Californians Want to Fight Global Warming

Many people who live in California are very concerned about the earth. They are worried
that the earth is warming too much. They believe that living things on the earth will be
affected by the warming. Most Californian's think that the state should investigate the
problem.
A survey was taken in California. The questions that were asked were about global
warming. The results of the survey were very interesting. They showed that most people in
California are very concerned about global warming.
The survey showed that over half of the people who live in California want the state to work
on the global warming. Last year not as many people felt that way. People think the
problem is getting worse.
Another poll showed that many people are not happy with the federal government. They do
not like the way global warming is being handled. Only a few people asked think that the
federal government is doing a good job with this issue.
One man said that Californians are feeling worse, not better. They are more concerned
today than they ever have been about global warming. Many of them want the state of
California to deal with the problem instead of waiting for the federal government to do
something.
The people do not want to wait. They want the state to start working on the problem
immediately.

Burning Wood Bad for the Air

A panel of government officials is worried. The air quality in some areas is not good. The air
is polluted with soot. The officials worry that the air is harmful to the people who breathe
the air. They are experts. They study the environment. They discuss ways to stop the air
pollution. The panel decided to make some changes to the law.
The new plan places strict limits on how much soot can be released into the air. Now, a
measurement of 65 parts of soot is considered safe. The new plan would reduce that
number to 30. The daily limit of pollution in the air would be cut in half.
These new standards would affect industry. The limits would also affect people who own
wood stoves and fireplaces. The county will keep track of the air quality every day. People
would be required to stop burning wood when the levels are high. They could also install a
kind of special fireplace. These fireplaces burn very little wood. They do not pollute the air
as much. Some counties will punish families who violate the ban. They will have to pay a
fine for not complying with the law.
Some states do not have much industry. Their pollution problem is not too bad. They would
still have to regulate how much pollution is released into the air. The experts hope that this
ban will help keep the air cleaner.
Before the plan becomes a law the public will have a chance to comment on it. Citizens will
have ninety days to ask questions and voice concerns about the plan. Then it will become a
law.

Smokers Have New Way to Quit

.
Smoking is a very bad habit. It can cause many diseases, such as cancer and high blood
pressure, and many people want to quit. It is not easy to quit smoking, however. Many
people try to quit, but are not able to quit. They go right back to smoking cigarettes. They
are addicted to smoking, but want help to quit.
There is a new way to help people quit smoking. It is based on an ancient Chinese method
of treating pain. The method is called acupuncture. It is done by sticking needles in special
areas of the body. These needles trigger special chemicals to help the pain go away.
A therapist is using acupuncture in a new way. She is using lasers instead of needles. She
applies the lasers around the face and arms of people who want to quit smoking. The lasers
do not hurt. They release chemicals called endorphins. The chemicals help people resist the
urge to smoke.
One woman who had the laser acupuncture smoked for 45 years. The lasers helped her to
quit. She did not feel like she had to smoke. She believes in the treatment and says that it
can work for others. She says it helps to take the edge off her cravings. She has not
smoked for a long time. The therapists say that the laser treatment does not cure the
patient. They must have some willpower.
This treatment has been used for years in Canada and Europe. Until now, the government
did not approve of acupuncture. Many doctors think that it is a very exciting way to treat
smoking addiction.

Alzheimer's Disease
by Raquel Hunter
What Is Alzheimer's?
Alzheimer's is a progressive, degenerative disorder that affects the brain. It damages
the brain cells responsible for intellectual functioning in the brain, including memory,
intelligence, judgment, and speech. Alzheimers leads to the loss of mental and physical
functions.
Alzheimer's is the most common cause ofdementia in older people. It affects the parts
of the brain that control thought, memory, and language. A small percentage
Alzheimer's patients are under 50 years of age. However, most are over 65 years of
age. A rare and aggressive form of Alzheimer's can happen in some people in their 40s
and 50s.
Over the course of years, as the disease progresses, individuals loose their ability to
perform the basic tasks that are part of everyday life and usually end up requiring
constant care and supervision.
Symptoms of Alzheimer's
The first noticeable symptoms of Alzheimer's are: loss of memory, trouble performing
tasks, poor judgment, misplacing things, inability to think and understand and gradual
changes in behavior.
Memory loss - Memory loss is usually the first noticeable sign of Alzheimer's. Memory
loss starts slowly, but soon the episodes become more and more frequent. People with
Alzheimer's forget things very often. They have trouble remembering answers to
questions they may have asked a short time earlier. This causes the person to ask the
same question repeatedly.
Trouble performing familiar tasks - As the disease progresses, patients have
trouble performing tasks that they have done for a lifetime. Simple, little everyday

tasks that we perform without even thinking about may become major obstacles for
the Alzheimer's victim.
Poor judgment - Judgment becomes a problem as the disease develops. An example
of poor judgment is: The patient may wear clothing that is not suitable for the weather.
Misplacing things - Alzheimer's patients may misplace things often. When the items
are found, they are usually in inappropriate places. For instance, food may be put in
the clothes closet instead of the refrigerator.
Disorientation - People suffering from Alzheimer's disease may be unable to tell you
where they are, who they are or what they happen to be doing at that moment. They
might even forget where live.
What causes Alzheimer's?
Alzheimer's is caused by a loss of brain cells, as well as changes in the cerebral
cortex (the outer layer of the brain). An accumulation of tangled fibers and/or plaques
forms around the nerves in the cerebral cortex. It is unknown why the tangled fibers
and plaques develop in the brain.
Research shows that there may be different genetic and nongenetic causes. Some
genes cause the disease to appear early in life, while other genes predispose a person
to the disease but require a trigger such as stroke, head trauma, or clogged arteries.
Cure for Alzheimer's
Unfortunately there is no cure for Alzheimer's. Promising research continues to provide
hope to reduce the risk of developing alzheimers.
Preparing for Advanced Stages Alzheimer's Disease
(ARA) - A diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease can be devastating to a patient, family and
friends. While there isn't a cure for this frightening disease, a patient can live an
average of eight years after diagnosis -- some as long as 20 years. Knowing who to
contact about financial, legal guardianship and will and estate planning can help reduce
the fears and anxiety that go along with determining what to do next.
Alzheimer's in the News
November is alzheimers awareness month in the United States.
People with low levels of vitamin B12 may be at a higher risk of developing
Alzheimer's.

Alzheimer's Statistics
The average course of the disease from the time it is diagnosed to death is
about 6 to 8 years.
About 4 million people in the United States suffer from Alzheimers.
Alzheimers affects 5% of people over 65 and 20% of people over 80.

Some New Cars Save Gas

(7/10/2006)

Gasoline prices are getting higher and higher. Drivers have to pay more to fill their cars
with gas. The prices make it hard for drivers to afford the fuel. Some drivers are looking for
solutions. They want to find a way to solve this problem. Car makers are also looking for
was to lower gas prices.
One auto group hosted a special event. The event was designed to display new kinds of
cars. The new cars dont run on gasoline. Their engines are different. They run on
alternative fuels.
These new kinds of cars burn many different kinds of fuel. Some of these cars are called
hybrids. Hybrids run on a combination of gasoline and electricity. Other cars run on natural
gas. Another kind of car runs on a special fuel cell. The cell is filled with a gas called
hydrogen. All of these cars use less gasoline. That makes them less expensive for people to
drive.
The fuel cell cars are also better in another way. They give off no emissions. They are very
clean, and dont give off bad fumes when they run. Cars that run on gasoline give off
harmful fumes. These fumes pollute the air. Air pollution is very bad for the environment.
One man who makes fuel cell cars is excited about hydrogen fuel cell technology. He says
we will never run out of the source of the fuel, but we may run out of oil. Oil is a fossil fuel,
and comes from deep in the ground. Once we use it up, it will take millions of years for
more oil to form. Since gasoline is made from oil, that could be a problem for companies
who make traditional cars, and for drivers. However, it wont be a problem for cars that run
on fuel cells.
Many people are happy that they will have an alternative to gasoline cars, but they worry
about the cost of fuel cell cars. Right now they are very expensive. One man says that if he
buys a fuel cell car, he will have to drive it thousands of miles before he breaks even.
Manufacturers say that fuel cell cars wont be affordable for about ten years.
The manufacturer says that fuel cell cars will save drivers money in another way. Drivers

will have to spend less money on maintenance. There are no big moving parts in the
engine. If something goes wrong, an owner can plug a laptop into to check it out. Most
repairs will be made by computer programs instead of mechanics.
Buses that run on hydrogen fuel cell power are being tested on the roads. They could
become a common form of transportation in the near future.
(This was adapted from an original story provided by News10 KXTV Sacramento.)

What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel
cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called, respectively, the
anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take place at the
electrodes.
Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles
from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the
electrodes.
Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great appeal of
fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollutionmuch of the
hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form a
harmless byproduct, namely water.
One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct
current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a
stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the same.
Top

How do fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be directed
outside the cell to do work, such as powering an electric motor or illuminating a
light bulb or a city. Because of the way electricity behaves, this current returns to
the fuel cell, completing an electrical circuit. (To learn more about electricity and

electric power, visit "Throw The Switch" on the Smithsonian website Powering a
Generation of Change.) The chemical reactions that produce this current are the
key to how a fuel cell works.
There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in
general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical
reaction strips them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and
carry a positive electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the
current through wires to do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC
output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called an
inverter.

Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one
illustrated above), it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical
circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode.
In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the
electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.
The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass
between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel
through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical reaction.
Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form
water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen
and oxygen, it will generate electricity.
Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by
combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a
conventional power plant (see "Carnot Limit" in the glossary). Therefore, fuel cells
are more efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can
also be harnessed, boosting system efficiency still further.
Top

So why can't I go out and buy a fuel cell?

The basic workings of a fuel cell may not be difficult to illustrate. But building
inexpensive, efficient, reliable fuel cells is a far more complicated business.
Scientists and inventors have designed many different types and sizes of fuel cells
in the search for greater efficiency, and the technical details of each kind vary.
Many of the choices facing fuel cell developers are constrained by the choice of
electrolyte. The design of electrodes, for example, and the materials used to make
them depend on the electrolyte. Today, the main electrolyte types are alkali, molten
carbonate, phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide.
The first three are liquid electrolytes; the last two are solids.
The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need pure hydrogen,
and therefore demand extra equipment such as a "reformer" to purify the fuel.
Other cells can tolerate some impurities, but might need higher temperatures to run
efficiently. Liquid electrolytes circulate in some cells, which requires pumps. The
type of electrolyte also dictates a cell's operating temperature"molten" carbonate
cells run hot, just as the name implies.
Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to the others, and
none is yet cheap and efficient enough to widely replace traditional ways of
generating power, such coal-fired, hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.

The following list describes the five main types of fuel cells. More detailed
information can be found in those specific areas of this site.
Top

Different types of fuel

cells.
Alkali fuel cells operate on
compressed hydrogen and oxygen.
They generally use a solution of
potassium hydroxide (chemically,
KOH) in water as their electrolyte.
Efficiency is about 70 percent, and
operating temperature is 150 to 200
degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees
F). Cell output ranges from 300 watts
(W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells
Drawing of an alkali cell.
were used in Apollo spacecraft to
provide both electricity and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel,
however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive. And like any
container filled with liquid, they can leak.
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
use high-temperature compounds of
salt (like sodium or magnesium)
carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the
electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60
to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is about 650 degrees C
(1,200 degrees F). Units with output up
to 2 megawatts (MW) have been
constructed, and designs exist for units
up to 100 MW. The high temperature
limits damage from carbon monoxide
"poisoning" of the cell and waste heat
can be recycled to make additional
electricity. Their nickel electrodeDrawing of a molten carbonate cell
catalysts are inexpensive compared to
the platinum used in other cells. But the high temperature also limits the materials
and safe uses of MCFCsthey would probably be too hot for home use. Also,
carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it
necessary to inject carbon dioxide to compensate.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte.
Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is between 150

to 200 degrees C (about 300 to 400 degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells
have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a
carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of
fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. Platinum
electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to withstand the
corrosive acid.

Drawing of how both phosphoric acid and PEM fuel

cells operate.

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer electrolyte in
the form of a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and
operating temperature is about 80 degrees C (about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs
generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or
crack, and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to make them suitable
for homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is
used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a
hard, ceramic compound of metal (like
calcium or zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as electrolyte.
Efficiency is about 60 percent, and
operating temperatures are about
1,000 degrees C (about 1,800 degrees
F). Cells output is up to 100 kW. At
such high temperatures a reformer is
not required to extract hydrogen from
the fuel, and waste heat can be
recycled to make additional electricity.
However, the high temperature limits
Drawing of a solid oxide cell

applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid electrolytes
cannot leak, they can crack.

Students and Satellites

(before 2003)

Read the story. Click the "LISTEN" button at the bottom of the page to hear the story.
When you are done, click the "NEXT" button.
College students are making their own space satellites. One student holds a plastic satellite
up above her head. She tells everyone that it is ready go. It goes into a garbage can. The
can is shaken by the other students. This is to copy what it is like out in space. The can is
then dropped to the floor.
The students show that their small satellites can work. They are built strong enough to
survive being in the garbage can. The teacher says that if the satellite is built right, it
should not break apart. The students are learning that when you launch something into
space, you can not go up and fix it.
The students are learning how to build a good rocket to get their satellites to fly. The
satellites must fly or the students do not get a good grade. They are learning how to use
wood, foam, glue and computer parts to put together their satellites.
Two years ago the students started to build a real satellite which they hope to send up in
space. The student satellites will measure the Earth from space. The teacher says that new
satellites will be smaller. They will be built faster and be cheaper to build.

y Bob Granath
NASA's Kennedy Space Center, Florida
In a presentation at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden announced
details of the Obama administration's fiscal year 2016 agency budget proposal recently submitted to Congress.
Bolden emphasized that the recommended increase of about a half-billion dollars over last year's enacted
budget would provide the necessary resources to continue advancing America's bipartisan space exploration
plans. The ongoing programs will ensure that the United States remains the world's leader in space exploration
and discoveries benefiting all humankind.
Speaking on Feb. 2 in the high bay of Kennedy's Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building, Bolden's
remarks served as a State of NASA address. He focused on recent progress and the work ahead. The 2016
budget year begins Oct. 1, 2015.
"Today, President Obama is proposing an additional $18.5 billion for NASA, building on the significant
investments the administration has made in America's space program over the past six years," Bolden said.
"NASA is firmly on a journey to Mars. Make no mistake, this journey will help guide and define our generation."
With about 200 space center employees as well as members of the news and social media present, Bolden
was joined by Kennedy's director, Bob Cabana. Also attending were representatives from Congress and NASA
industry partners. The backdrop for the presentation was the recently returned Orion spacecraft, flanked by
Boeing's CST-100 and the SpaceX Dragon capsules being designed for the agency's Commercial Crew
Program.
Bolden noted that the budget allows NASA to continue development of the Orion crew vehicle, Space Launch
System and Exploration Ground Systems that will one day send astronauts beyond low-Earth orbit.
The Space Launch System (SLS) is a new heavy-lift rocket, more powerful than any previously built. SLS will
be capable of sending humans aboard Orion to deep-space destinations such as an asteroid and Mars.
During 2014, NASA continued several highly successful missions highlighted by the maiden flight of Orion. The
spacecraft completed its first voyage to space, traveling farther than any spacecraft designed for astronauts in
more than 40 years.

As referenced by President Obama in his Jan. 20, State of the Union address, the Dec. 5, 2014, milestone was
not only part of his goal to eventually send humans to the Red Planet, but one that supports research with farreaching benefits.
"I want Americans to win the race for the kinds of discoveries that unleash new jobs . . . pushing out into the
solar system not just to visit, but to stay," the president said. "Last month, we launched a new spacecraft as
part of a re-energized space program that will send American astronauts to Mars."
Bolden noted that the Orion flight test was a crucial initial step.
"The Orion spacecraft that recently performed a near flawless flight test on its first journey to space is being
dismantled right now so it can reveal its secrets about that amazing flight," he said. "What we learn will prepare
us for its next launch aboard our Space Launch System rocket, and its future with astronauts aboard exploring
farther into our solar system than ever before."
The journey to Mars remains a primary NASA goal, designed to answer some of humanitys fundamental
questions about life beyond Earth and what it can teach us about Earth's past, present and future.
Highlights of the past year included the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution, or MAVEN, spacecraft
arriving in orbit around the Red Planet, The Boeing Company and SpaceX were selected as partners to
provide transportation from U.S. soil to the International Space Station as part of the Commercial Crew
Program and groundbreaking research continued aboard the ISS.
Obama also noted that the space station will continue to advance plans for exploration beyond Earth,
expanding scientific knowledge in space, along with physical and biological sciences.
"In two months, to prepare us for those missions (to Mars and the solar system), Scott Kelly will begin a yearlong stay in space. Good luck, Captain -- and make sure to Instagram it," the president said.
This March, Kelly, an American astronaut and a retired U.S. Navy captain, along with Russian cosmonaut
Mikhail Kornienko, will launch to the ISS and become the first crewmembers to live and work aboard the
orbiting laboratory for a 12-month flight.
Since November of 2000, space station crews have worked off the Earth, for the Earth. The ISS is a platform
allowing scientists to identify and quantify risks to human health and performance, develop countermeasures,
and test technologies that protect astronauts during extended missions.
Bolden noted that the budget proposal supports the administration's commitment to serve as a catalyst for the
growth of a vibrant American commercial space industry, including development of commercial crew
transportation.

"American companies are developing the new systems in which astronauts soon will travel from the United
States to low-Earth orbit," Bolden said. "That journey, indeed our entire path to the future, starts right here on
Earth. Our commercial crew work, for example, is headquartered here at Kennedy, but encompasses efforts in
37 states."
Cabana also explained some of the specifics in the spending plan for the Florida spaceport, including initiatives
such as the Commercial Crew Program.
"The $2.6 billion budget proposal for Kennedy Space Center further cements our path forward in place and
confirms that Kennedy is headed in the right direction in support of NASA's exploration, science, and human
spaceflight missions," Cabana said. "It also is enabling further commercial space operations from the Cape."
The U.S. Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap) contracts are being developed at the Florida
spaceport with the goal of certifying safe, reliable and cost-effective access to and from low-Earth orbit and the
International Space Station by the end of 2017.
During fiscal year 2016, Kennedy's Launch Services Program will support three planned NASA payloads, as
well as design services and integration support to over 40 NASA sponsored missions in various stages of
spacecraft development.
Funding will continue plans for 21st century space launch complex modernization and infrastructure upgrades
for more cost-effective operations, serving multiple users.
The improvements also will support Ground Systems Development and Operations modernization of facilities
such as the Vehicle Assembly Building, mobile launcher and crawlertransporter in support of Orion, the SLS
and Advanced Exploration Systems.
Under Advanced Exploration Systems, Kennedy provides engineering services and support to the agency's
efforts, contributing to advanced technology for future robotic and human spaceflight missions beyond Earth.
Bolden noted that the 2016 budget will allow NASA to continue developing and testing transformative
capabilities and cutting-edge technologies crucial to future exploration initiatives. This includes accelerating
development of a high-powered solar electric propulsion capability to drive the robotic segment of an asteroid
retrieval mission and future exploration systems in deep space.
Looking further into the solar system and beyond, the NASA budget also funds continued work toward a 2018
launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. Named for NASA's second administrator, it will be the largest
observatory ever put in space. A successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, the new platform is designed to
help answer questions such as how the solar system originated and changed over time.

NASA science funding supports research in a wide variety of areas, facilitating collaboration with more than
10,000 U.S. scientists in universities, industry and government laboratories through over 3,000 openly
competed research awards.
Bolden pointed out that some of the agency's aeronautics research is applied in every U.S. aircraft and air
traffic control tower. Each has NASA-developed technology on board. NASA scientists and engineers are
working on new composite materials that will make future air and spacecraft lighter and more durable.
"Were with you when you fly, and were committed to transforming aviation by dramatically reducing its
environmental impact, maintaining safety in more crowded skies, and paving the way toward revolutionary
aircraft shapes and propulsion," he said.
Bolden emphasized that the progress made and the exciting work ahead is made possible by the NASA team
of dedicated professionals in the agency, industry and academia, securing Americas leadership in space.
"Our journey of discovery has only just begun," he said. "Together, humans and robots will pioneer Mars and
the solar system. In fact, they already work closely together aboard the space station.'"
Each of NASA's 10 field centers were connected to Bolden's presentation via a multi-center television
simulcast. Following his address, social media and news reporters at each location, including Kennedy, then
were taken on a tour of facilities highlighting the work of testing cutting-edge technologies, making scientific
discoveries, studying a changing Earth and developing the tools for the agency's journey to Mars.
Bolden emphasized his belief that NASA is an incredible investment for our nation and for the world.
"NASA is an incredible investment for our nation because what we do not only uncover new knowledge, it
helps raise the bar of human achievement," he said. "People everywhere are attracted to what we do, because
exploration embodies our values as a nation -- resilience, hope, and overcoming the challenges faced."