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On-off Control of an Active Load for Power System Damping

Theory and Field Test


Olof Samuelsson

Magnus Akke

IEA, Lund University


PO Box 118, S-221 00 Lund
Sweden
Olof.Samuelsson@iea.lth.se

Sydkraft AB
S-205 09 Malm
Sweden
Magnus.Akke@sydkraft.se

A b s t r a c t Controlled
resistive
loads
can
contribute to damping of electro-mechanical
oscillations. This paper presents an on-off
damping controller for a single machine system. It
was used at a field test in southern Sweden to damp
oscillations of a 0.9 MW hydro power generator.
The controller used estimated machine frequency as
input and controlled a 20 kW resistive load via
thyristor switches. The field measurements are
compared to time simulations and a systematic
procedure for tuning the controller is given. The
results indicate that on-off control of active loads
is effective in terms of added damping and that it is
simple to tune and implement.

oscillations. As a comparison, a power system stabilizer


(PSS) or a static var compensator (SVC) modulates reactive
power to change a bus voltage, which in turn affects both
nearby voltage dependent loads and acts directly on the power
transfer. These two factors can be of comparable magnitude
[4]. Depending on the power flow direction they act together
or counteract each other. The net impact on the power flow
of reactive power modulation is thus in general more
unpredictable than that of active power modulation, which is
simply additive and thus robust. Load control on the
distribution level does not require any new high voltage
installations and is thus also economically attractive.

I. INTRODUCTION
Control of loads was earlier performed as disconnection of
entire load areas from the feeder. This is typically used for
undervoltage load shedding to prevent voltage collapse [1] or
for underfrequency load shedding to counteract loss of a major
generation unit or transmission line. Demand Side
Management and Distribution Automation programs now
introduce utility-customer communication and Intelligent
Meters including remote control facilities. This allows more
sophisticated schemes where only selected loads, typically
heaters and boilers, are controlled. The new meters are mainly
aimed at remote meter reading and peak load reduction.
However, if the communication bandwidth and processing
power is sufficiently high, they can also be used for dynamic
purposes such as damping of power system oscillations. The
nature and extent of these oscillations are described in [2]
along with means of mitigation. Whereas load modulation by
voltage variation is mentioned, direct control of loads is not.
Both HVDC modulation of active power [3] and control of
active loads are direct ways of controlling power flows. This
makes them effective for damping of electromechanical

Depending on the load control system implementation, the


controlled active power is varied continuously or simply
switched on and off. Phase angle controlled power electronics
can be used for continuous variation of active power. The
control law can then be linear as in [5], which practically
implies minimum and maximum limits as pointed out in
[6]. Load switching in the frequency range of a few Hz can be
done with simple power electronics, or even a mechanical
switch. If on-off control of several loads is properly organized
it yields a quasi-continuous variation of their total power
consumption. If several controllers are used they are likely to
interact, which is studied for two linear controllers in [7].
This paper treats the design and construction of an on-off
control system for supplementary damping in a real singlemachine system. The damping effect of using a resistive load
as actuator is demonstrated in both time simulations and field
measurements.
II. CONTROLLER
A. Control Law
On-off control is typically used in the transient stability
context together with actuators such as SVC [8], [9],
controllable series capacitors (CSC) [8], [10] or braking
resistors [11]. The analysis of the on-off controller requires
nonlinear techniques such as time simulation, energy
functions and phase plane plots.
E
Pm
5

V0

V
igen

iline

P gen
4 Qgen

P line
Qline 2

Load 1
iload

Pload
3

1
0
Load 2
Controlled load

Fig. 1. Real single machine infinite bus system with loads.

Consider the single machine infinite bus system in Fig. 1.


Its dynamics is modelled using a classical second order
synchronous generator model without damping,
d
= = s
dt
2H d
= Pm Pgen ( , V0 , Z 0 )
s dt

Pload

(1)
off

where (el. rad) is the machine angle and (el. rad/s) is


its time derivative. H is the inertia constant (MWs/MVA)
while s is the synchronous frequency (el. rad/s). The
mechanical input power Pm (p.u.), the internal voltage E' and
the infinite bus voltage V are assumed constant.

It is likely that the controlled load is resistive. The


network can then be modelled as a Thvenin equivalent
circuit, to which the generator is connected. The Thvenin
equivalent no-load voltage V0 and short-circuit impedance Z0
both depend on the load state, that is, if the load is switched
on or off. Since the system is undamped a small disturbance
causes an oscillation with constant amplitude. Appropriate
scaling then gives circular trajectories in the phase plane as
in Fig. 2. The circles are traversed clockwise and have radii
set by the initial values in each case. There is one stationary
operating point on the axis for each state of the load. The
corresponding values of are on and off respectively.
Moving the controlled load away from the generator reduces
offon and consequently the impact of the control action.

on off

infinity. This undesirable behaviour is avoided by turning on


the load first when exceeds the level on >0. The
resulting on-off controller characteristic is shown in Fig. 3.

on off

Fig. 2. State trajectories () for the uncontrolled case with the load on
(dotted) and off (dashed) and the corresponding stationary values of
indicated. To the right, the effect of the control law is added (solid).

Energy function analysis can be used to quantify the


oscillation energy and shows that the circles are equal-energy
contours. The oscillation energy is minimum (zero) at the
stationary point, which thus is the target when switching the
load to damp the oscillation. The trajectories in Fig. 2 for
load on and load off are chosen so that they intersect each
time passes through zero. A simple on-off control law is
to disconnect the load when goes negative and reconnect
it when goes positive. This reduces the trajectory radius
at each switching cycle as shown in the right part of Fig. 2.
When the oscillation amplitude goes below offon, two
situations can occur. Either the system arrives exactly at the
stationary point where the oscillation totally vanishes, or it
arrives at a point on the axis between on and off. In the
second case, which is more likely, the trajectories for the two
load states meet on the axis. As they are opposing each
other the switching frequency increasestheoretically to

on

Fig. 3. Characteristic of the on-off damping controller

The selection of o n is a trade-off between two


requirements. The fact that oscillations with an amplitude
less than on are left unaffected requires a small on. On
the other hand, to avoid fast switching it must be greater than
the minimum value on,min. Appendix A summarizes the
procedure in [7] for systematically determining on,min.
This limit is valuable in the selection of on w h i c h
normally is empirical as in [8].
It is natural to compare with transient controllers which
often use a control signal amplitude so large that it could
bring the system out of the stability region. Such a system
may not even be stable if left uncontrolled at the frequency
deviation on,min. In this case also is needed to obtain
correct timing of the switching actions [10]. With a less
powerful control signal like here and in [8], a simple
dependence as above suffices.
B. Machine Frequency Estimation
If direct measurements of are used, a mechanical sensor
must be mounted on the generator and the signal needs to be
transmitted from the machine to the possibly distant damping
controller. Less equipment is required if is instead
estimated from electric signals available at the controller
location. This, on the other hand, requires special care to be
taken so that the control actions do not corrupt the estimate.
The method described in [9] and [12] has proven to be useful.
Only voltage and current measurements at bus 3 in Fig. 1
are used. Starting from the phasor V at bus 3, the phasor E'
at the fictitious bus 5 inside the generator is synthesized by
adding the voltage drop between these buses,
E' = V + z gen igen

(2)

where z gen is the impedance between buses 3 and 5. The


phase difference - can now be expressed as,

= tan 1

Im z gen igen

V + Re z gen igen

(3)

The same expression can be rewritten to use active and


reactive power measurements. Furthermore, assuming no
resistance so that z gen = jx gen gives,

= tan 1

Pgen
2

V
+ Q gen
x gen

(4)

Similarly the voltage phasor relative to the infinite bus


is synthesized using P line , Q line and the reactance x line
between buses 0 and 3. Adding the two angle estimates gives
an approximation of the machine angle relative to the
infinite bus. Lead filtering this angle finally gives an
estimate of . This method has xgen and xline as the only
two parameters. Provided their values are correct the estimate
of will be immune to on-off control actions. If instead
- is used alone (corresponding to xline=0), load switching
causes spikes in the estimate which in turn causes new
switching actions. Terminal frequency gives the same result.
III. TEST SYSTEM
An electric water heater is a typical example of a controlled
load. It consumes real power and its hot water acts as an
energy reservoir that makes short power interruptions
uncritical. During the experiments, the heating elements of
four 5 kW heating fans (see Fig. 4) were used to simulate
water heaters. The switching function of the thermostats was
replaced by commercially available three-phase thyristor
switches with isolated low voltage control input.

select modes of operation and to monitor measurements


during execution of the control program.
Fig. 5 shows an overview of the signal path from
transducers to heating fans. A potential transformer
(6kV/110V) is already available for the generator terminal
voltage u gen . As this is not the case at bus 3 and the
impedance between the two buses is small, ugen is used asV.
For similar reasons, iline is reconstructed from measurements
of igen and iload. The output of the potential transformer is
interfaced to the computer via a resistive voltage divider. The
currents are measured by clip-on current transformers
connected to the secondary of existing current transformers.
LPF
igen

Filters P,Q Est


A

Relays Fans

Filters
D

ugen
iload

A
3x220V

Fig. 5. Block diagram of the control system.

Fig. 4. The controlled active load consisting of four 5 kW heating fans.

A hydro power plant from 1906 owned by Sydkraft was


selected for the experiments. The choice was mainly
motivated by small machine rating and low damping. The
generator rating of only 0.88 MVA is attractive as the rating
of the controlled load should be in reasonable proportion to
the generator size. The lack of damper windings and a weak
network connection of the machine, indicate low damping of
electro-mechanical oscillations. This makes the need for and
effect of supplementary damping more obvious. Fig. 1
shows a simplified one-line diagram of the test system where
the system has been recalculated to the rated voltage of the
generator but with 220 V retained at bus 6. The key
parameters of the system are given in Appendix B. Loads 1
and 2 are some 100 kW and represent rural areas. Close to
bus 0, which is approximated as an infinite bus in Fig. 1,
lies a pipe manufacturer whose power consumption perform
step changes of 5 MW roughly once a minute.
IV. CONTROLLER IMPLEMENTATION
The control software runs on an Apple Macintosh IIci with
a signal processor board (NB-DSP2300) and a general
input/output board (NB-MIO-16) from National Instruments
Corp. The floating-point digital signal processor (DSP) is
programmed in C and executes the real time tasks such as
estimators and filters. The host computer communicates with
the DSP and runs LabVIEW as a graphical user interface.
This makes it possible to conveniently change parameters,

Having passed anti-aliasing filters, the three one-phase


signals are sampled at 1 kHz and sent to FIR lowpass filters
(20 taps, Hamming window) with a crossover frequency of
100 Hz. Sine and cosine filters are used to decompose each
signal into two components, and , that are orthogonal in
phase (see further [13]). Using iline=igen-iload/n where n is the
turns ratio of the transformer T, active and reactive power are,
Pgen = i ,gen u ,gen + i ,gen u ,gen
Q = i
gen ,gen u ,gen i ,gen u ,gen

(5)

Pline = i ,line u ,gen + i ,line u ,gen


Q
line = Q gen

(6)

The scheme described in Section II is used to estimate the


machine angle , which after lead filtering and smoothing
(FIR lowpass, 40 taps, Hamming window, crossover
frequency 30 Hz) is an estimate of . After D/A
conversion, this signal is sent to the four thyristor switch
units via a twisted pair cable. The switches are controlled by
individual level detectors with selectable levels on and
off for turning on and off. As the levels are manually
selected with a limited accuracy, the switching instants of the
fans will differ. In retrospect, including the on-off controller
in the DSP would have been better.
If the loads 1 and 2 in Fig. 6 can be approximated as
impedances, they should be included in z line . A simpler
alternative used here, is to assume that they are voltage
independent and neglect them entirely. This gives an offset in
the estimate of , but does not affect .
V. SIMULATION MODEL
The test system with its controls is simulated using the
power system simulator EUROSTAG. The generator has a

salient pole rotor but lacks damper windings. The turbines


are normally set for constant power, while the rheostat of the
DC exciter is manually controlled. The generator set is thus
appropriately modelled by a third order generator model with
constant field voltage and turbine power. Cables and lines are
represented by -links while a fixed-ratio transformer model
is used for the transformers. Load 1 is included as a voltage
independent load of 200 kW, while Load 2 is considered so
close to the infinite bus that it can be eliminated.
The estimator and the relay controller are built using the
macroblock language of EUROSTAG. The estimator uses
only the reactance part of the line impedance and does not
consider the loads. The on-off controller is modelled as a
relay having the input thresholds on (on) and zero (off)
while the output levels are 20 kW and zero.
Parameters of lines and cables are derived using maps and
manufacturer data. Transformer short-circuit reactances are
obtained from the nameplates while xd is available from the
utility. The inertia constant of the generator is determined
from a load rejection test. Values of x'd, xq and mechanical
damping D are not available and tests to determine them can
not be performed in advance. Instead the first excitation
experiment is used for calibration of the simulation model.

where rline+jxline is the line impedance while Ra, xq and


are the armature resistance, the q-axis reactance and the load
angle of the machine respectively.
With an unstable synchronous generator running, the
damping system was activated. Despite rough tuning of the
parameters xgen, xline, and on, the oscillation amplitude
decreased down to 150 kW corresponding to the value of
on which was 1.0 rad/s. Subsequently changing the
turbine power to 0.4 MW removed the instability and the
oscillation decayed.
B. Excitation of Electro-Mechanical Oscillations
Since demonstration of oscillation damping requires an
oscillation, the controlled load was first switched repeatedly
to excite an oscillation. Different frequencies were tested by
letting a signal generator control the thyristor switch. Hitting
the resonance or swing frequency at 1.2 Hz, manifests itself
as an oscillation with growing amplitude as shown in Fig. 7.
The oscillation after the excitation had ceased gave a measure
of the inherent system damping at the particular operating
point: the amplitude was reduced from 0.1 MW to 0.06 MW
in 7.9 s. Note that switching a small load of only 20 kW can
give a considerable oscillation amplitude.
0.6

The synchronization of the generator to the network was


immediately followed by a power oscillation with slowly
increasing amplitude as seen in Fig. 6.
[MW]

0.5

[Mvar]

0.05
0
0.05
0.02
0.01
0
0.02
0.01
0
0

10

15
[s]

20

25

30

Fig. 7. Excitation with signal generator: Pgen(t) (top), Qgen(t) (middle)


from experiment (solid) and simulation (dashed). The two lower graphs
show Pload(t) from experiment and simulation (bottom).

0
0.5
0

0.2

[MW]

A. No-load Instability

0.4

[MW]

All experiments of the field test except the load rejection


test, were performed during three hours on the same occasion.
While qualitative studies were made in advance, more accurate
simulations have been run afterwards using measurements
from one experiment for calibration of the simulation model.
To facilitate comparisons, the results of measurements and
simulations are presented together.

[MW]

VI. MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATIONS

10

15
[s]

20

25

30

Fig. 6. Measured generator power after synchronization.

Damping at no-load with this network configuration was


thus not only low but even negative. According to [14]
p 752, this occurs when a hydraulic generator without
damper windings is operated at light load and is connected by
a line of relatively high resistance to reactance ratio to a large
system. This exactly describes the conditions that were
prevailing, and that made the constant K 4 in [15] negative.
K 4 is the demagnetizing effect of a change in rotor angle
and becomes negative when a factor of it is negative,

(x q + x line ) sin ( R a + rline ) cos < 0

(7)

The excitation experiment was used for calibration of the


simulation model. The frequency of the free oscillation was
adjusted with x q . Subsequently x'd was adjusted so that a
certain portion of the load power was taken from the
machine. The correct damping was obtained with D=0. The
dashed lines in Fig. 7 are the results from simulations using
the calibrated model. They agree well with the measurements.
An exception is the amplitude of Q gen which is 50 % too
small. The associated error in the estimate of - is less than
0.5, which is acceptable. A greater value of x'd improves
Qgen but even if the other parameters are adjusted, the fit in
the more important Pgen deteriorates.

If the relation between the estimator parameters xgen and


x line is incorrect, the phase angle will not be entirely
cancelled in the estimate of . The switching actions will
then introduce level shifts and spikes in the estimates of
and respectively. Since the estimate was smooth
during the excitation experiment, there was no reason to alter
the values of x gen and x line from those based on a priori
knowledge. An absolute error in these parameters is uncritical
as it only gives a scaling error in the estimate.
C. Damping of Electro-Mechanical Oscillations
The next step was to quantify the effect of the on-off
controller on system damping. When an oscillation had been
evoked using the technique described above, the damping
controller was activated again. In Fig. 8 this occurs after
8.5 s and the oscillation was damped down to the threshold
on , which in this case was 0.17 rad/s. The improved
damping is evident and the oscillation amplitude now
decreased from 0.1 MW to 0.06 MW in 1.9 s. The fact that
the oscillation decay in the first case was exponential while
in the second case it was linear makes it difficult to compare
damping: The inherent damping gives an exponential decay
which is a relative decrease per time unit. The activated onoff controller, on the other hand, removes a certain
absoluteamount of swing energy per time unit, giving a
linearly decaying oscillation. The validity of the damping
measure used here is therefore closely related to the
oscillation amplitude.

[rad/s]

[MW]

0.5
0.4

controller to be undesirable high. Smaller values of on


were not used. As a comparison, the procedure described in
Appendix A gives on,min=0.035 rad/s. In this case, fast
switching is thus not the limiting factor when choosing
on, as it might be in a simulation study.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
On-off control of an active load has been used to damp
electromechanical oscillations. The input signal to the
proposed relay controller is an estimate of the rotor angle
velocity deviation . The risk that the controller causes
fast load switching close to the equilibrium is pointed out
and a practical procedure for determining the relay hysteresis
required to avoid this is described. The estimator uses
measurements of one voltage and two currents and only has
two reactances as parameters. The resulting estimate has the
important property of being immune to the switching actions
of the controller. The estimator and the controller have been
implemented and tested at a hydro power station. The field
test confirms the efficiency of controlling active load to damp
power oscillations. In the studied system a load with only
5 % of the generator rating is sufficient to both excite and
damp power oscillations. The same behavior is accurately
reproduced in time simulations. During the field test, the
generator is unstable at no-load. The instability, which
disappears at normal load, is due to the combination of light
load and a network connection with high resistance. Future
work includes studying the impact of low voltage loads on
transmission level modes and generalization to multimachine
systems. The dependence of the required relay hysteresis on
different factors also needs more attention.

0.3

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

0.5

The authors express their gratitude for the financial support


from Sydkraft AB and for the on-site assistance of the skilled
personnel at the operation center in Hemsj.

[MW]

0.02
0.01
0

[MW]

0.5

0.02
0.01
0
0

IX. REFERENCES

10

15
[s]

20

25

30

Fig. 8. Signal generator excitation until time 8.5 s followed by damping


through on-off control with on=0.17 rad/s: Pgen(t) (top) and estimate of
(t) (middle) from experiment (solid) and simulation (dashed). The two
lower graphs show Pload(t) from experiment and simulation (bottom).

Note that the oscillation did not disappear as would be


expected. Instead it was excited every now and then, probably
by load changes at the nearby pipe manufacturer. These
changes caused phase angle shifts at bus 0, which was here
assumed to have a fixed phase angle. In [14] p 1131 this
phenomenon is mentioned as a drawback of power system
stabilizers using bus frequency as input signal. The value
0.125 rad/s of on was tested and gave similar damping
performance, but the disturbances caused the activity of the

[1]

Ingelsson, B., P-O. Lindstrm, D. Karlsson, G.


Runvik and J-O. Sjdin (1997), "Wide-Area Protection
Against Voltage Collapse," IEEE Computer
Applications in Power, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp 30-35.

[2]

CIGRE Task Force 38.01.07 on Power System


Oscillations (1996), Analysis and Control of Power
System Oscillations, CIGRE Technical Brochure, Ref
No. 111, Dec. 1996.

[3]

Smed, T. and G. Andersson (1993), "Utilising HVDC


to Damp Power Oscillations," IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 620-627.

[4]

lwegrd, ., K. Walve, G. Wglund, H. Frank and


S. Torseng (1981), "Improvement of Transmission
Capacity by Thyristor Controlled Reactive Power,"
IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 100, No. 8, pp 3930-3939.

[5]

Samuelsson, O. and B. Eliasson (1997), "Damping of


Electro-Mechanical Oscillations in a Multimachine
System by Direct Load Control," IEEE Trans. on
Power Systems, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp 1604-1609.

[6]

Kamwa, I., R. Grondin, D. Asber, J. P. Gingras and


G. Trudel (1998), "Active-Power Stabilizers for
Multimachine Power Systems: Challenges and
Prospects," Paper PE-906-PWRS-0-10-1997 presented
at 1998 IEEE PES Winter Meeting, Jan. 31-Feb. 5
1998, Tampa, FL, USA.

[7]

Samuelsson, O. (1997), Power System Damping


Structural Aspects of Controlling Active Power, PhD
Thesis, Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund,
Sweden.

[8]

ngquist, L, B. Lundin and J. Samuelsson (1993),


"Power Oscillation Damping using Controlled Reactive
Power Compensation - a Comparison Between Series
and Shunt Approaches," IEEE Trans. on Power
Systems, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 687-700.

[9]

Lerch, E., D. Povh and L. Xu (1991), "Advanced SVC


Control for Damping of Power System Oscillations,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 6, No. 2,
pp 524-535.

[10] Kosterev, D. N. and W. J. Kolodziej (1995), "BangBang Series Capacitor Transient Stability Control,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 10, No. 2,
pp 915-924.
[11] Stanton, S. E. and W. P. Dykas (1989), "Analysis of a
Local Transient Control Action by Partial Energy
Functions," IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 4,
No. 3, pp 996-1002.
[12] Larsen, E. V., J. J. Sanchez-Gasca and J. H. Chow
(1995), "Concepts for Design of FACTS Controllers to
Damp Power Swings," IEEE Trans. on Power
Systems, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp 948-956.
[13] Akke, M. (1997), Some Control Applications in
Electrical Power Systems, PhD Thesis, Dept. of
Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation, Lund
Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden.
[14] Kundur, P. (1994), Power System Stability and
Control, McGraw-Hill.
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Synchronous Machine Stability as Affected by
Excitation Control," IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 88,
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Olof Samuelsson (M'98) was born in Vsters, Sweden in 1966. He
received his M.Sc.E.E. degree from Lund Institute of Technology (LTH)
in 1989. During 1990 he worked as a research engineer at the University
Hospital of Lund. Since 1991 Olof Samuelsson is employed at Lund
Institute of Technology, Department of Industrial Electrical Engineering
and Automation (IEA), where he received his Licentiate and Ph.D.
degrees in 1994 and 1997 respectively.

Magnus Akke (M'92) was born in Lund, Sweden in 1961. He received his
M.Sc.E.E. degree, Licentiate degree and Ph.D. from Lund Institute of
Technology, Sweden, in 1986, 1989 and 1997 respectively. He also has a
Bachelor's degree in Business Administration from Lund University,
Sweden. Since 1990 he is with the power utility Sydkraft working with
power system analysis and relay protection. He has been a visiting scientist
at the University of Newcastle, Australia, and at Cornell University, USA.

APPENDIX A. MINIMUM on
To avoid fast switching, no control actions should be taken
when the oscillation amplitude in is less than off on .
This condition must be translated to the corresponding relay
parameter on,min . In theory a simple load switching
either on or offwould produce an oscillatory transient from
which offon and on,min can be estimated. In practice the
amplitude is often so small that it is hard to measure. If
instead the load is switched periodically using the resonance
frequency, a linearly growing oscillation with large amplitude
is obtained. Starting the excitation at steady state and
reaching the amplitude N after N switching periods, gives
a value of on,min as,
on,min =

N
2N

(A.1)

At large magnitudes, the effect of inherent damping is


noticeable as in Fig. 7. The amplitude asymptotically
approaches with a time constant ,

4H
D

(A.2)

where H is the inertia constant and D is the total damping


in p.u./p.u. Initially, (A.1) is still valid. This fact is used to
express the initial slope of the envelope on,min in terms of
, and the switching frequency fsw as,
on,min =


2 fsw

(A.3)

The relationship between (A.1) and (A.3) is clear


considering that the number of switching periods during the
time is fsw. Note that the shift offon changes with the
loading of the generator, so that maximum load should be
used to obtain the largest value of on,min.
APPENDIX B. SYSTEM PARAMETERS
S base
H
T'd0
xd
xq
z gen

0.88 MVA
3.8 s
6s
1.3 p.u.
0.55 p.u.
0+j0.42 p.u.

Ubase
D
Ra
x'd
Pload
z line

3.85 kV
0
0
0.18 p.u.
0.023 p.u.
0.12+j0.18 p.u.

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