. The dried samples were then
left to cool for 24 h. The samples were pulverized in an agate planetary mill to a grain size of <0.063 mm, homogenized and packed
into plastic bags. Five grams of aliquots of each powdered sample
were packed and sent to the Activation Laboratories Ltd. of Ontario,
Canada, for major and trace elements determination.
Major and trace elements were analyzed with a Thermo
Jarrell-Ash ENVIRO II Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission
Spectrometer (ICP-OES) and a PerkinElmer SCIEX ELAN 6000 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS), respectively.
For ICP analyses, 0.25 g aliquots of each sample were mixed with

C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

203

Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area showing the sample locations (modied from Kasanzu, 2007).

a ux of lithium metaborate and lithium tetraborate and fused in

an induction furnace. The molten melt was immediately poured
into a solution of 5% HNO3 containing an internal In standard, and
was thoroughly mixed for 30 min to achieve complete dissolution. An aliquot of the sample solution was analyzed for major
oxides and the trace element Sc, on a combination simultaneous/sequential Thermo Jarrell-Ash ENVIRO II ICP-OES. Detection

limits were 0.01 wt% for all major elements and 2 ppm for Sc. Calibration was performed using seven USGS and Canmet certied
reference materials. Loss on Ignition (LOI) was determined from
the weight loss after roasting the samples at 1050 C for 2 h. Totals
ranged between 98.4 wt% and 100.6 wt% for major elements. The
other aliquot of the sample solution was spiked with internal In and
Rh standards to cover the entire mass range, and further diluted

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C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Table 1
Average major (wt%) and trace (ppm) element compositions of mudrocks from the
Ikorongo Group

Fig. 3. Classication of the Ikorongo mudrocks according to the scheme of Herron

(1988).

6000 times prior to introduction into a PerkinElmer SCIEX ELAN

6000 ICP-MS for trace element analysis.
The analytical reproducibility as deduced from replicate analyses is better than 3.9% for most trace elements and better than
0.9% for most major elements except P2 O5 (3.9%), Na2 O (1.5%) and
K2 O (1.3%). The accuracy of the ICP measurements as computed
from replicate analysis of the USGS SY-3 rock standard is better
than 2% for SiO2 , Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , MnO, CaO, Na2 O and TiO2 while
the accuracy for P2 O5 , K2 O and MgO data are 7.4%, 3.5% and 3.7%,
respectively. The accuracy for most trace element analyses is within
0.53.9% (except for V which is 10%) whereas reproducibility of the
ICP measurements is better than 7%.
4. Geochemistry
Major and trace element compositions of the Ikorongo
mudrocks are presented in terms of their mean concentrations
and standard deviation values in Table 1. The mudrock samples
are classied according to the scheme of Herron (1988) which has
been proven to be useful when applied to clastic sedimentary rocks
(Roddaz et al., 2006). In this classication scheme, the Ikorongo
brown and green shales plot consistently in the shale eld whereas
the siltstones are classied as Fe-rich sands and wackes (Fig. 3).
Compared to shales, the siltstones are enriched in the absolute
abundances of SiO2 , CaO, Na2 O, Zr, Hf and Mo (Table 1). Contrary to
the siltstones, the Ikorongo shales are enriched in Ti2 O, Al2 O3 , K2 O,
P2 O5 , LILE, Th, U, Ta, Nb, Cr, Ni, Sc, V and have variable contents of
MnO, MgO, Mo and Cu.
In Fig. 4, major and trace element compositions of the Ikorongo
mudrocks are compared with the compositions of the PostArchaean Australian Shale composite (PAAS; Taylor and McLennan,
1985) and the average Proterozoic Shale (PS) of Condie (1993) which
are regarded as the best representatives of the post-Archaean upper
continental crust composition (e.g., Roddaz et al., 2006; Condie,
1993). The abundances of all major elements except CaO and P2 O5 in
the shales are generally similar to the corresponding abundances in
both PAAS and PS. The trace element abundances in the shales are,
generally, comparable to PAAS and PS with only slight enrichments
in the LILE (except Sr), slight depletions in the high-eld strength
elements (Zr, Hf, Ta, Y, Nb and Mo) and the ferromagnesian trace
elements Co, Cu and V (see Fig. 4).
Compared to PAAS and PS, the siltstones are relatively depleted
in TiO2 , Al2 O3 , CaO, K2 O and P2 O5 (Fig. 4a). Generally, the siltstones

Brown shales (N = 30)

Green shales (N = 14)

Siltstones (N = 13)

Mean

Mean

Mean

STDEV

STDEV

STDEV

SiO2
Al2 O3
FeO(T)
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2 O
K2 O
TiO2
P2 O5
LOI

60.83
18.26
8.41
0.16
1.34
0.16
0.74
3.97
0.80
0.11
4.66

5.75
3.26
1.58
0.18
0.58
0.18
0.43
0.72
0.21
0.12
1.05

62.45
17.82
7.02
0.10
2.01
0.16
1.11
3.34
0.80
0.07
4.85

3.71
1.90
0.80
0.06
0.30
0.04
0.55
0.66
0.07
0.02
1.15

76.67
9.19
6.04
0.15
1.40
0.27
1.66
1.31
0.44
0.05
2.52

8.91
4.39
2.19
0.19
0.79
0.29
0.83
1.06
0.25
0.03
0.87

Total
CIA

99.44
75.60

0.56
3.63

99.73
75.67

0.69
3.14

99.70
66.71

0.71
7.27

19.57
88.67
159.67
19.50
59.31
15.60
207.57
104.50
23.83
119.57
12.13
7.95
1043.17
63.85
105.45
13.03
42.65
7.74
1.55
5.79
0.85
4.55
0.83
2.44
0.36
2.33
0.34
3.45
1.55
18.83
2.76

3.22
17.94
54.49
8.24
18.50
19.60
37.71
42.35
3.61
29.52
2.61
1.87
274.52
21.14
25.07
3.33
10.02
1.58
0.27
1.11
0.14
0.74
0.13
0.38
0.05
0.35
0.05
0.82
0.70
4.38
0.61

18.50
85.50
165.71
19.71
56.43
34.29
168.14
67.71
22.79
142.57
12.29
4.55
926.50
52.70
97.14
11.29
37.77
6.92
1.37
5.29
0.78
4.22
0.78
2.34
0.35
2.30
0.34
4.11
1.59
18.46
3.17

2.41
14.23
44.33
7.22
13.93
19.89
40.56
11.93
3.96
22.76
1.14
2.83
296.57
18.02
12.71
2.76
8.78
1.46
0.21
1.24
0.13
0.68
0.14
0.38
0.06
0.37
0.05
0.54
0.48
2.21
0.47

8.00
46.62
63.85
17.62
26.15
11.54
67.69
42.92
19.62
216.23
7.62
3.19
399.62
31.23
66.43
7.26
25.59
5.31
1.09
4.42
0.68
3.62
0.68
2.02
0.30
1.99
0.30
5.83
0.89
15.06
2.50

4.86
23.21
29.02
11.35
22.56
12.14
50.14
24.05
7.97
263.45
3.82
2.85
380.50
15.87
34.57
3.67
12.36
2.27
0.35
1.56
0.24
1.30
0.25
0.85
0.15
1.05
0.18
7.18
0.53
11.39
1.50

6.90
3.26
1.08
8.87
1.11
0.71
5.26
1.99

1.20
0.89
0.23
3.27
0.58
0.03
0.90
0.27

5.87
2.92
1.01
9.05
1.08
0.71
4.72
1.85

0.61
1.23
0.13
2.65
0.39
0.04
0.51
0.18

5.89
4.98
0.61
4.99
1.44
0.71
3.68
1.98

1.14
3.71
0.27
1.88
0.88
0.06
0.64
0.74

256.27

50.83

211.34

16.68

150.93

73.77

Sc
V
Cr
Co
Ni
Cu
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
Th
U
Th/U
La/Sc
Sc/Th
Cr/Th
Co/Th
Eu/Eu*
(La/Sm)CN
(Gd/Yb)CN
TREE

TREE means total rare earth elements. STDEV means standard deviation.

are characterized by lower contents of most major elements (except

MnO, CaO and Na2 O) than those observed in the shales. On PAAS
and PS normalized diagrams, the siltstone samples show relative
depletion in the LILE, the ferromagnesian elements and the HFSE
(Ta, Y, Nb and Mo) (Fig. 4b). The abundances of Th, U, Zr, and Hf are
highly comparable (Fig. 4).
The REE concentrations for the samples are listed in Table 1. The
total REE contents are lower in the siltstones (mean = 150.93 ppm)
than in the shales (brown shales: mean = 256.27 ppm; green shales:
mean = 211.34 ppm). The bulk REE generally reside in the ne frac-

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205

Fig. 4. PAAS- and PS-normalized major and trace element diagrams for the Ikorongo mudrocks (PAAS data from Taylor and McLennan, 1985; PS data from Condie, 1993).
Symbols as in Fig. 3.

tion (silt or clay) and it has also been inferred that trivalent REE
readily are accommodated in most clay minerals (Asiedu et al.,
2000). The lower contents of REE in the siltstones highlight a
possible paucity of clays and/or quartz dilution effect caused by
sedimentary sorting. This argument is tied with the lower contents
in Al2 O3 , K2 O and the higher SiO2 compositions in the siltstones
(Table 1; Fig. 4).
On Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams (Fig. 5), all mudrock
samples display fractionated REE patterns ((La/Yb)CN that range
from 7.26 to 38.30; the subscript CN refers to Chondrite-normalized
abundances) which are characterized by relatively at HREE
((Gd/Yb)CN = 1.374.03), enriched LREE ((La/Sm)CN = 2.247.63) and
negative Eu anomalies (mean = 0.71) similar to PAAS and the average Proterozoic Shale (Eu*, calculated as in Taylor and McLennan,
1985). The close similarity between the Ikorongo mudrocks and
both PAAS and PS, strongly attests to a typical fractionated upper
crust source. In these plots, however, brown shales display variable
Ce* anomalies (Fig. 5a and b), suggesting variations in palaeo-redox
states during deposition (Kimura et al., 2003).
Mean La/Sc, Sc/Th, Cr/Th and Co/Th ratios in the brown shale
are 3.25, 1.08, 8.83 and 1.10, respectively. The corresponding ratios
in the green shales are: La/Sc = 2.92; Sc/Th = 1.01; Cr/Th = 9.05; and
Co/Th = 1.08 and are largely similar to those in the brown shales.
In general, both brown and green shales have higher La/Sc ratios
than PAAS and PS whose corresponding values are 2.81 and 2.23,
respectively. However, Sc/Th and Co/Th ratios are higher in PAAS
and (not shown) than those in the Ikorongo shales (PAAS and PS
ratios are from Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Condie, 1993, respectively). The siltstone samples, on the other hand, are characterized
by La/Sc, Sc/Th, Cr/Th and Co/Th ratios of 4.39, 0.66, 5.94 and 1.37,
respectively. When compared to shale samples, the siltstones have

higher La/Sc and Co/Th ratios, while Sc/Th and Cr/Th are lower, a
feature which is suggestive of minimal mac parentage.
5. Discussion
As sediments sample a wide range of terranes, their chemical compositions are a net result of a number of factors. These
incorporate, among others, source rock composition, intensity of
weathering, mineral sorting, and nally diagenesis (Piper, 1974;
McLennan, 1989). It is, therefore, meaningful to evaluate each of
these factors before drawing conclusions on the provenance of sediments as inferred from the chemistry of clastic sediments (Roddaz
et al., 2006).
Because of the similarity in SiO2 contents between the Ikorongo
shales and PAAS (Fig. 4a), we can conclude that the abundances of
other elements are free of quartz dilution (e.g., McLennan, 1989).
The slightly higher SiO2 contents in the siltstone samples, when
compared to both PAAS and PS; highlight a possible quartz dilution
effect on other element compositions. Before deducing the nature
of source rock(s) for the Ikorongo Group, in the following section,
we rst evaluate the compositional features that may have resulted
from chemical weathering, diagenesis and mineral sorting.
5.1. Source area weathering and diagenesis
The chemical compositions in the samples represent their primary mineralogy, a feature which is, in most cases, subject to
the intensity of pre- and post-depositional chemical weathering
(Nesbitt and Young, 1984). Button and Tyler (1979) noted that
cations like Al, K, Mg, Cs, and Rb are often retained in weathering
proles while cations with smaller ionic radii, such as Na, Ca and

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C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Fig. 5. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the Ikorongo mudrocks (normalizing values from Boynton, 1984). PAAS and PS patterns are included in each plot for comparison
(PAAS data from Taylor and McLennan, 1985; PS data are from Condie, 1993).

Sr are rapidly ushed away as dissolved ions (Nesbitt and Young,

1982). The amount of elements which are lost is proportional to the
extent of weathering (Condie et al., 1992).
In order to quantify the degree of weathering, Nesbitt and Young
(1982) proposed the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA). This index
is calculated using molecular proportions as shown in the equation
below:
CIA =

Al2 O3
Al2 O3 + CaO + Na2 O + K2 O

In the equation, CaO* is the amount of CaO incorporated in the

silicate fraction of the rock. Correction for CaO from carbonate contribution was not done for the Ikorongo rocks since there was no
CO2 data. Therefore, to compute for CaO* from the silicate fraction,
the assumption proposed by Bock et al. (1998) was adopted. In this
regard, CaO values were accepted only if CaO Na2 O; consequently,
when CaO > Na2 O, it was assumed that the concentration of CaO
equals that of Na2 O (Bock et al., 1998). However, only one brown
shale sample (IK 67) showed CaO contents higher than Na2 O.
The calculated CIA values for the Ikorongo mudrocks are presented in Table 1. The brown and green shales have comparable CIA
values which range between 59 and 80 with a mean of 75 whereas
in the siltstones the values range from 57 to 73 with a mean of
66. The average CIA values in the shales are higher than that for
PAAS (CIA = 69; no CIA data for PS) and attest to a more weathered source. In the shale samples, the elements Ca and Sr are more
depleted relative to PAAS than Al, K, Cs and Ba. These discrepancies
can be explained by two possible processes. Firstly, since Ca and Sr
are contained in minerals that weather rapidly than those which

contain K, Al, Cs and Ba (e.g., Roddaz et al., 2006), their depletion

(i.e., Ca and Sr) in the shales, therefore, could be caused by weathering of parent rocks. Secondly, such depletions can also be attributed
to source rocks being poor in plagioclase since both Ca and Sr are
contained in plagioclase (e.g., Roddaz et al., 2006).
The fact that siltstones are characterized by lower CIA values
than PAAS suggests that the Ikorongo siltstones were from the erosion of a less weathered source than that for PAAS. This is supported
by the lower contents in both Al and K relative to PAAS. Furthermore, the depletion in CaO in the siltstone samples, relative to PAAS,
is suggestive of parent rocks being poor in plagioclase. Therefore,
besides weathering, it seems that these rocks were derived from
the erosion of plagioclase-poor rocks.
In a plot of Al/Na ratios versus CIA of Servaraj and Arthur (2006)
all shales and most siltstones plot, together with PAAS, in the intermediate weathering eld except for a few samples which plot in
the low weathering eld (Fig. 6). Of interest is the coexistence of
the shale samples with variable Al/Na ratios but displaying similar
CIA values (Fig. 6). This trend could be caused by diagenetic loss of
Na+ (e.g., Nesbitt and Young, 1982).
Most authors favor the use of Al2 O3 (CaO* + Na2 O)K2 O
(ACNK) ternary plot in evaluating the chemical weathering
trends than simple comparison of numerical value (e.g., Nesbitt
and Young, 1984, 1989; Roddaz et al., 2006). The ACNK plot is
also useful in indicating post-deposition metasomatic modication
of major element compositions (Fedo et al., 1995). In such diagrams, plots of mudrocks commonly form a weathering trend that is
almost parallel to the ACN joint. On the Al2 O3 (CaO* + Na2 O)K2 O
(ACNK) diagram, the siltstone samples plot sub-parallel to the

C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Fig. 6. Scatter plot of Al/Na ratios versus Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) for the
Ikorongo mudrocks. Note the increase of Al/Na ratios at nearly constant CIA values
suggesting post depositional loss of Na+ . Fields are from Servaraj and Arthur (2006).
Symbols as in Fig. 3.

ACN axis scattering towards the area between illite and muscovite
and, yet, dene an ideal trend for weathering of a primary source
with a granodioritic composition (e.g., Fedo et al., 1995). On the
contrary, shale samples cluster in a tight group near the AK axis
(Fig. 7), attesting to a uniformly weathered source. The fact that
the siltstone samples display variable CIA values (Fig. 6), coupled
with their scattering in the ACNK diagram, demonstrate that
these samples might have been affected by other processes than
weathering, most likely K-metasomatism (Fig. 7). Similar trends
have been reported in ancient weathering proles (e.g., Nesbitt
and Young, 1989) and in Archaean shales (e.g., Fedo et al., 1995),
and are interpreted to be caused by diagenetic modication of K by
metasomatism.
5.2. Mineral sorting
Of particular importance, sedimentary processes such as sorting
may modify the mineral abundances and consequently the abundance of specic elements. McLennan et al. (1993) used a Th/Sc
versus Zr/Sc plot to distinguish between the contrasting effects of
source composition and sedimentary processes on the composition of clastic sedimentary rocks. An addition of zircon by mineral
sorting and/or recycling to samples would result in an increase in
Zr/Sc ratios (McLennan et al., 1993). On the Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc dia-

207

Fig. 8. Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc diagram for the Ikorongo mudrocks (after McLennan et al.,
1993). Trend 1 represents sediments derived directly from igneous rocks that have
been least affected by sedimentary sorting and recycling. Heavy mineral accumulation by sediment sorting and recycling would result in Zr enrichment relative to Th
as dened by Trend 2. Symbols as in Fig. 3.

gram, two trends, one showing direct contribution from primary

source rocks (marked 1), and the other showing the inuence of
sedimentary processes (marked 2) can be distinguished (Fig. 8). The
trend depicting sedimentary processes reects the effect of mineral
sorting and/or sediment recycling, the effect of which is the preferential Zr enrichment in the sediments. On the Th/ScZr/Sc diagram
(Fig. 8), all shale samples cluster in the eld sub-parallel to Trend
1 suggesting compositional homogeneity and minimal inuence of
heavy mineral sorting. On the other hand, the siltstones display two
trends with some samples plotting along Trend 1 which is indicative of minimal inuence of mineral sorting and others plotting
along Trend 2 which is indicative of heavy mineral accumulation
by sediment recycling and sorting (Fig. 8).
Mineral sorting normally tends to increase the abundance of
nonclay detrital minerals at the expense of clay minerals (Nesbitt
and Young, 1984). Therefore, the fact that the siltstones plot on
both trends in Fig. 8 suggests that the relative differences in the
abundances of some trace elements might have been attributed to
mineral sorting. On the other hand, the lower contents in the elements Cr, Ni, Sc and V could be attributed to the lesser amounts of
Al2 O3 which have been reported to signicantly control trace elements distribution (e.g., McLennan et al., 1983; Asiedu et al., 2000).
This fact is supported by the positive correlation (r2 ) between
Al2 O3 and most of the ferromagnesian trace element abundances in
the siltstones (e.g., Al2 O3 Sc = 0.9; Al2 O3 Cr = 0.4; Al2 O3 Ni = 0.6).
We also suggest that the lower abundances of the trace elements,
particularly the REE and ferromagnesian trace elements, in the siltstones could be attributed to a dilution effect of quartz. For instance,
a siltstone sample IK 80 contains higher contents of SiO2 (92 wt%)
than all samples, consequently its REE compositions are signicantly diluted (Fig. 5).
Nonetheless, REE patterns of all Ikorongo siltstone samples
(except sample IK 80) are similar to those of PAAS and PS, suggesting that they have not been intensively affected by factors, in this
case mineral sorting, that could disrupt source rock information.
5.3. Provenance

Fig. 7. Al2 O3 CaO* + Na2 OK2 O (Nesbitt and Young, 1984) diagram for Ikorongo
mudrocks. The scattering of the siltstone samples is suggestive of K-metasomatism.
Also included is the position for an original granodioritic source (from Fedo et al.,
1995). Plg: Plagioclase; Ksp: K-Feldspar.

Among the factors that control the geochemical composition

of clastic sedimentary rocks include source rocks, weathering/recycling, and post-depositional diagenesis (e.g., Taylor and

208

C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Fig. 9. Plot of Th/U versus Th for the Ikorongo mudrocks. The grey box shows the
typical range of upper crustal protoliths. The arrow stands for an idealized weathering trend for sediments derived from upper crust (McLennan et al., 1993). Symbols
as in Fig. 3.

McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al., 1993). As shown above, nonetheless, these processes can only be responsible for minor variations
in major and trace element contents in the Ikorongo mudrocks and
rather the chemical characteristics reect the composition of the
sources.
The major and trace element compositions for the brown and
green shales (Table 1; Figs. 4 and 5) are highly comparable and are
suggestive of a similar protolith. However the depletion in TiO2 ,
Al2 O3 and the transition trace elements particularly Co, Ni, Sc and
V, which are normally enriched in mac rocks (Rollinson, 1993), in
the siltstones, could probably indicate relatively more felsic detritus
than that for the shales.
The Th/U ratios are very useful in determining the source characteristics of clastic sedimentary rocks (Roddaz et al., 2006). The
present day average crust has Th/U ratios of 4.254.30 whereas the
values for upper and lower mantle are 2.6 and 3.8, respectively (Paul
et al., 2003 and references therein). Although sometimes higher
Th/U ratios have been related to oxidative weathering and removal
of U, yet, clastic sedimentary rocks derived from the upper crust
are characterized by ratios equal to or greater than 4 whereas
ratios lower than 4 have been related to a mantle contribution
(e.g., Roddaz et al., 2006). The Ikorongo siltstones, brown and green
shales show mean Th/U ratios of 5.71, 6.90 and 5.86, respectively,
which characteristics are suggestive of upper crustal parentage.
These ratios are, however, higher than the values for PAAS (4.70)
and PS (4.21) (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Condie, 1993). The elevated Th/U ratios in the Ikorongo mudrocks could be attributed
to either increased weathering intensity or variation in oxidation
state during deposition which would permit U mobility (Roddaz et
al., 2006 and references therein). On the Th/U versus Th diagram,
all mudrock samples from the Ikorongo basin follow the idealized
weathering trend (McLennan et al., 1993) expected for sediments
derived from the upper crust (Fig. 9).
The geochemical variations between elements such as Th and La
(indicative of a felsic source) and Sc (indicative of a mac source)
have been used to distinguish between felsic and mac provenances by various authors (e.g., McLennan et al., 1980). Th/Sc ratios
are useful indicators of source rocks processes and are unaffected by
sedimentary processes (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The Th versus
Sc plot (Fig. 10), adopted from McLennan et al. (1993), reveals two
dominant source areas, a continental source with Th/Sc ratios near 1
for siltstones and an almost 5050 mix of continental and intermediate component for both brown and green shales (Fig. 10; see silt-

Fig. 10. Th versus Sc diagram indicating felsic and mac provenance for the Ikorongo
mudrocks. Note the siltstone samples demarcated by dotted line. Symbols as in Fig. 3.

stone samples demarcated by dotted line). This observation further

suggests that the siltstones were formed by more felsic detritus.
On a LaThSc ternary diagram (Fig. 11), which is used to
precisely discriminate felsic and mac provenance of clastic sedimentary rocks (e.g., Taylor and McLennan, 1985), the shale and
siltstone samples are almost indistinguishable and cluster in the
eld for mixed sources close to PAAS- and PS-like provenance.
More than fty samples generally fall between the Taylor and
McLennans (1985) approximation of the upper continental crust
(Fig. 11). Therefore, trace element data for the Ikorongo Group
mudrocks (Table 1; Fig. 11) strongly demonstrate an upper crust
protolith, a feature also revealed in the Th/U plot (Fig. 9).
Palaeocurrent directions, alongside geochemical data, can also
help to highlight the possible provenance of the Ikorongo rocks.
Two sets of palaeocurrent directions were documented in the basin:
north-north-west/south-south-east and north/south. According to
the geological setting of the Ikorongo basin, possible candidates
for provenance include older felsic and mac igneous successions
which are a major assemblage in the neighboring Nyanzian Supergroup of the Archaean Tanzania Craton. The compositions of rocks
in the terranes bordering the Ikorongo basin have been well constrained in Messo (2004), Manya (2005), Manya et al. (2007a,b),
Mtoro (2007) and Elisaimon (unpublished data). Lithological units
studied in the area, which are more likely to have fed sediments into

Fig. 11. Ternary plot of LaThSc concentrations (after Taylor and McLennan, 1985)
for the Ikorongo mudrocks. Symbols as in Fig. 3. UC = upper crust (data from Taylor
and McLennan, 1985). Symbols as in Fig. 3.

C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

209

Fig. 12. Major greenstone domains of the Nyanzian Supergroup showing the setting of possible provenance regions (modied from Borg and Shackleton, 1997).

the Ikorongo basin, include basalts, dacites, rhyolites, rhyodacites,

granites, TTGs, basaltic-andesites and basaltic-trachyandesites.
Therefore, in the light of the two sets of palaeocurrent directions,
possible candidate sources include the felsic and mac volcanics of
Tarime and, possibly Suguti and Ikoma (Fig. 12). Both Tarime and
Suguti form part of the Musoma-Mara Greenstone Belt (MMGB)
whereas Ikoma belongs to the Kilimafedha Greenstone Belts (KGB)
of the Nyanzian Supergroup (see Fig. 12 for locations).
In their comprehensive studies on sedimentary rocks, Taylor and
McLennan (1985) indicated the signicance of relying on the elements that are least mobile under the expected range of geologic
conditions in provenance determination. This observation is based
on the fact that during weathering, the alkali and alkaline earth elements are quite soluble whereas elements like Al, Zr, Hf, Sc, Y, Nb,
Th and REE are relatively immobile (Taylor and McLennan, 1985;
Nesbitt and Young, 1982). Therefore the abundances of REE, Th,
and the transition trace elements, especially Sc, and their respective ratios are the best proxies for provenance studies (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985). Table 2 compares immobile trace elements ratios,
La/Sc, Co/Th, Cr/Th, and Th/Sc for the Ikorongo mudrocks with those
of possible source rocks, PAAS, PS and well-established ratios of
sands derived from mac and felsic rocks. Although variations are
evident, La/Sc and Sc/Th ratios for the Ikorongo rocks point to a
felsic dominated-detritus (Table 2). When compared to PAAS and
PS, La/Sc, Sc/Th, Cr/Th and Co/Th ratios in the Ikorongo mudrocks
indicate derivation from a more felsic source than the PAAS and PS
sources.
The siltstones show relatively higher proportion of felsic detritus
than shales do (see Table 2), an observation which is also supported

by the multielement variation diagram in Fig. 4, which shows the

depletion of compatible elements such as Cr, Ni, Sc and V which are
usually regarded as mac components (Asiedu et al., 2000).
The La/Sc and Co/Th ratios of the mudrocks are similar to those
of TTGs from the Tarime segment of the MMGB to the north of the
Ikorongo basin suggesting that the TTG supplied bulk of the felsic
component to the Ikorongo basin. In particular, the Sc/Th ratios of
the siltstones are very similar to those of the TTGs suggesting that
the siltstones were formed by detritus predominantly derived from
the weathering of the TTGs. A contribution from MMGB rhyodacites
is also indicated by the close similarity between the Cr/Th ratios of
the two lithologies (siltstones 5.94; rhyodacites 5.54). On the
other hand, dacites from the MMGB have Cr/Th ratios which are
comparable to those of the shales suggesting that the dacites may
have also been source rocks for the shales.
In addition, the abundances of the REE have been used to infer
sources of sedimentary rocks (McLennan et al., 1993; Asiedu et
al., 2000). For instance, mac rocks contain low LREE/HREE ratios
and no Eu anomalies, whereas felsic rocks usually contain higher
LREE/HREE ratios and negative Eu anomalies (Taylor and McLennan,
1985; Roddaz et al., 2006). The Eu anomaly in sedimentary rocks
is commonly regarded as inherited from the source rocks. Therefore, the REE patterns obtained in sedimentary rocks can help to
make inference on the nature of protolith (Taylor and McLennan,
1985). In this regard, further constraints on possible source rocks
for the Ikorongo mudrocks can be made by using the REE compositions.
Chondrite-normalized abundances and patterns (Fig. 5) indicate
that, despite considerable variations in contents, most of the Iko-

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C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Table 2
Range of some elemental ratios for the Ikorongo mudstones in comparison with possible source rocks from the Musoma-Mara Greenstone Belt and Kilimafedha Greenstone
Belt
Lithology

La/Sc

Sc/Th

Range
Rhyolites
Dacites
Gabbro
K-Granites
Na-Granitoids
Rhyodacites

Mean

Cr/Th

Range

Mean

High-magnesium basaltic-andesite

Co/Th

Range

Mean

2.9127.5
7.3128
6.1230.68

Basaltic-andesites
Basaltic-tranchyandesites

0.441.64
0.641.46

Basalts

10.03
23.68
13.68

0.0412.05
0.030.32
0.070.54

0.67
0.11
0.23

1.26
1.15

2.286.93
2.425.27

3.48
3.23

Range

0.190.31
0.28
2.3321.78
8.63
18.34665.40 140.99
0.060.95
48.47
0.235.68
2.01
0.4029.43
5.54
10.55166.52

Tonalite-Trondjemite-Granodiorites
Biotite granites
Calcic granites

48.47

01.80

0.12

5.3091.61
4.715

19.4
7.9

61.221850

608.5

Source
Mean

Manya (2005)
Manya (2005)
Manya (2005)
Manya (2005)
Manya (2005)
Manya (2005)

Manya (2005)

0.202.94
0.020.17
0.040.72

0.88
0.08
0.24

Elisaimon (unpublished data)

Elisaimon (unpublished data)
Elisaimon (unpublished data)

5.4111.48
5.129

6.91
6.2

Messo (2004)
Messo (2004)

110.2265

160.5

Mtoro (2007)

Sands from felsic rocks

Sands from basic rocks
Post-Archaean Australian Shale (PAAS)
Average Proterozoic Shale (PS)

2.516
0.441.1

2.81
2.23

0.051.2
2025

1.27
1.18

0.57.7
22100

7.94
8.04

0.221.5
7.18.3

1.59
1.25

Taylor and McLennan (1985)

Taylor and McLennan (1985)
Taylor and McLennan (1985)
Condie (1993)

Brown shales
Green shales
Siltstones

2.025.20
2.097.06
2.1013.84

3.25
2.92
4.39

0.741.58
0.751.22
0.091.11

1.08
1.01
0.66

5.0517.68
6.4314.19
1.3918.24

8.83
9.05
5.94

0.282.64
0.421.79
02.78

1.11
1.08
1.37

This study
This study
This study

Also included are ratios for PAAS, PS and sands derived from mac and felsic protoliths.

rongo mudrock samples studied have striking similarities in their

REE patterns. All samples are characterized by an enrichment of
the LREE, negative Eu anomalies and relatively at HREE patterns.
These features, particularly the negative Eu anomalies suggest a differentiated protolith, similar to granite (e.g., McLennan et al., 1993;
Asiedu et al., 2000). REE patterns for samples from the Ikorongo
Group show closer resemblance to those of the Tarime volcanic
and plutonic rocks and to a lesser extent with rhyolites from the
Suguti (Fig. 13). On the other hand, magmatic rocks from Ikoma to
the southeast of Ikorongo do not seem to have fed sediments to the
Ikorongo basin since their REE patterns do not match with those of
the Ikorongo mudrocks (not shown).
Based on the REE compositions of the source candidates, mixing calculations of Albarede (2002) were carried out to estimate
the relative contribution of source materials required to generate
the Ikorongo mudrocks. Briey, for a system o, containing several

elements (i = 1, . . ., m) hosted in phases (j = 1, . . ., n), let Mj be the

mass of phase j and mij the mass of element (or species) i hosted
in the phase j. Then, the composition of species (or element) i in
phase j can be mathematically dened as
Cji =

mij
Mj

nFor the bulk material, mass conservation requires that M0 =

Mj .
Therefore, for a given element, i, the proportion of fj of the phase
n i
m /M0 (all equaj is such that: fj = Mj /M0 and C0i = mi0 /M0 =
j=1 j
tions adopted from Albarede, 2002).
The high-magnesium-basaltic-andesites (HMBA), granitoids
and dacites comprise major part of the exposed crust in the MMGB.
Based on their aerial distribution and geochemical afnity to the
j=1

Table 3
Representative REE compositions of possible source rocks located in the MMGB and the Ikorongo mudrocks
HMBA (N = 13)

Granitoids (N = 33)

Average shale

Average

STDEV

Dacites (N = 27)
Average

STDEV

Average

STDEV

Average

STDEV

Average siltstone
Average

STDEV

La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

28.79
60.75
7.22
29.00
5.31
1.44
4.55
0.65
3.61
0.73
1.87
0.29
1.93
0.28

7.29
14.88
1.73
6.85
1.12
0.25
0.75
0.08
0.33
0.07
0.19
0.03
0.19
0.03

48.10
96.93
10.94
41.39
6.53
1.58
5.17
0.60
2.93
0.54
1.33
0.20
1.33
0.19

19.22
38.01
4.14
15.69
2.43
0.58
1.71
0.20
0.99
0.18
0.46
0.07
0.47
0.07

52.34
100.96
11.04
39.16
6.12
1.11
4.78
0.63
3.28
0.64
1.67
0.26
1.83
0.27

21.38
41.76
4.54
15.52
2.41
0.36
2.01
0.28
1.47
0.30
0.76
0.12
0.75
0.11

57.42
100.19
11.97
39.48
7.22
1.46
5.45
0.81
4.35
0.80
2.36
0.35
2.28
0.33

57.74
26.06
23.61
14.51
7.26
3.45
3.77
2.56
2.02
1.59
1.57
1.45
1.42
1.34

36.58
69.02
7.59
26.71
5.59
1.24
5.18
0.76
4.03
0.75
2.26
0.34
2.19
0.34

13.68
29.77
3.15
10.65
1.96
0.32
1.40
0.22
1.20
0.22
0.76
0.13
0.91
0.16

Eu/Eu*
(La/Yb)CN
(La/Sm)CN
(Gd/Yb)CN

0.90
10.15
3.41
1.91

0.05
2.73
0.25
0.13

0.83
24.31
4.63
3.13

0.04
3.80
0.19
0.05

0.64
20.38
5.18
2.07

0.02
5.60
0.10
0.02

0.71
15.20
5.02
1.95

0.03
2.06
0.42
0.02

0.71
11.14
4.11
1.91

0.05
2.7
0.86
0.45

C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

211

Fig. 13. Comparison of the Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the Ikorongo mudrocks with those of possible source rocks from MMGB. Other symbols as in Fig. 3.

Ikorongo mudrocks (Figs. 12 and 13), 14 HMBA, 33 granitoids and

27 dacite samples were used to model the detritus that fed sediments into the Ikorongo basin. The three rock types were treated
as distinct components because they are major rock types with

distinctive geochemistry from which the Ikorongo mudrocks are

thought to be derived from.
For this case, REE concentrations of shale samples were averaged and the resulting composite was assigned average shale. The

Table 4
Results of mixing and mass balance calculations and comparison between original and calculated parameters

Proportions (%)
Model shale
Model siltstone

HMBA

DCT

GRD

42
43

11
4

47
53

Model shale

Average shale

%Variation

Model siltstone

Average siltstone

%Variation

La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

41.98
83.63
9.43
35.14
5.82
1.30
4.73
0.64
3.38
0.67
1.72
0.27
1.81
0.26

57.42
100.19
11.97
39.48
7.22
1.46
5.45
0.81
4.35
0.80
2.36
0.35
2.28
0.33

27
17
21
11
19
11
13
21
22
17
27
24
20
21

42.04
83.51
9.40
34.88
5.78
1.27
4.70
0.64
3.41
0.67
1.74
0.27
1.85
0.27

36.58
69.02
7.59
26.71
5.59
1.24
5.18
0.76
4.03
0.75
2.26
0.34
2.19
0.34

15
21
24
31
3
3
9
16
16
10
23
20
16
20

(Eu/Eu*)
(La/Yb)CN
(La/Sm)CN
(Gd/Yb)CN

0.77
16.52
4.38
2.12

0.71
15.20
5.02
1.95

9
9
13
9

0.76
16.14
4.40
2.04

0.71
11.14
4.11
1.91

7
45
7
7

DCT means dacites. GRD means granitoids.

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C. Kasanzu et al. / Precambrian Research 164 (2008) 201213

Fig. 14. Comparison of Chondrite-normalized REE patterns between (a) average shale and model shale, and (b) average siltstone and model siltstone.

same procedure was performed for siltstone samples (Table 3).

Conversely, for the case of siltstones, three samples (IK 19, 79 and
80) were eliminated in the calculations since they are signicantly
enriched in SiO2 (81.4692 wt%). The HREE contents of these samples seem to be highly diluted by quartz leading to inconsistent
LREE/HREE ratios.
From the average data shown in Table 3, modeling for the average shale protolith was done using the ratios (La/Yb)CN , (Gd/Yb)CN
as well as the Eu/Eu*, and the mixing calculations was set in a matrix
form as

Eu
Eu
La

Yb

Gd
Yb

b
c

a
0.71

0.9 0.83 0.64

=
b = 15.2
10.2 24.31 20.4

1.91

3.13

2.07

1.95

shale

a means HMBA; b = dacites; c = granitoids. The ratios La/Yb and

Gd/Yb are Chondrite-normalized.
The results of the mixing calculations (Table 4) show that, granitoids and the HMBA from the Tarime region were the main source
rocks (granitoids 47%: HMBA 42%), while the dacites supplied
lesser amounts of detritus (11%). This observation, therefore, conforms to an almost 1:1 mixture between felsic and mac protolith
similar to the upper crust composition (Taylor and McLennan,
1985). Similar results were also obtained for siltstone samples
except that granitoids show a relatively higher proportion (53%)
whereas the HMBA supplied about 43% and dacites 4%.
From the calculations, optimal tting of average REE concentrations of the Ikorongo Group with those of source candidates were
achieved by mass balance calculations.
To obtain the calculated values, the following equation from
Albarede (2002) was used:

6. Conclusions
Source rock weathering and provenance of the Ikorongo Group
have been assessed using geochemical studies. Major element compositions suggest that the Ikorongo mudrocks were derived from
moderately weathered protoliths. Th/U ratios coupled with Th versus Sc and LaThSc plots suggest an upper crustal protolith for
the Ikorongo mudrocks similar to the PAAS and PS protolith. The
fractionated REE patterns and the negative Eu/Eu* anomalies of
the Ikorongo mudrocks further attest to an upper crust provenance
typical of a craton interior. Based on palaeocurrent measurements,
the source rocks for the Ikorongo Group lies to the north of the
basin suggesting that the MMGB, which comprises of older felsic
and mac igneous rocks, is a possible source terrane. The REE patterns and elemental ratios such as La/Sc, Sc/Th, Cr/Th and Co/Th
of the studied mudrocks reveal that the source rocks include magmatic rocks from the Tarime and Suguti segments of the MMGB.
Based on mixing and mass balance calculations, the shale detritus can be modeled by a mixture of 47% granitoids, 42% HMBA
and 11% dacites. The siltstones, on the other hand, were derived
from a rather more felsic protolith which corresponds to mixing
of 53% granitoids, 43% HMBA and 4% dacites (all proportions by
wt%).

Acknowledgements
This research was nancially supported by Sida/SAREC through
the project Geology and mineralization of Archaean greenstone
belts in the Lake Victoria Goldelds of the Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam. The Reviewers Roser Korsch and Hugh
Rollinson are acknowledged for their constructive comments that
improved the output of the paper.

References
mix

WR

= C1 + C2 + C3

WRmix refers to the calculated whole rock compositions while ,

and  stand for the proportions of the HMBA, dacites, and granitoids, respectively, obtained in mixing calculations. C1 , C2 and C3
stand for the respective species (elements) in the HMBA, dacites,
and granitoids used in the mixing calculations. The results of the
calculations, which were based on the REE parameters, are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 14 for comparison.

Albarede, F., 2002. Introduction to Geochemical Modeling. Cambridge University

Press, 543 pp.
ASGA/UNESCO, 1968. Mineral Survey of the Lake Victoria Goldelds. Final Report.
New York Press, 58 pp.
Asiedu, D.K., Suzuki, S., Nogami, K., Shibata, T., 2000. Geochemistry of lower cretaceous sediments, inner zone of southwest Japan: constraints on provenance and
tectonic environment. J. Geochem. 34, 155173.
Bock, B., McLennan, S.M., Hanson, G.N., 1998. Geochemistry and provenance of the
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