REFRIGERANTS

General
There is a wide variety of refrigerants used in air conditioning equipment depending on the
application. In general
the most common refrigerants used in the industry belong to the following three categories -

CFC - These are the Chloro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R11, R12, R113, R114,
etc. These refrigerants
were identified as the most harmful to Ozone layer by the Montreal Protocol, and were
phased out in 2000.
However they are still being used in the older machines, with precautions to minimize
release in accordance
with EPA regulations. The most common application of these refrigerant is in the large
centrifugal chillers. R12
was also used commonly in the older cars for air condition.

HCFC - These are the Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R22, R123, etc.
These refrigerants were
identified as slightly harmful to the Ozone layer by Montreal Protocol, and will be
completely phased out by
2030. See the EPA link below for the different stages of the phaseout. The R22
refrigerant is commonly used in
reciprocating type of compressors, while R123 is used in centrifugal chillers as a
temporary replacement for R11.

HFC - These are the Hydro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R134a. These are the
new refrigerants that do not
harm the Ozone layer, and are being used in the newer machines to replace the CFC
and HCFC. R134a is now
commonly used as a replacement of R12 and R500, and in all new cars air conditioning
systems. R407c is used as
a replacement for R22. One of the other common HFC used in new equipment now is
R410a.

There is extensive research going on to identify new refrigerants that can be used to replace
the CFC and HCFC
refrigerants. Currently R134a is the most commonly used new refrigerant. The various
refrigerants have different
characteristics, which make them suitable for a particular application.
Following link provides more useful information on EPA regulations for refrigerants Refrigerant Analysis
A periodic refrigerant analysis is important to detect and control contaminants in the
refrigerant, which can result in
degradation / failure of the various components, and cause inefficient operation of the unit. A
log of the periodic
refrigerant analysis should be maintained for trending. Refrigerants should be tested for the
following contaminants

Moisture

Acid

Particulate/solids

Organic matter sludge, wax, tars

Non-condensable gases

Moisture Moisture is one of the primary causes of contamination-related problems in a refrigeration

system. It also results in
formation of some of the other contaminants mentioned above, which in turn cause further
damage to the chiller or
DX unit. Presence of moisture results in following undesirable effects:

Ice formation in evaporator, expansion valve or orifice.

Degradation of lubricating oil due to hydrolysis.

Acid formation due to hydrolysis of refrigerant in the presence of moisture and high
temperature.

Corrosion of metals.

Copper plating

The copper plating phenomenon essentially involves carryover of copper ions from exchanger
tubes to the steel
surfaces. Although the exact mechanism is not completely understood, it involves the following
three steps, 1)
oxidation of the copper due to contaminants such as air, moisture & acid, 2) solubilization and
transport of copper
ions by the lubricant, 3) deposition of the copper on hot clean steel surfaces such as bearings.
Excessive copper
plating can result in a compressor failure. Typically copper plating is a concern in systems with
high level of
contaminants and high bearing temperatures.
The most common causes for high moisture in the system are:

Water leakage in a chiller evaporator, or water cooled condenser.

Low pressure side leak resulting in entrance of air carrying moisture (typical problem in
negative pressure
machines)

Improper service procedures, i.e. system left open to atmosphere.

In case of moisture introduction due to improper service procedures, the dryer will eventually
reduce the moisture
content resulting in a decreasing trend. If the trend is not decreasing then the likely reasons
are the first two causes,
which require shutting down the chiller for repair. If the chiller cannot be shutdown, it may be
possible to temporarily
provide on-line cleaning of the refrigerant to maintain the moisture within acceptable limits,
depending on the size of
the leak. Online cleaning is similar to a kidney function using a portable cleanup unit.
Moisture is normally absorbed in the refrigerant or lubricant, but free-water can also be
present. The solubility of
water varies with different refrigerants. Generally, lower is the solubility of water in the
refrigerant, greater is the
potential of free water being present, and lower is the acceptable level of moisture in the
system. Water
concentration above the maximum solubility level will result in free-water. The maximum
water solubility level is
different for liquid and vapor phase of the refrigerant, i.e., completely soluble water in liquid
phase may transform
into free-water in the vapor phase or vice versa depending on the change in solubility from one
phase to the other.
The acceptable levels of moisture in new or reclaimed refrigerants are given in ARI 700. These
levels are generally more
demanding than what is typically feasible and acceptable in an operating system. There is no
experimental data
available on the maximum permissible moisture levels in an operating system since it is a
function of several factors,
but ASHRAE has some data on typical levels in a normally operating system. The table below
gives a comparison of ARI
700 allowable level and the level typically found in normally operating equipment.
Refrigerant

Allowable Moisture
Level per ARI 700
(ppm by wt)

Normal Operating Moisture Levels

(ppm by wt) (Ref. ASHRAE)

R11

20

0 - 30 (centrifugal chillers

R12

10

0 - 25 (centrifugal chillers)

R22

10

0 - 56 (Recip & Screw chillers)

R113

20

0 - 30* (similar to R11)

R114

10

0 - 25* (similar to R12)

R134a

10

0 - 25* (similar to R12)

R500

10

0 - 25* (similar to R12)

* R113, R114, R134a, R500 data are not available in ASHRAE. Above data is based on similarity
with the other
refrigerants (R500 is an azeotrope of R12 & R152a).

Testing method for moisture is specified in ARI 700. Based on above discussion and operating
experience, the
acceptance criteria for moisture should be as follows:
Refrigerant

Normal
ppm by wt

Alert
ppm by wt

Fault
ppm by wt

R11

0 - 20

20 - 30

>30

R12

0 - 20

20 - 25

>25

R22

0 - 30

30 - 40

>40

R113

0 - 20

20 - 30

>30

R114

0 - 20

20 - 25

>25

R134a

0 - 20

20 - 25

>25

R500

0 - 20

20 - 25

>25

Alert Level Actions

Increase frequency of sampling refrigerant to 2x

Sample lubricating oil with next sample of refrigerant to check for any signs of
degradation

Check all potential causes of high moisture, and fix as required.

Check moisture indicators rigorously.

Check for any signs of lubricating oil degradation

Change filter dryers/desiccants as required

Fault Level Actions

Re-sample refrigerant to verify results

Recycle and clean refrigerant on line

Change all filter dryers/desiccants.

If trend continues, schedule a shutdown of the chiller and fix leaks.

Acids
A refrigeration system can contain two types of acids, organic and inorganic, depending on the
type of refrigerant

and oil being used. Organic acids (such as oleic acid) are formed as a result of decomposition
of oil at high
temperature in the presence of air as the oxidizing agent. These acids are slow to react,
soluble in oil, do not
vaporize, and typically found in relatively small quantities in the oil sump. Inorganic acids
(such as hydrochloric acid
and hydrofluoric acid) are formed as a result of decomposition of refrigerants at high
temperature in the presence of
moisture. These acids are highly reactive, soluble in water, vaporize, and typically found to be
the dominant acids
that may be present. Therefore, inorganic acids are the real problem in a refrigerant system,
which results in
degradation of the equipment internals. The major contributors to acid formation in a system
are the presence of
moisture and abnormally high temperatures around the compressor i.e. bearings, motor
windings, terminations,
compressor discharge etc. The presence of acids is specially hazardous in case of semihermetic and hermetic
compressors, since the acid vapor in refrigerant goes over motor windings and can eventually
lead to motor burnout.
Therefore the amount of acids in a system should be kept to an absolute minimum, and ARI 700
specifications should
be followed strictly, i.e., maximum allowable limit for acid in all refrigerants should be 1 ppm
by weight.
The acids in a refrigeration system can be kept to a minimum by keeping the refrigerant dry
and preventing abnormally
high temperatures in the system. Desiccant used in a filter dryer may be capable of removing
the acids, but the
capacity and efficiency depends on several factors and is difficult to determine.
Testing method for acids is as specified in ARI 700. Based on above discussion and operating
experience, the
acceptance criteria for acid should be as follows:
Refrigerant
All

Normal
ppm by wt
0 - 0.8

Alert
ppm by wt
0.8 - 1.0

Fault
ppm by wt
>10

Alert Level Actions

Increase frequency of sampling refrigerant to 2x

Check all potential causes of high acid, and fix as required.

Change filter dryers/desiccants as required.

Fault Level Actions

Re-sample refrigerant to verify results

Recycle and clean refrigerant on line until acid concentration drops to acceptable
level.

Change all filter dryers and desiccants.

Particulate/solids The solid contaminants can include metallic particles, chemical compounds or just dirt. The
solids found in a system
normally result from wear, corrosion and chemical breakdown of the internals, or material left
in the system during
servicing. The solid contaminants can create problems such as scoring compressor cylinder
walls and bearings,
damaging motor insulation, plugging lubrication holes, plugging filter/dryers, plugging
expansion valves etc. The solid
contaminants are removed to a great extent by the filter dryer, but it needs to be sized to
handle it without adding
too much pressure drop in the system.
Testing method for particulate/solids, and the acceptance criteria should be as specified in ARI
700 for all refrigerants.
Any visual presence of dirt, rust or other particulate contamination should be reported as alert
condition.
If particulate/solids are found, the refrigerant filter should be replaced. If the problem
persists in-spite of changing
the filter several times, on-line cleaning of the refrigerant may be required.
Note: Some labs will only give a pass or fail result of this test. If particulate/solids are found,
it may be necessary to
have the lab give additional details such as size, quantity, color and particle type to provide a
better clue on the
source.
Organic matter sludge, wax, tars
Organic contaminants are typically due to decomposition/degradation of organic materials in
the system such as oil,
insulation, varnish, gaskets etc. These can circulate in the system and plug small orifices.
Organic contaminants
dissolved in the liquid refrigerant may precipitate at lower temperature in the expansion
device, resulting in plugged
capillary tubes or sticky expansion valves. Organic contaminants can also coat heat transfer
surfaces resulting in
cooling inefficiency. Since heat degrades most organic materials, operating conditions with
excessively high
temperatures should be avoided. If an organic contaminant is dissolved in the liquid
refrigerant, it may not be
removed by the filter-dryer.
Testing method for organic matter is specified in ARI 700 for High Boiling Residue test.
ARI specifies 0.01% by volume of high boiling residue for most new or recycled refrigerants.
However, this is not
practical for operating machines due to miscibility of lubricating oils in refrigerants, i.e. oil
carryover. Based on
operating experience, the acceptance criteria for organic matter should be as follows:
Refrigerant

Normal
% by Vol.

All

0 - 0.1

Alert
% by Vol.
0.1 - 0.2

Fault
% by Vol.
>0.2

Alert Level Actions

Increase frequency of sampling refrigerant to 2x

Change refrigerant filters as required.

Fault Level Actions

Re-sample refrigerant to verify results

Recycle and clean refrigerant on line till levels drop to acceptable levels.

Change all refrigerant filters.

Non-condensable Gases Non-condensable gases are chemically inert gases, which do not liquefy in the condenser. This
contaminant typically
results from incomplete evacuation, low side air in-leakage, chemical reactions &
decomposition of materials at high
temperature. Typically the first two causes are the primary reasons for high non-condensable
gases. These gases
reduce cooling efficiency, cause high starting and running currents, and result in higher than
normal compressor
discharge pressure & temperature, which speeds up undesirable chemical reactions.
Testing method for non-condensable gases is specified in ARI 700.
The quantity of non-condensable gases that is harmful depends on the design and size of the
refrigeration unit and
the nature of the refrigerant. ARI 700 specifies a limit of 1.5% of non-condensable gases by
volume for most new or
recycled refrigerants, which is unrealistic to maintain continuously in an operating system,
especially the negative
pressure machines. Based on operating experience, the acceptance criteria for noncondensable gases should be as
follows:
Refrigerant
All

Normal
% by Vol.

Alert
% by Vol.

Fault
% by Vol.

5 - 10

>10

0-5

Alert Level Actions

Review operating parameters to confirm high non-condensable gases.

Increase frequency of sampling refrigerant to 2x

Check purge unit/dehydrator for proper operation

Increase purge rate. Caution should be observed to avoid excessive loss of refrigerant
due to purge unit
inefficiency.

Fault Level Actions

Re-sample refrigerant to verify results

If acceptable levels are not achieved, shutdown the machine and repair the leaks or
faulty purge operation, as
applicable.

If the machine cannot be shutdown, recycle and clean refrigerant on line until it
reaches acceptable level.

Oil Analysis
The oil analysis provides a look inside a compressor without disassembly. When unacceptable
wear conditions
develop inside the compressor, a corresponding detectable change in the characteristics of the
oil will become
evident. The results from oil analysis should be used in conjunction with vibration analysis and
bearing temperatures
to detect excessive bearing wear. A log of the periodic oil analysis should be maintained to
provide the trend.
The oil sample should be tested for the following properties:

Metal wear

Moisture

Acidity

Viscosity

Solid residue

HVAC DESIGN (See additional information under the "Design Calculation" and "Design Links"
buttons on the left)
This Section provides a description of the design process, available design software, equipment
selection & sizing guidelines,
and typical systems used for HVAC.
Design Process The basic design process involves various steps as follows -

Determine the design parameters of the conditioned space - temperature, humidity,

air quality, etc.

Calculate the cooling loads, heating loads, and air flow requirements based on the
above design parameters.
[Go to "HVAC Software" link given above for the available software for doing cooling &
heating load calculations].

Establish conceptual design and duct layout.

[See the description of various types of systems given below].

Calculate fan pressure drop.

[Go to "HVAC Software" link given above for the available software for doing fan pressure
drop calculations].

Equipment selection and specification.

[See the description of various types of equipment (Chillers & DX units, Dampers, Fans)
on their respective links given
above on this website].

Depending on the system type, other design steps may involve chilled water pump
pressure drop calculation,
refrigerant pipe sizing calculation, etc.
[Go to "HVAC Software" link given above for the available software for pump pressure
drop and refrigerant pipe sizing
calculations].

Types of Cooling Systems There are various types of cooling systems depending on the application requirements. The
three main categories of cooling
systems are as follows -

Air Conditioning System, which uses a refrigerant system for cooling air. This has a
broad range of applications ranging
from comfort cooling to industrial process cooling.

Evaporative cooling System, which uses 100% outside air and water evaporation for
cooling. This is used mainly in dry
locations, where temperature requirements are not very low and humidity is not a
concern. This may be used for
comfort cooling or industrial applications. It is used for comfort cooling only in dry
areas and where the space
temperature/ humidity requirements are not stringent.

Ventilation System, which uses 100% outside air for cooling the space. This is used
mainly where temperature
requirements are relatively high, and/or where constant fresh air is required. It is
mostly used for industrial/ warehouse
applications.

Air Conditioning Systems can be either chilled water or direct expansion. Chilled water
systems involve water being cooled by
a refrigerant system, and this chilled water is then used in the air cooling coils. Direct
expansion or DX systems involve the
liquid refrigerant being supplied directly to the air cooling coils, where it expands and provides
the air cooling. There are
various reasons for using one or the other. Normally chilled water systems are used for medium
to large systems, and direct
expansion systems are used for small to medium systems. The chilled water system normally
has a package chiller unit with
pump and piping system to supply chilled water to various air cooling coils. The DX system can
be a package unit with the
compressor and cooling coil all on the same skid, or a split system with the compressor or
condensing unit located separate
from the cooling coil. The refrigerant piping for packaged chiller & DX units is designed by the
equipment manufacturer. The
refrigerant piping for a split DX system has to be designed by the HVAC Engineer, and extra
caution should be used since it is
for a two phase flow and it is critical for reliable operation of the system. The refrigerant
piping design guidelines are given in
the ASHRAE and Carrier Handbooks. The various type of Chiller & DX units and other details are
given under the link for "Chiller
& DX" given above on this website.
Evaporative Cooling Systems are basically of two types. One uses water sprays, while the
other uses wet media. The spray
systems result in higher moisture, and are used only for large industrial systems. The media
type systems provide a better
control on moisture content depending on the type of media, and are used for relatively
smaller systems. Both systems are
sensitive to the hardness of water used, since hard water deposits tend to block the media or
spray nozzles.
Ventilation Systems basically provide 100% outside air for cooling and ventilating a given
space. They essentially consist of a
combination of fans, duct and dampers to supply and exhaust the outside air. The various types
of fans used are described
under the link for "Fans" given above on this website.
General Criteria for Duct Sizing Velocities
Residential Main 800 fpm, Max 1200
Branches 600 fpm, max 1000
Commercial Main 1100 fpm, Max 1600
Branches 800 fpm, max 1300
Industrial Main 1500 fpm, Max 2200
Branch 900 fpm, Max 1800
Note: Final duct sizing should be based on the duct/fan pressure drop calculation. Go to "HVAC

Software" link given above for

the available software for doing duct/fan pressure drop calculations.