Chapter 6:

Genetic Control:
DNA and RNA

Genetic control of protein

structure and function

Structure of DNA
and RNA

Nucleotides

DNA replication

Polynucleotides

DNA, RNA

Protein
Synthesis

....the features of the genetic molecule

Ability to carry instruction (a blueprint)
for the construction and behavior of
cells
and the way they grow together to form
a complete living organism

....the features of the genetic molecule

Ability to be copied (perfectly) over and
over again
Whenever the cells divide it can pass on
an exact copy of each genetic molecule
to the nuclei of each daughter cells

The discovery of the DNA

(a) describe the structure of RNA and DNA and

explain the importance of base pairing and the
different hydrogen bonding between bases

Structure of DNA and RNA

DNA stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA stands for
ribonucleic acid
Both DNA and RNA
are macromolecules
like protein and
polysaccharide.
They are polymers

 DNA and RNA are made of smaller molecules

known as nucleotides.
DNA and RNA are therefore polynucleotides.
Refered simply as nucleic acid.

 Nucleotides have three parts to them:

(i) a phosphate group, which is negatively
charged.

 Nucleotides have three parts to them:

(ii) a pentose sugar, which has 5 carbon atoms in
it. In RNA the sugar is ribose. In DNA the sugar
is deoxyribose.

Nucleic Acids
Phosphate

Phosphate

Sugar

Sugar

The joined sugar is either ribose (RNA) or deoxyribose

(DNA), and the only difference is that deoxyribose has
one fewer oxygen atoms in its molecule

Pentose sugar
5-carbon pentose sugar.
Nucleotides have 2 kinds of pentose; units
of RNA contains ribose sugar and DNA
contains deoxyribose sugar
The base of a nucleotide is covalently
joined to C1 of the pentose through
glycosidic bond (N-1 of pyrimidine ; N-9 of
purine)
The phosphate of a nucleotide is covalently
joined to C5 (-OH) of the pentose through
phosphoester bond.

Nitrogenous base
Large, double ring molecule found in both
DNA and RNA.
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
N-9 of the ring will form covalent bond
(glycosidic bond) with C1 of the pentose in a
nucleotide.

 Small, single ring molecule found in both DNA

and RNA.
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) [DNA] and Uracil (U)
[RNA]
N-1 of the ring will form covalent bond
(glycosidic bond) with C1 of the pentose in a
nucleotide.

Nucleic Acids a.k.a Nucleotide

Pyrimidine base

Phosphate

Purine base

Phosphate

Sugar

Sugar

There are two types of bases - purine and pyrimidine you only really need to know that adenine and guanine
are the purine bases and that purine bases are larger.

Nitrogenous Base

Purine

Adenine

Pyrimidine

Thymine (DNA)
Guanine

Cytosine

Uracil (RNA)

Polynucleotide
To form both DNA
and RNA, many of
these nucleotides
are linked together
in a polynucleotide
chain.
The structure of this
poly nucleotide
chain is seen in this
picture

As you can see, it is

formed by alternating
sugars and phosphates,
and the nitrogen bases
project sideways.

Polynucleotide
Nucleotides are
connected to each
other via the
phosphate on one
nucleotide (C5) and the
sugar (C3)on the next
nucleotide
A Polynucleotide
Sugar-phosphate bonds
(backbone of DNA)
A-T(U) and G-C

Reading frame of DNA

Phosphate grp
covalently attached
to C5 of the pentose
sugar, hence -5 end
term is used.

Phosphodiester
bond

Hydroxyl grp
covalently attached
to C3 of the pentose
sugar, hence -3 end
term is used.

In a leading strand (template) of a long

polynucleotide chain (DNA), the reading frame is
always from 5 3 . What does this means???
As you start reading the nucleotides of a leading
strand, you will realize a FREE phosphate grp is
always attached to C5 of the pentose sugar. This
group is called as the 5 end of the chain
As you reach the end of the chain, you will see
the final nucleotide has a FREE hydroxyl grp
attached to the C3 of the pentose sugar. This
group is called as the 3 end of the chain.
Therefore we always read the leading strand of
any given DNA as 5 3. Its complementary
strand is the reverse, we read as 3 5, because
we start off a complementary nucleotide with a
FREE OH at C3 of the sugar.

 DNA molecules
are simply two of
these strands next
to each other,
running in
opposite
directions held
together by
hydrogen bonds.

 The bases do not take

part in the
polymerisation

 Adenine always pairs with thymine, cytosine

always pairs with guanine (A-T, C-G, and in
RNA, it is A-U, since thymine does not
appear).

Base pairing of Nucleotides

In 1940s, Erwin Chargaff calculated
a rough
equivalent between adenine and
thymine molecules and between
cytosine and guanine molecules
Chargaffs DNA Database Composition in
Various Species (%)
Species

Homo sapiens (Human)

Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
Zea mays (Corn)
Neurospora crassa (fungus)
Escherichia coli (bacteria)

31.0
27.3
25.6
23.0
24.6

31.5
27.6
25.3
23.3
24.3

19.1
22.5
24.5
27.1
25.5

18.4
22.5
24.6
26.6
25.6

Base pairing Conclusion of Chargaffs

experiment

Polynucleotides
DNA molecules
forms a 3D double
helix
shape, bonded by
hydrogen,
whereas RNA
remains as single
strands of
polynucleotide.

The Rule:
Adenine always base pairs with Thymine (or
Uracil if RNA)
Cytosine always base pairs with Guanine.
This is because there is exactly enough room
for one purine and one pyramide/pyrimidine
base between the two polynucleotide strands
of DNA.

Types of RNA
There are three major classes of RNA. Each
class of RNA has its own unique size, shape
and function in protein synthesis
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) alone with ribosomal
proteins, makes up the ribosomes, where proteins
are synthesised.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) takes a message from DNA
in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acid to the
ribosomes

RNA vs DNA
RNA is a nucleic acid like DNA, but with 4
differences:
RNA has the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose
RNA has the base uracil instead of thymine
RNA is usually single stranded
RNA is usually shorter than DNA

(b) explain how DNA replicates semi

conservatively during interphase;

Nature of the Genetic Material

Property 1 - it must contain, in a stable form,
information encoding the organisms
structure, function, development and
reproduction
Property 2 - it must replicate accurately so
progeny cells have the same genetic makeup
Property 3 - it must be capable of some
variation (mutation) to permit evolution

Dianne Chabira

 The discoverers of DNA,

Watson and Crick suggested
that the two polynucleotide
strands of DNA could spilt
apart, and
new nucleotides (the correct,
complimentary ones) could line
up along each strand, making a
new DNA molecule.

 This process is known as semiconservative replication, since

half of the original molecule is
conserved in each of the new
molecules.

DNA Replication

dispersive
model

dispersive
model

Semi-conservative: Each new molecule would contain one old

strand and one new strand.

dispersive
model

Conservative model: One completely new double helix

would be made from the old one

dispersive
model

Dispersive model: Each new molecule would be old bits and

new bits scattered randomly through the molecules

Experimental proof
Nitrogen is a major constituent of DNA, and
there are two different isotopes - 14N and
15N.
14N is by far the most abundant isotope of
nitrogen, but DNA with the heavier 15N
isotope also works.

The conditions of DNA replication

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Replication fork
Helicase
Continuous synthesis
DNA polymerase III
Discontinuous synthesis
RNA primer
DNA polymerase I
DNA ligase

(c) state that a gene is a sequence of nucleotides

as part of a DNA molecule, which codes for a
polypeptide and state that a mutation is a
change in the sequence that may result in an
altered polypeptide;

DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis

How can a single type of molecule
like DNA
control all the activities of a cell?

What are proteins made of?

Strings of amino acids

The triplet code

The sequence of bases or nucleotides in a
DNA molecule is a code for the sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide.
A sequence of amino acids is coded for by the
sequences of nucleotides in a DNA molecule three bases form a triplet code or the codon
on the mRNA strand.

The Codon???
A triplet of bases that codes for a specific
amino acid is called a codon.
Hence, the complementary set of triplet bases
for the codon is knows as the anticodon.

 Each triplet code

(codon) codes for
one amino acid
E.g.:
T-T-T, thyminethymine-thymine
stand for the amino
acid lysine and it is
always read in the
same direction.

 Short piece
of DNA
carries the
instruction
to the cell.
Deciphering
the codes
of life!!

The nature of genetic codons

Triplets
Non-overlapping
degenerate

Genes and Genomes

A gene is a part of a DNA molecule that codes
for just one polypeptide, and in humans alone
there is an estimated 140,000 genes.

One DNA molecule contains many genes.

One gene = one polypeptide
One codon = one amino acid
In human it is estimated that there are about 30
000 genes.
Total DNA of a human cell is 3 x 109 base pair long
Only 3% of this DNA actually code for protein.
The rest are known as junk DNA.

 The total set of genes in a cell is called the

genome.
The genome is the total information in one
cell.
All cells in the same individual contain the
same information, the genome represents the
genetic code of that organism.

Human Genome Project

A global project to
sequence the complete
human genome which
launched in 1990.
The human genome
contain about 3 billion
bases
To Identify every human
gene and find out how at
least some of them affect
human health.

mRNA

RNA in protein
synthesis
rRNA ribosome

tRNA

(d) describe the way in which the nucleotide

sequence codes for the amino acid sequence in
a polypeptide with reference to the nucleotide
sequence for HbA (normal) and HbS (sickle cell)
alleles of the gene for the -haemoglobin
polypeptide;

Sickle Cell Anemia

If even one amino
acid in the sequence
is changed, that can
potentially change
the proteins ability to
function.
Sickle cell anemia is a
blood disorder that
affects hemoglobin

Sickle Cell Anemia

It is caused by a change in
only one nucleotide in the
DNA sequence that causes
just one amino acid in one
of the hemoglobin
polypeptide molecules to
be different.
Because of this, the whole
red blood cell ends up
being deformed and unable
to carry oxygen properly.

One amino acid change

Clumping of cells in bloodstream

Spleen concentrates sickle cells
Rapid destruction of sickle cells
Anemia, causing weakness,fatigue,
impaired development, heart
chamber dilation
Spleen enlargement
Heart failure, paralysis, pneumonia,
rheumatism, gut pain, kidney failure

(e) describe how the information on DNA is used

during transcription and translation to construct
polypeptides, including the role of messenger
RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and the
ribosomes;

Protein Synthesis
There is a direct relationship between the
base sequence of DNA and the sequence of
amino acids that makes up a protein
DNA

mRNA

tRNA

protein

triplet

codon

anticodon

Amino acid

CCA

GGU

CCA

Glycine

AAA

UUU

AAA

phenylalanine

GTG

CAC

GUG

histidine

Transcription
Transcribe means to
copy using DNA as a
template,
complementary RNA
nucleotides are joined
to make mRNA

Transcription
RNA polymerase
unwinds a short
section of the DNA
double helix near
the start of the gene.
This unwound
section is known as
the transcription
bubble.

Transcription
The RNA polymerase,
and therefore the
transcription bubble,
travels along the
coding strand in the 5'
to 3' direction, and
along the noncoding
strand in the opposite,
3' to 5', direction,

Transcription
as well as polymerizing a
newly synthesized strand
in 5' to 3' or downstream
direction. The DNA
double helix is rewound
by RNA polymerase at
the rear of the
transcription bubble.
Like how a zipper works,
only it unzips it and rezips
it without going back and
forth.

Transcription
Where the helix is unwound, the
coding strand consists of
unpaired bases, whilst the
template strand consists of an
RNA:DNA composite, followed
by a number of unpaired bases
at the rear.
This hybrid consists of the mostrecently-added nucleotides of
the RNA transcript,
complementary base-paired to
the template strand

Transcription
mRNA can now leave
the nucleus.
Each triplet code of
bases from DNA is now
represented by three
bases on mRNA called
a codon.

Stages of Translation

Structure of tRNA

An aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase joins a

specific amino acid to a tRNA

Anatomy of a ribosome

Initiation of translation
Sequence in mRNA
is complementary
to a sequence in
the tRNA anticodon
in the small
ribosomal subunit

Translation elongation

Termination of translation