PsychologyAP

SENSATION&PERCEPTIONChapter4

.SensingtheWorld:SomeBasicPrinciples

Sensation:Theprocessbywhichoursensoryreceptorsandnervoussystemreceiveand
representstimulusenergiesreceivedfromourenvironment.

Perception:Theprocessoforganizingandinterpretingsensoryinformation,enablingusto
recognizemeaningfulobjectsandevents.

Bottomupprocessing:Analysisthatbeginswiththesensoryreceptorsandworksuptothe
brainsintegrationofsensoryinformation.

Topdownprocessing:Informationprocessingguidedbyhigherlevelmentalprocesses,aswhen
weconstructperceptionsdrawingonourexperienceandexpectations.

SelectiveAttention

Selectiveattention:Thefocussingofconsciousawarenessonaparticularstimulus.

Inattentionblindness:Failingtoseevisualobjectswhenourattentionisdirectedelsewhere.

Changeblindness:Failingtonoticechangesinourenvironment.

Thresholds

Absolutethresholds:Theminimumstimulationneededtodetectaparticularstimulus50%ofthe
time.

Psychophysics:Thestudyofrelationshipsbetweenthephysicalcharacteristicsofstimuli,such
astheirintensity,andourpsychologicalexperienceofthem.

Signaldetectiontheory:Atheorypredictinghowandwhenwedetectthepresenceofafaint
stimulus(signal)amidbackgroundstimulation(noise).Assumesthereisnosingleabsolute
thresholdandthatdetectiondependspartlyonapersonsexperience,expectations,motivation
andalertness.

Subliminal:Belowonesabsoloutethresholdforconsciousawareness.

Priming:Theactivation,oftenunconsciously,ofcertainassociations,thuspredisposingones
perception,memoryorresponse.

Differencethreshold:Theminimumdifferencebetweentwostimulirequiredfordetection50%of
thetime.Weexperiencethedifferencethresholdasajustnoticeabledifference(jnd).

WebersLaw:Theprinciplethat,tobeperceivedasdifferent,twostimulimustdifferbya
constantpercentage(ratherthanaconstantamount).

Sensoryadaptation:Diminishedsensitivityasaconsequenceofconstantstimulation.

II.Vision

TheStimulusInput:LightEnergy

Transduction:Conversionofoneformofenergyintoanother.Insensation,thetransformationof
stimulusenergies,suchassights,soundsandsmells,intoneuralimpulsesourbrainscan
interpret.

Wavelength:Thedistancefromthepeakofonelightorsoundwavetothenext.Electromagnetic
wavelengthsvaryfromtheshortblipsofthecosmicraystothelongpulsesofradio
transmission.

Hue:Thedimensionofcolorthatisdeterminedbythewavelengthoflightwhatweknowasthe
colornamesblue,green,etc.

Intensity:Theamountofenergyinalightorsoundwave,whichweperceiveasbrightnessor
loudness,asdeterminedbythewavesamplitude.

TheEye

Pupil:Theadjustableopeninginthecenteroftheeyethroughwhichlightenters.

Iris:Aringofmuscletissuethatformsthecoloredportionoftheeyearoundthepupiand
controlsthesizeofthepupilopening.

Lens:Thetransparentstructurebehindthepupilthatchangesshapetohelpfocusimageson
theretina.

Retina:Thelightsensitiveinnersurfaceoftheeye,containingthereceptorrodsandconesplus
layersofneuronsthatbegintheprocessingofvisualinformation.

Accommodation:Theprocessbywhichtheeyeslenschangesshapetofocusnearorfar
objectsontheretina.

Cones:Retinalreceptorcellsthatareconcentratednearthecenteroftheretinaandthatfunction
indaylightorinwelllitconditions.Theconesdetectfinedetailandgiverisetocolorsensations.

Rods:Retinalreceptorsthatdetectblack,white,andgraynecessaryfortheperipheraland
twilightvision,whenconesdontrespond.

OpticNerve:Thenervethatcarriesneuralimpulsesfromtheeyetothebrain.

Blindspot:Thepointatwhichtheopticnerveleavestheeye,creatingablindspotbecauseno
receptorcellsarelocatedthere.

Fovea:Thecentralpointintheretina,aroundwhichtheeyesconescluster

VisualInformationProcessing

Featuredetector:Nervecellsinthebrainthatrespondtospecificfeaturesofthestimulus,such
asshape,angleormovement.

Parallelprocessing:Theprocessingofmanyaspectsofaproblemsimultaneouslythebrains
naturalmodeofinformationprocessingformanyfunctions,includingvision.Contrastswiththe
stepbystep(serial)processingofmostcomputersandofconsciousproblemsolving.

ColorVision

YoungHelmholtztrichromatictheory:Thetheorythattheretinacontainsthreedifferentcolor
receptorsonemostsensitivetored,onetogreen,onetobluewhich,whenstimulatedin
combination,canproducetheperceptionofanycolor.

Opponentprocesstheory:Thetheorythatopposingretinalprocesses(redgreen,yellowblue,
whiteblack)enablecolorvision.Forexample,somecellsarestimulatedbygreenandinhibited
byredothersarestimulatedbyredandinhibitedbygreen.

IV.Hearing

TheStimulusInput:SoundWaves

Audition:Thesenseoractofhearing.

Frequency:Thenumberofcompletewavelengthsthatpassapointinagiventime(e.g.per
second).

Pitch:Atonesexperiencedhighnessorlownessdependsonfrequency.

TheEar

Middleear:Thechamberbetweentheeardrumandthecochleacontainingthreetinybones
(hammer,anvilandstirrup)thatconcentratethevibrationsoftheeardrumonthecochleasoval
window.

Cochlea:Acoiled,bony,fluidfilledintheinnerearthroughwhichsoundwavestriggernerve
impulses.

Innerear:Theinnermostpartoftheear,containingthecochlea,semicircularcanals,andthe
vestibularsacs.

Placetheory:Inhearing,thetheorythatlinksthepitchwehearwiththeplacewherethe
cochleasmembraneisstimulated.

Frequencytheory:Inhearing,thetheorythattherateofnerveimpulsestravellinguptheauditory
nervematchesthefrequencyofatone,thusenablingustosenseitspitch.

HearingLossandDeafCulture

Conductionhearingloss:Hearinglosscausedbydamagetothemechanicalsystemthat
conductssoundwavestothecochlea.

Sensorineuralhearingloss:Hearinglosscausedbydamagetothecochleasreceptorcellsorto
theauditorynervesalsocallednervedeafness.

Cochlearimplant:Adeviceforconvertingsoundsintoelectricalsignalsandstimulatingthe
auditorynervethroughelectrodesthreadedintothecochlea.

V.OtherSenses

Touch

Kinesthesis:Thesystemforsensingthepositionandmovementofindividualbodyparts.

Vestibularsense:Thesenseofbodymovementandposition,includingsenseofbalance.

Pain

Gatecontroltheory:Thetheorythatthespinalcordcontainsaneurologicalgatethatblocks
painsignalsorallowsthemtopassontothebrain.Thegateisopenedbytheactivityofpain
signalstravellingupthesmallnervefibersandisclosedbyactivityinthelargefibersorby
informationcomingfromthebrain.

Taste

Sensoryinteraction:Theprinciplethatonesensemayinfluenceanother,aswhenthesmellof
foodinfluencesitstaste.

Smell

VI.PerceptualOrganization

Gestalt:Anorganizedwhole,Gestaltpsychologistsemphasizedourtendencytointegratepieces
ofinformationintomeaningfulwholes.

FormPerception

Figureground:Theorganizationofthevisualfieldintoobjects(thefigures)thatstandoutfrom
theirsurroundings(theground).

Grouping:theperceptualtendencytoorganizestimuliintocoherentgroups.

Proximity:Groupnearbyfigurestogether.

Similarity:Groupsimilarfigurestogether.

Continuity:Groupsmooth,continuouspatternsratherthandiscontinuousones.

Connectedness:Wegroupuniformers,linkedfiguresasasingleunit.

Closure:Wefillingapstocreateacomplete,wholeobject.

DepthPerception

Depthperception:Theabilitytoseeobjectsinthreedimensionsalthoughtheimagesthatstrike
theretinaaretwodimensionalallowsustojudgedistance.

Visualcliff:Alaboratorydevicefortestingdepthperceptionininfantsandyounganimals.

Binocularcues:Depthcues,suchasretinaldisparity,thatdependontheuseoftwoeyes.

Retinaldisparity:Abinocularcueforperceivingdepth:bycomparingimagesfromtheretinasin
thetwoeyes,thebraincomputesdistancethegreaterthedisparity(difference)betweentwo
images,theclosertheobject.

Monocularcues:Depthcues,suchasinterpositionandlinearperspective,availabletoeithereye
alone.

MotionPerception

Phiphenomenon:Anillusionofmovementcreatedwhentwoormoreadjacentlightsblinkonand
offinquicksuccession.

PerceptualConstancy

Perceptualconstancy:Perceivingobjectsasunchanging(havingconsistentshapes,lightness,
andcolor)evenasilluminationandretinalimageschange.

Colorconstancy:Perceivingfamiliarobjectsashavingconsistentcolor,evenifchanging
illuminationaltersthewavelengthsreflectedbytheobject.

PerceptualInterpretation

Perceptualadaptation:Invision,theabilitytoadjusttoanartificiallydisplacedoreveninverted
visualfield.

SensoryDeprivationandRestoredVision

PerceptualAdaptation

PerceptualSet

Perceptualset:Amentalpredispositiontoperceiveonethingandnotanother.

VIII.IsThereExtrasensoryPerception?

ESP:Thecontroversialclaimthatperceptioncanoccurapartfromsensoryinputincludes
telepathy,clairvoyance,andprecognition.

Parapsychology:Thestudyofparanormalpheneomena,includingESPandpyschookenisis.