8 _

Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic

Constitutional State

M o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s owe t h e i r e x i s t e n c e to a c o n c e p t i o n f o u n d in
m o d e r n n a t u r a l law a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h citizens c o m e t o g e t h e r vol
u n t a r i l y to f o r m a legal c o m m u n i t y of free a n d e q u a l c o n s o c i a t e s .
T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n p u t s i n t o effect precisely t h o s e r i g h t s t h a t individu
als m u s t g r a n t o n e a n o t h e r if t h e y w a n t to o r d e r t h e i r life t o g e t h e r
legitimately by m e a n s of positive law. T h i s c o n c e p t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s
t h e n o t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s (subjektive Rechte) a n d i n d i v i d u a l legal
p e r s o n s as t h e b e a r e r s of r i g h t s . A l t h o u g h m o d e r n law establishes a
basis for s t a t e - s a n c t i o n e d r e l a t i o n s of intersubjective r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e
r i g h t s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s e r e l a t i o n s p r o t e c t t h e v u l n e r a b l e integrity
of legal subjects w h o a r e in every case individuals. I n t h e final analy
sis it is a q u e s t i o n of p r o t e c t i n g t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l legal p e r s o n s , even
if t h e integrity of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n law n o less t h a n in m o r a l i t y
d e p e n d s o n r e l a t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n r e m a i n i n g intact. C a n a
t h e o r y of r i g h t s t h a t is so individualistically c o n s t r u c t e d d e a l a d e
q u a t e l y with struggles for r e c o g n i t i o n , in w h i c h w h a t s e e m s to b e at
stake is t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n a n d assertion of collective identities?
A c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n b e t h o u g h t of as a historical p r o j e c t t h a t e a c h
g e n e r a t i o n of citizens c o n t i n u e s to p u r s u e . I n t h e d e m o c r a t i c consti
t u t i o n a l state t h e exercise of political p o w e r is c o d e d in a d u a l
m a n n e r : t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d h a n d l i n g of p r o b l e m s a n d t h e p r o c e
durally r e g u l a t e d m e d i a t i o n of i n t e r e s t s m u s t b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as actualizing a system of r i g h t s . B u t in t h e politi
cal a r e n a t h o s e w h o e n c o u n t e r o n e a n o t h e r a r e collective a c t o r s
1

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c o n t e n d i n g a b o u t collective goals a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of collective

g o o d s . O n l y in t h e c o u r t r o o m a n d in legal d i s c o u r s e a r e r i g h t s
a s s e r t e d a n d d e f e n d e d as a c t i o n a b l e i n d i v i d u a l rights, for w h i c h o n e
c a n b r i n g suit. Existing law also h a s to b e i n t e r p r e t e d in n e w ways in
different c o n t e x t s in view of c h a n g i n g n e e d s a n d interests. T h i s
s t r u g g l e over t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d satisfaction of historically u n r e
d e e m e d claims is a s t r u g g l e for l e g i t i m a t e r i g h t s in w h i c h o n c e a g a i n
collective a c t o r s a r e involved, c o m b a t i n g a lack of r e s p e c t for t h e i r
dignity. I n this "struggle for r e c o g n i t i o n " p a r t i c i p a n t s voice collective
e x p e r i e n c e s of violated integrity, as Axel H o n n e t h h a s s h o w n . C a n
t h e s e p h e n o m e n a b e r e c o n c i l e d with a t h e o r y of r i g h t s t h a t is individualistically d e s i g n e d ?
2

T h e political a c h i e v e m e n t s of liberalism a n d social d e m o c r a c y t h a t

a r e t h e p r o d u c t of t h e b o u r g e o i s e m a n c i p a t i o n m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e
E u r o p e a n l a b o r m o v e m e n t suggest a n affirmative a n s w e r to this
q u e s t i o n . B o t h a t t e m p t e d to o v e r c o m e t h e d i s e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t of
u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d g r o u p s a n d with it t h e division of society i n t o social
classes; b u t w h e r e liberal social r e f o r m c a m e i n t o play, t h e s t r u g g l e
a g a i n s t t h e o p p r e s s i o n of collectivities w h o w e r e d e p r i v e d of e q u a l
social o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o o k t h e f o r m of a s t r u g g l e for t h e social-welfarist universalization of civil r i g h t s . Since t h e b a n k r u p t c y of state
socialism, this p e r s p e c t i v e h a s i n d e e d b e e n t h e only o n e r e m a i n i n g :
t h e status of a d e p e n d e n t wage e a r n e r is to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d with
r i g h t s to social a n d political p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a n d t h e m a s s of t h e p o p u
l a t i o n is t h e r e b y to b e given t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to live in realistic
e x p e c t a t i o n of security, social j u s t i c e , a n d affluence. A m o r e equita
b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n of collective g o o d s is to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e u n e q u a l
c o n d i t i o n s of life in capitalist societies. T h i s a i m is t h o r o u g h l y c o m
p a t i b l e with t h e t h e o r y of rights, b e c a u s e t h e p r i m a r y g o o d s (in
Rawls's sense) a r e e i t h e r d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g individuals (like m o n e y ,
free t i m e , a n d services) o r u s e d by individuals (like t h e infrastruc
t u r e s of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , h e a l t h c a r e , a n d e d u c a t i o n ) a n d c a n t h u s
take t h e f o r m of i n d i v i d u a l claims to benefits.
At first g l a n c e , however, claims to t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of collective
i d e n t i t i e s a n d to e q u a l r i g h t s for c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life a r e a different
m a t t e r . Feminists, m i n o r i t i e s in m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies, p e o p l e s strug
g l i n g for n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d f o r m e r l y c o l o n i z e d r e g i o n s

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s u i n g for t h e equality of t h e i r c u l t u r e s o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l stage a r e

all c u r r e n t l y fighting for s u c h claims. D o e s n o t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of
c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life a n d t r a d i t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a r g i n a l i z e d ,
w h e t h e r in t h e c o n t e x t of a majority c u l t u r e o r in a E u r o c e n t r i c
g l o b a l society, r e q u i r e g u a r a n t e e s of status a n d survivalin o t h e r
w o r d s , s o m e k i n d of collective r i g h t s t h a t s h a t t e r t h e o u t m o d e d
s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state, w h i c h is
t a i l o r e d to i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a n d in t h a t sense is "liberal"?
C h a r l e s Taylor p r o v i d e s a c o m p l e x a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n , a n
a n s w e r t h a t a d v a n c e s t h e discussion significantly. As t h e c o m m e n
taries o n his essay p u b l i s h e d in t h e s a m e v o l u m e i n d i c a t e , his origi
n a l i d e a s also i n s p i r e criticism. Taylor r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s o n t h e
decisive p o i n t . H e d i s t i n g u i s h e s two r e a d i n g s of t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o n
stitutional state, for w h i c h M i c h a e l Walzer p r o v i d e s t h e t e r m s Liber
alism 1 a n d Liberalism 2. T h e s e d e s i g n a t i o n s suggest t h a t t h e s e c o n d
r e a d i n g , w h i c h Taylor favors, m e r e l y c o r r e c t s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e u n
d e r s t a n d i n g of liberal p r i n c i p l e s . O n closer e x a m i n a t i o n , however,
Taylor's r e a d i n g attacks t h e p r i n c i p l e s themselves a n d calls i n t o ques
t i o n t h e individualistic c o r e of t h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n of f r e e d o m .
3

Taylor's "Politics o f Recognition"

Amy G u t m a n n makes the incontrovertible point that

full public recognition as equal citizens may require two forms of respect:
(1) respect for the unique identities of each individual, regardless of gender,
race, or ethnicity, and (2) respect for those activities, practices, and ways of
viewing the world that are particularly valued by, or associated with, mem
bers of disadvantaged groups, including women, Asian-Americans, AfricanAmericans, Native Americans, and a multitude of other groups in the
United States.
4

T h e s a m e t h i n g h o l d s , of c o u r s e , for Gastarbeiter [foreign w o r k e r s ]

a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n e r s in G e r m a n y , for C r o a t s in Serbia, Russians in
t h e U k r a i n e , a n d K u r d s in Turkey; for t h e disabled, h o m o s e x u a l s ,
a n d so o n . T h e d e m a n d for r e s p e c t is a i m e d n o t so m u c h at e q u a l
izing living c o n d i t i o n s as it is at p r o t e c t i n g t h e integrity of t h e
t r a d i t i o n s a n d f o r m s of life in w h i c h m e m b e r s of g r o u p s t h a t h a v e
b e e n d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t c a n r e c o g n i z e themselves. Normally, of

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c o u r s e , t h e failure of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is c o n n e c t e d with gross

social d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d t h e two r e i n f o r c e e a c h o t h e r . T h e ques
t i o n t h a t c o n c e r n s us h e r e is w h e t h e r t h e d e m a n d for r e s p e c t for
o n e ' s c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s follows f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l r e s p e c t
for e a c h individual, o r w h e t h e r , at least in s o m e cases, t h e s e two
d e m a n d s will necessarily c o m e i n t o conflict with o n e a n o t h e r .
Taylor p r o c e e d s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i o n of collec
tive i d e n t i t i e s c o m e s i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n with t h e r i g h t to e q u a l indi
vidual liberties (subjektive Freiheiten)Kant's
o n e original h u m a n
r i g h t s o t h a t in t h e case of conflict a d e c i s i o n m u s t b e m a d e a b o u t
w h i c h takes p r e c e d e n c e . T h e a r g u m e n t r u n s as follows: B e c a u s e t h e
s e c o n d claim d i s t i n g u i s h e d by G u t m a n n r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
precisely t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s f r o m w h i c h t h e first claim s e e m s to
abstract, t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l r i g h t s h a s to b e p u t i n t o effect in two
k i n d s of politics t h a t r u n c o u n t e r to o n e a n o t h e r a politics of
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of c u l t u r a l differences o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d a politics
of universalization of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s o n t h e o t h e r . T h e o n e is
s u p p o s e d to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e p r i c e t h e o t h e r exacts with its e q u a l
izing universalism. Taylor spells o u t this o p p o s i t i o n a n o p p o s i t i o n
t h a t is falsely c o n s t r u e d , as I will try to s h o w u s i n g t h e c o n c e p t s of
t h e g o o d a n d t h e j u s t , d r a w n f r o m m o r a l t h e o r y . Liberals like Rawls
a n d D w o r k i n call for a n ethically n e u t r a l legal o r d e r t h a t is s u p p o s e d
to assure e v e r y o n e e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y to p u r s u e his o r h e r o w n
c o n c e p t i o n of t h e g o o d . I n c o n t r a s t , c o m m u n i t a r i a n s like Taylor a n d
Walzer d i s p u t e t h e ethical n e u t r a l i t y of t h e law a n d t h u s c a n e x p e c t
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state, if n e e d b e , actively to a d v a n c e specific c o n
c e p t i o n s of t h e g o o d life.
Taylor gives t h e e x a m p l e of t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y t h a t
f o r m s t h e majority in t h e C a n a d i a n p r o v i n c e of Q u e b e c . T h e fran
c o p h o n e g r o u p claims t h e r i g h t for Q u e b e c to f o r m a "distinct
society" w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n as a w h o l e . It w a n t s to s a f e g u a r d t h e
integrity of its f o r m of life against t h e A n g l o - S a x o n majority c u l t u r e ,
a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s by m e a n s of r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t f o r b i d i m m i g r a n t s
a n d t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n to s e n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to E n g
lish-language schools, t h a t establish F r e n c h as t h e l a n g u a g e in w h i c h
firms with m o r e t h a n fifty e m p l o y e e s will o p e r a t e , a n d t h a t in g e n
eral p r e s c r i b e F r e n c h as t h e l a n g u a g e of b u s i n e s s . A c c o r d i n g to

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Taylor, a t h e o r y of r i g h t s of t h e first type w o u l d necessarily b e closed

to collective goals of this k i n d :
A society w i t h collective goals like Q u e b e c ' s violates this m o d e l . . . . O n this
m o d e l , t h e r e is a d a n g e r o u s o v e r l o o k i n g of a n e s s e n t i a l b o u n d a r y in speak
i n g of f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s t o t h i n g s like c o m m e r c i a l s i g n a g e i n t h e l a n g u a g e
of o n e ' s c h o i c e . O n e h a s t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l liberties, t h o s e t h a t
s h o u l d n e v e r b e i n f r i n g e d a n d t h e r e f o r e o u g h t t o b e unassailably e n
t r e n c h e d , o n o n e h a n d , f r o m privileges a n d i m m u n i t i e s t h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t ,
b u t t h a t c a n b e r e v o k e d o r r e s t r i c t e d for r e a s o n s of p u b l i c p o l i c y a l t h o u g h
o n e would n e e d a strong reason to d o thison the other.
5

Taylor p r o p o s e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s
w o u l d p e r m i t basic r i g h t s to b e r e s t r i c t e d by g u a r a n t e e s of status
a i m e d at p r o m o t i n g t h e survival of e n d a n g e r e d c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life
a n d t h u s w o u l d p e r m i t policies t h a t "actively seek to create m e m b e r s
of t h e c o m m u n i t y , for i n s t a n c e , in t h e i r a s s u r i n g t h a t f u t u r e g e n e r a
tions c o n t i n u e to identify as F r e n c h - s p e a k e r s . T h e r e is n o way t h a t
t h e s e policies c o u l d b e s e e n as j u s t p r o v i d i n g a facility to a l r e a d y
existing p e o p l e . "
6

Taylor m a k e s t h e case for his thesis of i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y by first

p r e s e n t i n g t h e t h e o r y of r i g h t s t h r o u g h a selective r e a d i n g of Liber
alism 1. H e d o e s n o t clearly d e f i n e e i t h e r t h e C a n a d i a n e x a m p l e o r
t h e legal r e f e r e n c e of his p r o b l e m a t i c . Before I take u p t h e s e two
p r o b l e m s , I w o u l d like to show t h a t w h e n p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e
t h e o r y of r i g h t s is by n o m e a n s b l i n d to c u l t u r a l differences.
Taylor u n d e r s t a n d s L i b e r a l i s m 1 as a t h e o r y a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h
all legal c o n s o c i a t e s a r e g u a r a n t e e d e q u a l i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m s of
c h o i c e a n d a c t i o n in t h e f o r m of basic r i g h t s . I n cases of conflict t h e
c o u r t s d e c i d e w h o h a s w h i c h rights; t h u s t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l
r e s p e c t for e a c h p e r s o n h o l d s only i n t h e f o r m of a legally p r o t e c t e d
a u t o n o m y t h a t every p e r s o n c a n u s e to realize his o r h e r p e r s o n a l
life project. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e system of r i g h t s is p a t e r n a l i s t i c
in t h a t it i g n o r e s half of t h e c o n c e p t of a u t o n o m y . It d o e s n o t take
i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t t h o s e to w h o m t h e law is a d d r e s s e d c a n
a c q u i r e a u t o n o m y (in t h e K a n t i a n sense) only t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t they
c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s as t h e a u t h o r s of t h e laws to w h i c h they
a r e subject as private legal p e r s o n s . L i b e r a l i s m 1 fails to r e c o g n i z e
t h a t private a n d p u b l i c a u t o n o m y a r e co-original. It is n o t t h a t p u b l i c

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a u t o n o m y s u p p l e m e n t s a n d r e m a i n s e x t e r n a l to private a u t o n o m y
b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e is a n i n t e r n a l , t h a t is, c o n c e p t u a l l y n e c e s s a r y
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two. F o r in t h e final analysis, private legal
p e r s o n s c a n n o t even a t t a i n t h e e n j o y m e n t of e q u a l individual liber
ties u n l e s s t h e y themselves, by j o i n t l y e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r a u t o n o m y as
citizens, arrive at a clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t w h a t i n t e r e s t s a n d
c r i t e r i a a r e justified a n d in w h a t r e s p e c t s e q u a l t h i n g s will b e t r e a t e d
equally a n d u n e q u a l t h i n g s u n e q u a l l y i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r case.
B u t o n c e we take this internal c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n d e m o c r a c y a n d
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state seriously, it b e c o m e s clear t h a t t h e system of
r i g h t s is b l i n d n e i t h e r t o u n e q u a l social c o n d i t i o n s n o r to c u l t u r a l
differences. T h e c o l o r b l i n d n e s s of t h e selective r e a d i n g vanishes
o n c e we r e c o g n i z e t h a t we ascribe to t h e b e a r e r s of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s
a n identity t h a t is c o n c e i v e d intersubjectively. P e r s o n s , i n c l u d i n g
legal p e r s o n s , b e c o m e individualized only t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of so
cialization. A c o r r e c t l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e o r y of r i g h t s r e q u i r e s a poli
tics of r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t p r o t e c t s t h e integrity of t h e i n d i v i d u a l in t h e
life c o n t e x t s in w h i c h his o r h e r i d e n t i t y is f o r m e d . T h i s d o e s n o t
r e q u i r e a n a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l t h a t c o r r e c t s t h e individualistic d e s i g n
of t h e system of r i g h t s t h r o u g h o t h e r n o r m a t i v e perspectives. All t h a t
is r e q u i r e d is t h e c o n s i s t e n t actualization of t h e system of r i g h t s .
T h e r e w o u l d b e little l i k e l i h o o d of this, of c o u r s e , w i t h o u t social
m o v e m e n t s a n d political struggles.
7

I w o u l d like to show this with r e f e r e n c e to t h e h i s t o r y of f e m i n i s m ,

w h i c h h a s h a d to m a k e r e p e a t e d a t t e m p t s t o realize its legal a n d
political goals in t h e face of s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e . Like t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of law in W e s t e r n societies in g e n e r a l , t h e feminist politics of equality
d u r i n g t h e p a s t h u n d r e d years follows a p a t t e r n t h a t c a n b e d e
s c r i b e d as a dialectic of de jure a n d de facto equality. Equality u n d e r
t h e law g r a n t s f r e e d o m s of c h o i c e a n d a c t i o n t h a t c a n b e r e a l i z e d
differently a n d t h u s d o n o t p r o m o t e a c t u a l equality in life c i r c u m
stances o r p o s i t i o n s of power. T h e factual p r e r e q u i s i t e s for t h e e q u a l
o p p o r t u n i t y to m a k e u s e of equally d i s t r i b u t e d legal c o m p e t e n c e
m u s t certainly b e fulfilled if t h e n o r m a t i v e m e a n i n g of legal equality
is n o t to t u r n i n t o its o p p o s i t e . B u t t h e i n t e n d e d e q u a l i z a t i o n of
a c t u a l life c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d p o s i t i o n s of p o w e r s h o u l d n o t l e a d to
normalizing i n t e r v e n t i o n s t h a t p e r c e p t i b l y restrict t h e capacities of

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

t h e p r e s u m e d beneficiaries to s h a p e t h e i r lives a u t o n o m o u s l y . As
l o n g as policies a r e f o c u s e d o n s a f e g u a r d i n g private a u t o n o m y , while
t h e i n t e r n a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e individual r i g h t s of private
p e r s o n s a n d t h e p u b l i c a u t o n o m y of t h e citizens w h o p a r t i c i p a t e in
m a k i n g t h e laws is o b s c u r e d f r o m view, t h e politics of r i g h t s will
oscillate helplessly b e t w e e n t h e p o l e s of a liberal p a r a d i g m in t h e
L o c k e a n sense a n d a n equally s h o r t s i g h t e d social-welfare p a r a d i g m .
T h i s is t r u e of e q u a l t r e a t m e n t for m e n a n d w o m e n as w e l l .
8

Initially, t h e g o a l of t h e liberal policies was to d e t a c h t h e acquisition

of status f r o m g e n d e r a n d to g u a r a n t e e w o m e n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y to
c o m p e t e for j o b s , social s t a n d i n g , e d u c a t i o n , political power, a n d so
o n , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e o u t c o m e s . B u t t h e f o r m a l equality t h a t was
partially a c h i e v e d t h e r e b y only m a d e t h e de facto u n e q u a l t r e a t m e n t
of w o m e n all t h e m o r e obvious. Social-welfare policies, especially in t h e
a r e a s of social, labor, a n d family law, r e s p o n d e d t o this with special
r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p r e g n a n c y , m o t h e r h o o d , a n d t h e social b u r
d e n s of divorce. Since t h e n , of c o u r s e , n o t only unfulfilled liberal
d e m a n d s b u t also t h e a m b i v a l e n t c o n s e q u e n c e s of successfully im
p l e m e n t e d social-welfare p r o g r a m s h a v e b e c o m e t h e object of femi
nist criticism-for e x a m p l e , t h e i n c r e a s e d e m p l o y m e n t risks t h a t
w o m e n suffer as a r e s u l t of t h e s e c o m p e n s a t i o n s , t h e over-repre
s e n t a t i o n of w o m e n in t h e lower w a g e b r a c k e t s , t h e p r o b l e m a t i c
n o t i o n of "child welfare," t h e i n c r e a s i n g " f e m i n i z a t i o n " of poverty in
g e n e r a l , a n d so o n . F r o m t h e legal p o i n t of view t h e r e is a s t r u c t u r a l
basis for this reflexively p r o d u c e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , namely, t h e overg e n e r a l i z e d classifications of d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s situations a n d disad
v a n t a g e d g r o u p s . T h e s e "false" classifications l e a d to " n o r m a l i z i n g "
i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n t o t h e way p e o p l e l e a d t h e i r lives, with t h e r e s u l t t h a t
t h e i n t e n d e d c o m p e n s a t i o n s t u r n i n t o n e w f o r m s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
a n d i n s t e a d of b e i n g g u a r a n t e e d liberties p e o p l e a r e d e p r i v e d of
f r e e d o m . I n t h e d o m a i n s of law t h a t f e m i n i s m is particularly c o n
c e r n e d with, social-welfare p a t e r n a l i s m is precisely t h a t , b e c a u s e leg
islation a n d a d j u d i c a t i o n a r e o r i e n t e d to t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d t h u s serve only to s t r e n g t h e n existing g e n d e r
stereotypes.
T h e classification of sex r o l e s a n d g e n d e r - d e p e n d e n t differences
t o u c h e s f u n d a m e n t a l levels of a society's c u l t u r a l s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

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Chapter 8

Radical f e m i n i s m is only n o w m a k i n g us aware of t h e fallible n a t u r e

of this s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l l y d e b a t a b l e a n d in
n e e d of revision. Radical f e m i n i s m rightly insists t h a t s u c h classifica
tions, w h i c h i m b u e with political significance t h e differences in ex
p e r i e n c e s a n d life c i r c u m s t a n c e s of specific g r o u p s of m e n a n d
w o m e n with r e s p e c t to t h e e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y to exercise i n d i v i d u a l
liberties, m u s t b e clarified in t h e political p u b l i c s p h e r e , specifically
in p u b l i c d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of n e e d s .
H e n c e this s t r u g g l e for equality for w o m e n is a p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d
illustration of t h e n e e d for a c h a n g e i n t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c u n d e r
s t a n d i n g of rights. T h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e a u t o n o m y of legal
p e r s o n s is b e t t e r e n s u r e d t h r o u g h t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m of private
p e r s o n s to c o m p e t e o r t h r o u g h objectively g u a r a n t e e d claims to
benefits for clients of welfare-state b u r e a u c r a c i e s is b e i n g r e p l a c e d
by a p r o c e d u r a l i s t c o n c e p t i o n of r i g h t s a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e
d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s h a s to s a f e g u a r d b o t h private a n d p u b l i c a u t o n
o m y at t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s t h a t a r e s u p p o s e d t o
g u a r a n t e e w o m e n t h e a u t o n o m y t o s h a p e t h e i r private lives c a n n o t
even b e a p p r o p r i a t e l y f o r m u l a t e d u n l e s s t h o s e affected a r t i c u l a t e
a n d justify in p u b l i c discussion w h a t is r e l e v a n t t o e q u a l o r u n e q u a l
t r e a t m e n t i n typical cases. S a f e g u a r d i n g t h e private a u t o n o m y of
citizens with e q u a l r i g h t s m u s t g o h a n d in h a n d with activating t h e i r
a u t o n o m y as citizens of t h e n a t i o n .
9

A "liberal" v e r s i o n of t h e system of r i g h t s t h a t fails to take this

c o n n e c t i o n i n t o a c c o u n t will necessarily m i s c o n s t r u e t h e universal
ism of basic r i g h t s as a n a b s t r a c t leveling of distinctions, a leveling
of b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d social differences. T h e s e differences m u s t b e
i n t e r p r e t e d in increasingly context-sensitive ways if t h e system of
r i g h t s is to b e a c t u a l i z e d democratically. T h e p r o c e s s of universaliz
i n g civil r i g h t s c o n t i n u e s to fuel t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of t h e legal
system, w h i c h c a n n o t e n s u r e t h e integrity of legal subjects w i t h o u t
strict e q u a l t r e a t m e n t , d i r e c t e d by t h e citizens themselves, of t h e life
c o n t e x t s t h a t s a f e g u a r d t h e i r identities. If t h e selective r e a d i n g of t h e
t h e o r y of r i g h t s is c o r r e c t e d to i n c l u d e a d e m o c r a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e actualization of basic rights, t h e r e is n o n e e d to c o n t r a s t a
t r u n c a t e d L i b e r a l i s m 1 with a m o d e l t h a t i n t r o d u c e s a n o t i o n of
collective r i g h t s t h a t is alien to t h e system.

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

II Struggles for Recognition: T h e P h e n o m e n a and Levels o f

Analysis
F e m i n i s m , m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h e s t r u g g l e against
t h e E u r o c e n t r i c h e r i t a g e of c o l o n i a l i s m a r e r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a t h a t
s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d with o n e a n o t h e r . T h e y a r e r e l a t e d i n t h a t
w o m e n , ethnic a n d cultural minorities, a n d nations a n d cultures
d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t o p p r e s s i o n , m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , a n d disre
s p e c t a n d t h e r e b y s t r u g g l e for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of collective i d e n t i
ties, w h e t h e r in t h e c o n t e x t of a majority c u l t u r e o r w i t h i n t h e
c o m m u n i t y of p e o p l e s . We a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e with e m a n c i p a t i o n
m o v e m e n t s w h o s e collective political goals a r e d e f i n e d p r i m a r i l y in
c u l t u r a l t e r m s , even t h o u g h social a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t i e s as well
as political d e p e n d e n c i e s a r e always also involved.
(a) F e m i n i s m is n o t , of c o u r s e , a m i n o r i t y c a u s e , b u t it is d i r e c t e d
against a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e t h a t i n t e r p r e t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e
sexes in a n a s y m m e t r i c a l m a n n e r t h a t e x c l u d e s e q u a l r i g h t s . G e n d e r specific differences in life c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s d o n o t
receive a d e q u a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , e i t h e r legally o r informally.
W o m e n ' s c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m s e l v e s d o e s n o t receive d u e
r e c o g n i t i o n , a n y m o r e t h a n d o e s t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e c o m m o n
c u l t u r e ; given t h e p r e v a i l i n g definitions, w o m e n ' s n e e d s c a n n o t even
b e a d e q u a t e l y a r t i c u l a t e d . T h u s t h e i r political s t r u g g l e for r e c o g n i
t i o n b e g i n s as a s t r u g g l e over t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of gender-specific
a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d interests. Insofar as it is successful, it c h a n g e s t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e sexes a l o n g with t h e collective identity of
w o m e n , t h e r e b y directly affecting m e n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m
selves as well. T h e scale of values of t h e society as a w h o l e is u p for
discussion; t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of this p r o b l e m a t i z a t i o n e x t e n d i n t o
c o r e private a r e a s a n d affect t h e e s t a b l i s h e d b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e
private a n d p u b l i c s p h e r e s as w e l l .
10

(b) T h e s t r u g g l e of o p p r e s s e d e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s for
r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r collective i d e n t i t i e s is a different m a t t e r . Since
t h e s e e m a n c i p a t i o n m o v e m e n t s also a i m at o v e r c o m i n g a n illegiti
m a t e division of society, t h e majority c u l t u r e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of itself
c a n n o t r e m a i n u n t o u c h e d by t h e m . B u t f r o m t h e p o i n t of view of
m e m b e r s of t h e majority c u l t u r e , t h e revised i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e

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Chapter 8

a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d i n t e r e s t s of o t h e r s d o e s n o t necessarily alter t h e i r
o w n r o l e in t h e s a m e way t h a t t h e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e sexes alters t h e r o l e of m e n .
E m a n c i p a t i o n m o v e m e n t s in m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies a r e n o t a u n i
f o r m p h e n o m e n o n . T h e y p r e s e n t different c h a l l e n g e s d e p e n d i n g o n
w h e t h e r t h e situation is o n e of e n d o g e n o u s m i n o r i t i e s b e c o m i n g
a w a r e of t h e i r identity o r n e w m i n o r i t i e s arising t h r o u g h i m m i g r a
t i o n , a n d o n w h e t h e r t h e n a t i o n faced with t h e c h a l l e n g e h a s always
u n d e r s t o o d itself to b e o p e n to i m m i g r a t i o n o n t h e basis of its
h i s t o r y a n d political c u l t u r e o r w h e t h e r t h e n a t i o n a l self-under
s t a n d i n g first n e e d s to b e adjusted to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e i n t e g r a t i o n
of alien c u l t u r e s . T h e c h a l l e n g e b e c o m e s all t h e g r e a t e r t h e m o r e
p r o f o u n d a r e t h e religious, racial, o r e t h n i c differences, o r t h e his
torical-cultural d i s j u n c t i o n s to b e b r i d g e d . T h e c h a l l e n g e b e c o m e s
all t h e m o r e painful t h e m o r e t h e t e n d e n c i e s to self-assertion take
o n a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a n d separatist c h a r a c t e r , w h e t h e r b e c a u s e e x p e
r i e n c e s of i m p o t e n c e l e a d t h e m i n o r i t y s t r u g g l i n g for r e c o g n i t i o n to
take a regressive p o s i t i o n o r b e c a u s e t h e m i n o r i t y in q u e s t i o n h a s to
u s e mass m o b i l i z a t i o n to a w a k e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s in o r d e r to a r t i c u l a t e
a newly c o n s t r u c t e d identity.
(c) T h e p o s i t i o n of e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s differs f r o m t h a t
of p e o p l e s w h o see t h e m s e l v e s nationalistically, as ethnically a n d
linguistically h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p s against t h e b a c k g r o u n d of a c o m
m o n historical fate a n d w h o w a n t to p r o t e c t t h e i r identity n o t only
as a n e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y b u t as a p e o p l e f o r m i n g a n a t i o n with t h e
capacity for political a c t i o n . N a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t s h a v e a l m o s t al
ways m o d e l e d t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e r e p u b l i c a n n a t i o n - s t a t e t h a t
e m e r g e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . C o m p a r e d with t h e first g e n
e r a t i o n of nation-states, Italy a n d G e r m a n y w e r e " b e l a t e d n a t i o n s . "
T h e p e r i o d of d e c o l o n i a l i z a t i o n after t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r r e p r e
sents yet a n o t h e r c o n t e x t . A n d t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s t h a t f o r m e d at t h e
collapse of e m p i r e s like t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e , t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n
E m p i r e , o r t h e Soviet U n i o n w e r e different still. T h e situation of
n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s like t h e Basques, t h e K u r d s , o r t h e N o r t h e r n
Irish, w h i c h e m e r g e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e f o r m a t i o n of nation-states,
is a g a i n different. A special case is t h e f o u n d i n g of t h e state of Israel,
w h i c h e m e r g e d f r o m b o t h a n a t i o n a l - r e l i g i o u s m o v e m e n t a n d as a

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

r e s p o n s e t o t h e h o r r o r s of Auschwitz, in t h e British M a n d a t e of
P a l e s t i n e c l a i m e d by A r a b s .
(d) E u r o c e n t r i s m a n d t h e h e g e m o n y of W e s t e r n c u l t u r e a r e in t h e
last analysis c a t c h w o r d s for a s t r u g g l e for r e c o g n i t i o n o n t h e inter
n a t i o n a l level. T h e Gulf W a r m a d e u s aware of this. U n d e r t h e
s h a d o w of a c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y t h a t is still vivid in p e o p l e ' s m i n d s , t h e
allied i n t e r v e n t i o n was r e g a r d e d by religiously m o t i v a t e d masses a n d
secularized intellectuals alike as a failure t o r e s p e c t t h e i d e n t i t y a n d
a u t o n o m y of t h e Arabic-Islamic w o r l d . T h e historical r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e O c c i d e n t a n d t h e O r i e n t , a n d especially t h e r e l a t i o n
s h i p of t h e First to t h e f o r m e r T h i r d W o r l d , c o n t i n u e s t o b e a r t h e
m a r k s of a d e n i a l of r e c o g n i t i o n .
T h i s c u r s o r y classification of t h e p h e n o m e n a n e v e r t h e l e s s allows
u s to p l a c e t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n
m e n t a n d Q u e b e c o n t h e b o r d e r l i n e b e t w e e n (b) a n d (c). Below t h e
t h r e s h o l d of a separatist m o v e m e n t to f o u n d t h e i r o w n state, t h e
s t r u g g l e of t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y is clearly o n e for r i g h t s t h a t
w o u l d b e a c c o r d e d t h e m as a m a t t e r of c o u r s e if they w e r e to d e c l a r e
t h e m s e l v e s a n i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n a s Croatia, Slovenia, a n d
Slovakia, t h e Baltic States, a n d G e o r g i a h a v e r e c e n t l y d o n e . B u t they
a r e a s p i r i n g to b e c o m e a "state w i t h i n a state," s o m e t h i n g for w h i c h
a b r o a d s p e c t r u m of f o r m s of federalist c o n s t r u c t i o n s is available,
r a n g i n g f r o m a f e d e r a l state to a loose c o n f e d e r a t i o n . I n C a n a d a t h e
d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of sovereign state p o w e r s is b o u n d u p with t h e
q u e s t i o n of c u l t u r a l a u t o n o m y for a m i n o r i t y t h a t w o u l d like to
b e c o m e a relative majority w i t h i n its o w n h o u s e . N e w m i n o r i t i e s
w o u l d arise in t u r n , of c o u r s e , with a c h a n g e in t h e c o m p l e x i o n of
t h e majority c u l t u r e .
I n a d d i t i o n to d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e p h e n o m e n a c a t e g o r i z e d above,
we n e e d to d i s t i n g u i s h different levels of t h e i r analysis. Taylor's
r e m a r k s t o u c h o n at least t h r e e d i s c o u r s e s to w h i c h t h e s e p h e n o m
e n a h a v e given rise.
(e) I n t h e d e b a t e a b o u t political c o r r e c t n e s s t h e s e p h e n o m e n a
s e r v e d as a n o c c a s i o n for A m e r i c a n intellectuals to e n g a g e in a
p r o c e s s of self-reflection a b o u t t h e status of m o d e r n i t y . N e i t h e r of
t h e two p a r t i e s to t h e d e b a t e w a n t s to p u r s u e t h e p r o j e c t of m o d e r
nity o n its o w n t e r m s , as a p r o j e c t t h a t s h o u l d n o t b e a b a n d o n e d .
11

1 2

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W h a t t h e "radicals" see as a n e n c o u r a g i n g s t e p i n t o p o s t m o d e r n i t y
a n d t o w a r d o v e r c o m i n g totalizing figures of t h o u g h t is, for t h e "tra
ditionalists," t h e sign of a crisis t h a t c a n b e d e a l t with only t h r o u g h
a r e t u r n to t h e classical t r a d i t i o n s of t h e West. We c a n leave this
d e b a t e aside, since it c o n t r i b u t e s little to a n analysis of s t r u g g l e s for
r e c o g n i t i o n in t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state a n d virtually n o t h
i n g t o t h e i r political r e s o l u t i o n .
13

(f) T h e m o r e strictly philosophical discourses w h i c h take t h e s e p h e

n o m e n a as a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e for d e s c r i b i n g g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s a r e
o n a different level. T h e p h e n o m e n a a r e well s u i t e d to illustrate t h e
difficulties of i n t e r c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e y i l l u m i n a t e t h e rela
t i o n s h i p of m o r a l i t y t o ethical life (Sittlichkeit) a n d t h e i n t e r n a l c o n
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m e a n i n g a n d validity, a n d t h e y p r o v i d e n e w fuel for
t h e o l d q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r it is even possible to t r a n s c e n d t h e
c o n t e x t of o u r o w n l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e o r w h e t h e r all s t a n d a r d s
of rationality r e m a i n b o u n d u p with specific worldviews a n d tradi
tions. T h e o v e r w h e l m i n g e v i d e n c e of t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n of m u l t i c u l
t u r a l societies a n d t h e B a b y l o n i a n c o n f u s i o n of t o n g u e s in a n overly
c o m p l e x g l o b a l society s e e m s to i m p e l us t o w a r d holistic c o n c e p t i o n s
of l a n g u a g e a n d c o n t e x t u a l i s t c o n c e p t i o n s of worldviews t h a t m a k e
u s skeptical a b o u t universalist claims, w h e t h e r cognitive o r n o r m a
tive. T h e c o m p l e x a n d still u n s e t t l e d d e b a t e a b o u t rationality also
h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s , of c o u r s e , for t h e c o n c e p t s of t h e g o o d a n d t h e j u s t
with w h i c h we o p e r a t e w h e n we e x a m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n s of a "politics
of r e c o g n i t i o n . " B u t Taylor's p r o p o s a l itself h a s a different r e f e r e n c e ,
w h i c h lies at t h e level of law a n d politics.
(g) T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e rights of o f f e n d e d a n d d i s r e s p e c t e d mi
n o r i t i e s takes o n a legal sense w h e n it is p o s e d i n t h e s e t e r m s .
Political decisions m u s t m a k e u s e of t h e r e g u l a t o r y f o r m of positive
law if t h e y a r e to b e at all effective in c o m p l e x societies. I n t h e
m e d i u m of law, however, we a r e d e a l i n g with a n artificial s t r u c t u r e
with c e r t a i n n o r m a t i v e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . M o d e r n law is formal in t h a t
it rests o n t h e p r e m i s e t h a t a n y t h i n g t h a t is n o t explicitly f o r b i d d e n
is p e r m i t t e d . It is individualistic in t h a t it m a k e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n
t h e b e a r e r of r i g h t s . It is coercive in t h a t it is s a n c t i o n e d by t h e state
a n d a p p l i e s only t o legal o r r u l e - c o n f o r m i n g b e h a v i o r i t p e r m i t s
t h e p r a c t i c e of r e l i g i o n b u t it c a n n o t p r e s c r i b e religious views. It is

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positive law in t h a t it derives f r o m t h e (modifiable) decisions of a

political legislature; a n d finally, it is procedurally enacted law in t h a t it
is l e g i t i m a t e d by a d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s . Positive law r e q u i r e s p u r e l y
legal behavior, b u t t h e law m u s t b e l e g i t i m a t e ; a l t h o u g h it d o e s n o t
p r e s c r i b e t h e motives for o b e y i n g t h e law, it m u s t b e s u c h t h a t its
a d d r e s s e e s c a n always o b e y it o u t of r e s p e c t for t h e law. A legal o r d e r
is l e g i t i m a t e w h e n it safeguards t h e a u t o n o m y of all citizens t o a n
e q u a l d e g r e e . T h e citizens a r e a u t o n o m o u s only if t h e a d d r e s s e e s of
t h e law c a n also see t h e m s e l v e s as its a u t h o r s . A n d its a u t h o r s a r e
free only as p a r t i c i p a n t s in legislative p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e r e g u l a t e d in
s u c h a way a n d take p l a c e in f o r m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u c h t h a t
e v e r y o n e c a n p r e s u m e t h a t t h e r e g u l a t i o n s e n a c t e d in t h a t way d e
serve g e n e r a l a n d rationally m o t i v a t e d assent. I n n o r m a t i v e t e r m s ,
t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state w i t h o u t d e m o c r a c y .
Since, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s itself h a s to b e
legally institutionalized, t h e p r i n c i p l e of p o p u l a r sovereignty re
quires those fundamental rights without which there can b e n o
l e g i t i m a t e law at all: first a n d f o r e m o s t , t h e r i g h t to e q u a l individual
f r e e d o m of c h o i c e a n d a c t i o n , w h i c h in t u r n p r e s u p p o s e s c o m p r e
h e n s i v e legal p r o t e c t i o n of individuals.
As s o o n as we t r e a t a p r o b l e m as a legal p r o b l e m , we b r i n g i n t o
play a c o n c e p t i o n of m o d e r n law t h a t forces u s o n c o n c e p t u a l
g r o u n d s a l o n e t o o p e r a t e with t h e a r c h i t e c t o n i c s of t h e constitu
t i o n a l state a n d its w e a l t h of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . T h i s h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s
for t h e way we d e a l with t h e p r o b l e m of s e c u r i n g e q u a l legal r i g h t s
a n d e q u a l r e c o g n i t i o n for g r o u p s t h a t a r e culturally d e f i n e d , t h a t is,
collectivities t h a t a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o t h e r collectivities o n t h e
basis of t r a d i t i o n , f o r m s of life, e t h n i c origins, a n d so o n a n d w h o s e
m e m b e r s w a n t to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m all o t h e r collectivities in
o r d e r to m a i n t a i n a n d d e v e l o p t h e i r identity.
Ill

T h e P e r m e a t i o n o f the Constitutional State by Ethics

F r o m t h e p o i n t of view of legal t h e o r y , t h e p r i m a r y q u e s t i o n t h a t
m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m raises is t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e ethical n e u t r a l i t y of law
a n d politics. By "ethical" I m e a n all q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e to c o n c e p
tions of t h e g o o d life, o r a life t h a t is n o t m i s s p e n t . Ethical q u e s t i o n s

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c a n n o t b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m t h e " m o r a l p o i n t of view" of w h e t h e r
s o m e t h i n g is "equally g o o d for e v e r y o n e ; " r a t h e r , i m p a r t i a l j u d g
m e n t of s u c h q u e s t i o n s is b a s e d o n s t r o n g evaluations a n d d e t e r
m i n e d by t h e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d perspectival life-projects of
p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s , t h a t is, by w h a t is f r o m t h e i r p o i n t of view " g o o d
for u s , " all t h i n g s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e first-person r e f e r e n c e , a n d h e n c e
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e identity of a g r o u p (or a n i n d i v i d u a l ) , is
g r a m m a t i c a l l y i n s c r i b e d in e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s . I will u s e t h e e x a m p l e
of t h e C a n a d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b a t e to l o o k at t h e liberal d e m a n d
for ethical n e u t r a l i t y of t h e law in r e l a t i o n to t h e ethical-political
s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a n a t i o n of citizens.
T h e n e u t r a l i t y of t h e l a w a n d of t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s of e n
a c t i n g lawsis s o m e t i m e s u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n t h a t political q u e s
tions of a n ethical n a t u r e m u s t b e k e p t off t h e a g e n d a a n d o u t of
t h e discussion by "gag r u l e s " b e c a u s e they a r e n o t susceptible to
i m p a r t i a l legal r e g u l a t i o n . O n this view, in t h e sense of L i b e r a l i s m 1,
t h e state is n o t to b e p e r m i t t e d t o p u r s u e a n y collective goals b e y o n d
g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m a n d t h e welfare a n d security of
its citizens. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l (in t h e sense of L i b e r a l i s m 2 ) , in
c o n t r a s t , e x p e c t s t h e state to g u a r a n t e e t h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s in
g e n e r a l b u t also b e y o n d t h a t to i n t e r v e n e o n b e h a l f of t h e survival
a n d a d v a n c e m e n t of a "particular n a t i o n , c u l t u r e , r e l i g i o n , o r of a
(limited) set of n a t i o n s , c u l t u r e s a n d r e l i g i o n s , " in M i c h a e l Walzer's
f o r m u l a t i o n . Walzer r e g a r d s this m o d e l t o o as f u n d a m e n t a l ; it leaves
r o o m , however, for citizens to c h o o s e to give priority t o i n d i v i d u a l
r i g h t s u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Walzer s h a r e s Taylor's p r e m i s e
t h a t conflicts b e t w e e n t h e s e two f u n d a m e n t a l n o r m a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n s
a r e q u i t e possible a n d t h a t in s u c h cases only L i b e r a l i s m 2 p e r m i t s
collective goals a n d i d e n t i t i e s t o b e given p r e c e d e n c e . Now, t h e
t h e o r y of r i g h t s d o e s assert t h e a b s o l u t e p r e c e d e n c e of r i g h t s over
collective g o o d s , so t h a t a r g u m e n t s a b o u t goals, as D w o r k i n shows,
c a n only " t r u m p " claims b a s e d o n individual r i g h t s if t h e s e goals c a n
in t u r n b e justified in t h e light of o t h e r r i g h t s t h a t take p r e c e d e n c e .
B u t t h a t a l o n e is n o t sufficient t o s u p p o r t t h e c o m m u n i t a r i a n view,
w h i c h Taylor a n d Walzer s h a r e , t h a t t h e system of r i g h t s is b l i n d to
claims to t h e p r o t e c t i o n of c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life a n d collective i d e n
tities a n d is t h u s "leveling" a n d in n e e d of revision.
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E a r l i e r I u s e d t h e e x a m p l e of t h e feminist politics of equality to

m a k e a g e n e r a l p o i n t , namely, t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c e l a b o r a t i o n of a
system of r i g h t s i n c o r p o r a t e s n o t only g e n e r a l political goals b u t also
t h e collective goals t h a t a r e a r t i c u l a t e d in struggles for r e c o g n i t i o n .
F o r in d i s t i n c t i o n to m o r a l n o r m s w h i c h r e g u l a t e possible i n t e r a c
tions b e t w e e n s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g subjects in g e n e r a l , legal n o r m s
refer to t h e n e t w o r k of i n t e r a c t i o n s in a specific society. L e g a l n o r m s
a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e d e c i s i o n s of a local l a w m a k i n g b o d y a n d apply
w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a of t h e state to a socially delim
i t e d collectivity of m e m b e r s of t h a t state. W i t h i n this well-defined
s p h e r e of validity, legal n o r m s p u t t h e political decisions with w h i c h
a society o r g a n i z e d as a state acts u p o n itself i n t o t h e f o r m of collec
tively b i n d i n g p r o g r a m s . T o b e s u r e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n of collective goals
is n o t p e r m i t t e d to dissolve t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e law. It m a y n o t
d e s t r o y t h e f o r m of t h e law as s u c h a n d t h e r e b y n e g a t e t h e differ
e n c e b e t w e e n law a n d politics. B u t it is i n h e r e n t in t h e c o n c r e t e
n a t u r e of t h e m a t t e r s to b e r e g u l a t e d t h a t in t h e m e d i u m of lawas
o p p o s e d to morality-the p r o c e s s of setting n o r m a t i v e r u l e s for
m o d e s of b e h a v i o r is o p e n to i n f l u e n c e by t h e society's political
goals. F o r this r e a s o n every legal system is also t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a
p a r t i c u l a r f o r m of life a n d n o t m e r e l y a reflection of t h e universal
c o n t e n t of basic rights. O f c o u r s e , legislative decisions m u s t b e u n
d e r s t o o d as actualizing t h e system of r i g h t s , a n d policies m u s t b e
u n d e r s t o o d as a n e l a b o r a t i o n of t h a t system; b u t t h e m o r e c o n c r e t e
t h e m a t t e r at h a n d , t h e m o r e t h e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a collectivity
a n d its f o r m of life (as well as t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n c o m p e t i n g g r o u p
interests a n d an informed choice between alternative ends a n d
m e a n s ) a r e e x p r e s s e d in t h e acceptability of t h e way t h e m a t t e r is
legally r e g u l a t e d . We see this in t h e b r o a d s p e c t r u m of r e a s o n s t h a t
e n t e r i n t o t h e r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s by w h i c h t h e legislature's o p i n i o n a n d
will a r e f o r m e d : n o t only m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a
tions, a n d t h e results of fair n e g o t i a t i o n s , b u t e t h i c a l r e a s o n s as well
e n t e r i n t o d e l i b e r a t i o n s a n d justifications of legislative decisions.
To t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e s h a p i n g of citizens' political o p i n i o n
a n d will is o r i e n t e d to t h e i d e a of actualizing rights, it certainly
c a n n o t , as t h e c o m m u n i t a r i a n s suggest, b e e q u a t e d with a p r o c e s s by
w h i c h citizens r e a c h a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h e i r ethical-political self-

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u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B u t t h e p r o c e s s of actualizing r i g h t s is i n d e e d e m
b e d d e d in c o n t e x t s t h a t r e q u i r e s u c h discourses as a n i m p o r t a n t
c o m p o n e n t of politicsdiscussions a b o u t a s h a r e d c o n c e p t i o n of
t h e g o o d a n d a d e s i r e d f o r m of life t h a t is a c k n o w l e d g e d t o b e
a u t h e n t i c . I n s u c h discussions t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s clarify t h e way they
w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s as citizens of a specific r e p u b l i c , as
i n h a b i t a n t s of a specific r e g i o n , as h e i r s to a specific c u l t u r e , w h i c h
t r a d i t i o n s they w a n t to p e r p e t u a t e a n d w h i c h t h e y w a n t to discon
t i n u e , h o w t h e y w a n t t o d e a l with t h e i r history, with o n e a n o t h e r ,
with n a t u r e , a n d so o n . A n d of c o u r s e t h e c h o i c e of a n official
l a n g u a g e o r a d e c i s i o n a b o u t t h e c u r r i c u l u m of p u b l i c schools affects
t h e n a t i o n ' s ethical s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B e c a u s e ethical-political d e
cisions a r e a n u n a v o i d a b l e p a r t of politics, a n d b e c a u s e t h e i r legal
r e g u l a t i o n e x p r e s s e s t h e collective i d e n t i t y of a n a t i o n of citizens,
t h e y c a n s p a r k c u l t u r a l battles in w h i c h d i s r e s p e c t e d m i n o r i t i e s
s t r u g g l e against a n insensitive majority c u l t u r e . W h a t sets off t h e
battles is n o t t h e ethical n e u t r a l i t y of t h e legal o r d e r b u t r a t h e r t h e
fact t h a t every legal c o m m u n i t y a n d every d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s for
actualizing basic r i g h t s is inevitably p e r m e a t e d by ethics. We see
e v i d e n c e of this, for i n s t a n c e , in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e s enjoyed
by C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s in c o u n t r i e s like G e r m a n y d e s p i t e f r e e d o m
of r e l i g i o n o r in t h e r e c e n t l y c h a l l e n g e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e
of status a c c o r d e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l family b u t n o t to o t h e r m a r r i a g e
like a r r a n g e m e n t s .
I n this c o n t e x t , it is of i n t e r e s t t h a t b o t h empirically a n d n o r m a tively s u c h ethical-political decisions d e p e n d o n t h e c o n t i n g e n t c o m
p o s i t i o n of t h e citizenry of t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e . T h e social m a k e u p of
t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a state is t h e r e s u l t of historical c i r c u m s t a n c e s
extrinsic to t h e system of r i g h t s a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e constitu
t i o n a l state. It d e t e r m i n e s t h e totality of p e r s o n s w h o live t o g e t h e r
in a t e r r i t o r y a n d a r e b o u n d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h a t is, by t h e
d e c i s i o n of t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s to o r d e r t h e i r life t o g e t h e r legiti
m a t e l y by m e a n s of positive law; as d e s c e n d a n t s , citizens h a v e implic
itly (or as n a t u r a l i z e d citizens even explicitly) a g r e e d to c o n t i n u e to
p u r s u e a p r e e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l project. T h r o u g h t h e i r socializa
t i o n processes, however, t h e p e r s o n s of w h i c h a state is c o m p o s e d at
any given t i m e also e m b o d y t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life in w h i c h t h e y

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Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic State

h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h e i r i d e n t i t y e v e n if they h a v e in t h e m e a n t i m e
b e c o m e d i s e n g a g e d f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e i r origins. P e r s o n s o r
better, t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e s f o r m t h e n o d a l p o i n t s , as it
w e r e , in a n ascriptive n e t w o r k of c u l t u r e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , of i n t e r s u b
jectively s h a r e d c o n t e x t s of life a n d e x p e r i e n c e . A n d this n e t w o r k
also f o r m s t h e h o r i z o n w i t h i n w h i c h t h e citizens of t h e n a t i o n ,
willingly o r n o t , c o n d u c t t h e ethical-political discourses i n w h i c h they
a t t e m p t to r e a c h a g r e e m e n t o n t h e i r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . If t h e p o p u
l a t i o n of citizens as a w h o l e shifts, this h o r i z o n will c h a n g e as well;
n e w d i s c o u r s e s will b e h e l d a b o u t t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s , a n d n e w
d e c i s i o n s will b e r e a c h e d . N a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s a r e at least intuitively
aware of this, a n d it is a n i m p o r t a n t m o t i v e for d e m a n d i n g t h e i r o w n
state, or, as in t h e unsuccessful M e e c h L a k e draft c o n s t i t u t i o n , for
d e m a n d i n g to b e r e c o g n i z e d as a "distinct society." If t h e franco
p h o n e m i n o r i t y in C a n a d a w e r e t o c o n s t i t u t e itself as a legal c o m
munity, it w o u l d f o r m o t h e r majorities o n i m p o r t a n t ethical-political
q u e s t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e s a m e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s a n d w o u l d arrive
at r e g u l a t o r y d e c i s i o n s different f r o m t h e o n e s C a n a d i a n s as a w h o l e
have hitherto reached.

16

As t h e h i s t o r y of t h e f o r m a t i o n of nation-states s h o w s , t h e crea
t i o n of n e w n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s gives rise t o n e w n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s .
T h e p r o b l e m d o e s n o t disappear, e x c e p t at t h e p r i c e of " e t h n i c
c l e a n s i n g " a p r i c e t h a t c a n n o t b e politically o r m o r a l l y justified.
T h e d o u b l e - e d g e d n a t u r e of t h e "right" to n a t i o n a l self-determina
t i o n is d e m o n s t r a t e d clearly in t h e c a s e of t h e K u r d s , w h o a r e s p r e a d
across t h r e e different c o u n t r i e s , o r B o s n i a - H e r z o g o v i n a , w h e r e e t h
n i c g r o u p s a r e b a t t l i n g o n e a n o t h e r mercilessly. O n t h e o n e h a n d , a
collectivity t h a t t h i n k s of itself as a c o m m u n i t y with its o w n identity
attains a n e w level of r e c o g n i t i o n by t a k i n g t h e s t e p of b e c o m i n g a
n a t i o n in its o w n r i g h t . It c a n n o t r e a c h this level as a p r e p o l i t i c a l
linguistic a n d e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y , o r e v e n as a n i n c o r p o r a t e d o r
f r a g m e n t e d "cultural n a t i o n . " T h e n e e d to b e r e c o g n i z e d as a na
tion-state is intensified in t i m e s of crisis, w h e n t h e p o p u l a c e clings
to t h e ascriptive signs of a regressively revitalized collective identity,
as for i n s t a n c e after t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e Soviet e m p i r e . T h i s k i n d
of s u p p o r t offers d u b i o u s c o m p e n s a t i o n for w e l l - f o u n d e d fears
a b o u t t h e f u t u r e a n d lack of social stability. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

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Chapter 8

n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e is often to b e h a d only at t h e p r i c e of civil

wars, n e w k i n d s of r e p r e s s i o n , o r e n s u i n g p r o b l e m s t h a t p e r p e t u a t e
t h e initial conflicts with t h e signs reversed.
T h e situation is d i f f e r e n t in C a n a d a , w h e r e r e a s o n a b l e efforts a r e
b e i n g m a d e to find a federalist s o l u t i o n t h a t will leave t h e n a t i o n as
a w h o l e i n t a c t b u t will t r y to s a f e g u a r d t h e c u l t u r a l a u t o n o m y of a
p a r t of it by d e c e n t r a l i z i n g state p o w e r s . If t h e s e efforts s u c c e e d ,
t h e p o r t i o n of t h e citizenry t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c
ess in specific a r e a s of policy will c h a n g e , b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h a t
p r o c e s s will n o t . F o r t h e t h e o r y of r i g h t s in n o way forbids t h e
citizens of a d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state t o assert a c o n c e p t i o n of
t h e g o o d in t h e i r g e n e r a l legal o r d e r , a c o n c e p t i o n t h e y e i t h e r
a l r e a d y s h a r e o r h a v e c o m e to a g r e e o n t h r o u g h political discussion.
It d o e s , however, f o r b i d t h e m to privilege o n e f o r m of life at t h e
e x p e n s e of o t h e r s w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n . I n f e d e r a l versions of t h e na
tion-state this is t r u e at b o t h t h e f e d e r a l a n d t h e state levels. If I a m
n o t m i s t a k e n , in C a n a d a t h e d e b a t e is n o t a b o u t this p r i n c i p l e of
e q u a l r i g h t s b u t a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t of t h e state p o w e r s t h a t
a r e to b e t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e P r o v i n c e of Q u e b e c .
1 7

IV

Equal Rights to Coexistence vs. the Preservation o f S p e c i e s

F e d e r a l i z a t i o n is a possible s o l u t i o n only w h e n m e m b e r s of d i f f e r e n t
e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d c u l t u r a l lifeworlds live in m o r e o r less s e p a r a t e
g e o g r a p h i c a l areas. I n m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies like t h e U n i t e d States
this is n o t t h e case. N o r will it b e t h e case in c o u n t r i e s like G e r m a n y ,
w h e r e t h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n is c h a n g i n g u n d e r
t h e p r e s s u r e of g l o b a l waves of m i g r a t i o n . Even if Q u e b e c w e r e to
b e c o m e culturally a u t o n o m o u s , it w o u l d find itself in t h e s a m e situ
a t i o n , h a v i n g m e r e l y t r a d e d a n E n g l i s h majority c u l t u r e for a F r e n c h
o n e . L e t us a s s u m e for t h e sake of a r g u m e n t t h a t a well-functioning
p u b l i c s p h e r e with o p e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s t h a t p e r m i t a n d
p r o m o t e discussions o r i e n t e d to s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g exists in s u c h
m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of a liberal c u l t u r e
a n d o n t h e basis of v o l u n t a r y associations. T h e n t h e d e m o c r a t i c
p r o c e s s of actualizing e q u a l i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s c a n also e x t e n d to
g u a r a n t e e i n g different e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d t h e i r c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

e q u a l r i g h t s to c o e x i s t e n c e . T h i s d o e s n o t r e q u i r e special justifica
t i o n o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e p r i n c i p l e . F o r f r o m a n o r m a t i v e p o i n t of view,
t h e integrity of t h e individual legal p e r s o n c a n n o t b e g u a r a n t e e d
w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i n g t h e intersubjectively s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d life
c o n t e x t s in w h i c h t h e p e r s o n h a s b e e n socialized a n d h a s f o r m e d his
o r h e r identity. T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l is i n t e r w o v e n with
collective i d e n t i t i e s a n d c a n b e stabilized only in a c u l t u r a l n e t w o r k
t h a t c a n n o t b e a p p r o p r i a t e d as private p r o p e r t y a n y m o r e t h a n t h e
m o t h e r t o n g u e itself c a n b e . H e n c e t h e individual r e m a i n s t h e
b e a r e r of "rights to c u l t u r a l m e m b e r s h i p , " in Will Kymlicka's
p h r a s e . B u t as t h e dialectic of legal a n d factual equality plays itself
o u t , it gives rise to extensive g u a r a n t e e s of status, r i g h t s t o selfa d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l benefits, subsidies, a n d so o n . I n ar
g u i n g for s u c h g u a r a n t e e s , e n d a n g e r e d i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e s c a n
a d v a n c e special m o r a l r e a s o n s arising f r o m t h e h i s t o r y of a c o u n t r y
t h a t h a s b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d by t h e majority c u l t u r e . Similar argu
m e n t s in favor of "reverse d i s c r i m i n a t i o n " c a n b e a d v a n c e d for t h e
l o n g - s u p p r e s s e d a n d disavowed c u l t u r e s of f o r m e r slaves.
1 8

T h e s e a n d similar o b l i g a t i o n s arise f r o m legal claims a n d n o t f r o m

a g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t of t h e value of t h e c u l t u r e in q u e s t i o n . Taylor's
politics of r e c o g n i t i o n w o u l d b e s t a n d i n g o n shaky g r o u n d if it
d e p e n d e d o n t h e " p r e s u m p t i o n of e q u a l v a l u e " of c u l t u r e s a n d
t h e i r specific c o n t r i b u t i o n s to w o r l d civilization. T h e r i g h t to e q u a l
r e s p e c t , w h i c h e v e r y o n e c a n d e m a n d in t h e life c o n t e x t s in w h i c h
his o r h e r i d e n t i t y is f o r m e d as well as e l s e w h e r e , h a s n o t h i n g to d o
with t h e p r e s u m e d e x c e l l e n c e of his o r h e r c u l t u r e of o r i g i n , t h a t is,
with g e n e r a l l y v a l u e d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . S u s a n Wolf also e m p h a s i z e s
this:
A t least o n e of t h e s e r i o u s h a r m s t h a t a failure of r e c o g n i t i o n p e r p e t u a t e s
h a s little t o d o w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n o r t h e c u l t u r e w h o
g o e s u n r e c o g n i z e d h a s a n y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t to say t o all h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e
n e e d to correct those harms, therefore, does n o t d e p e n d o n the presump
tion o r t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e is
distinctively v a l u a b l e to p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e c u l t u r e .
1 9

T h u s c o e x i s t e n c e with e q u a l r i g h t s for different e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d

t h e i r c u l t u r a l f o r m s of life n e e d n o t b e s a f e g u a r d e d t h r o u g h t h e s o r t
of collective r i g h t s t h a t w o u l d o v e r t a x a t h e o r y of r i g h t s t a i l o r e d to

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Chapter 8

i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s . Even if s u c h g r o u p r i g h t s c o u l d b e g r a n t e d in a
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m o c r a c y , t h e y w o u l d b e n o t only u n n e c e s s a r y b u t
q u e s t i o n a b l e f r o m a n o r m a t i v e p o i n t of view. F o r in t h e last analysis,
t h e p r o t e c t i o n of f o r m s of life a n d t r a d i t i o n s in w h i c h i d e n t i t i e s a r e
f o r m e d is s u p p o s e d to foster t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r m e m b e r s ; it
d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a k i n d of p r e s e r v a t i o n of species by a d m i n i s t r a
tive m e a n s . T h e ecological p e r s p e c t i v e o n species c o n s e r v a t i o n can
n o t b e t r a n s f e r r e d to c u l t u r e s . C u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e s a n d t h e f o r m s of
life a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e m n o r m a l l y r e p r o d u c e themselves by c o n
v i n c i n g t h o s e w h o s e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e s t h e y s h a p e , t h a t is, by
m o t i v a t i n g t h e m to a p p r o p r i a t e a n d c o n t i n u e t h e t r a d i t i o n s p r o d u c
tively. T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state c a n m a k e this h e r m e n e u t i c achieve
m e n t of t h e c u l t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n of w o r l d s possible, b u t it c a n n o t
g u a r a n t e e it. F o r t o guarantee survival w o u l d necessarily r o b t h e
m e m b e r s of t h e f r e e d o m to say yes o r n o , w h i c h n o w a d a y s is crucial
if t h e y a r e to r e m a i n a b l e t o a p p r o p r i a t e a n d p r e s e r v e t h e i r c u l t u r a l
h e r i t a g e . W h e n a c u l t u r e h a s b e c o m e reflexive, t h e only t r a d i t i o n s
a n d f o r m s of life t h a t c a n sustain t h e m s e l v e s a r e t h o s e t h a t bind t h e i r
m e m b e r s , while at t h e s a m e t i m e allowing m e m b e r s to subject t h e
t r a d i t i o n s to critical e x a m i n a t i o n a n d leaving l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s t h e
option of l e a r n i n g f r o m o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s o r c o n v e r t i n g a n d setting o u t
for o t h e r s h o r e s . T h i s is t r u e even of relatively closed sects like t h e
Pennsylvania A m i s h . Even if we c o n s i d e r e d it a m e a n i n g f u l g o a l to
p r o t e c t c u l t u r e s as t h o u g h they w e r e e n d a n g e r e d species, t h e h e r
m e n e u t i c c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y for t h e m to r e p r o d u c e themselves
successfully w o u l d b e i n c o m p a t i b l e with t h e goal of " m a i n t a i n [ing]
a n d c h e r i s h [ing] distinctness, n o t j u s t n o w b u t forever" (Taylor).
2 0

O n this p o i n t it h e l p s to recall t h e m a n y s u b c u l t u r e s a n d lifeworlds

t h a t flourished in early m o d e r n E u r o p e with its o c c u p a t i o n a l stratifi
c a t i o n , o r t h e f o r m s of life of r u r a l l a b o r e r s a n d t h e d e r a c i n a t e d ,
p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d u r b a n masses of t h e first p h a s e of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
t h a t s u c c e e d e d t h e m . T h o s e f o r m s of life w e r e c a u g h t u p a n d
c r u s h e d in t h e p r o c e s s of m o d e r n i z a t i o n , b u t by n o m e a n s d i d all of
t h e m find t h e i r "Meister A n t o n " a n d have c o m m i t t e d m e m b e r s to
d e f e n d t h e m a g a i n s t t h e alternatives p r e s e n t e d by t h e n e w era.
F o r m s of life t h a t w e r e culturally v i b r a n t a n d attractive e n o u g h to
s t i m u l a t e t h e will to self-assertion, like t h e u r b a n c u l t u r e of t h e

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Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic State

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w e r e able to p r e s e r v e s o m e of t h e i r features only

t h r o u g h self-transformation. Even a majority c u l t u r e t h a t d o e s n o t
c o n s i d e r itself t h r e a t e n e d p r e s e r v e s its vitality only t h r o u g h a n u n r e
s t r a i n e d revisionism, by s k e t c h i n g o u t alternatives to t h e status q u o
o r by i n t e g r a t i n g alien i m p u l s e s e v e n to t h e p o i n t of b r e a k i n g with
its o w n t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s is especially t r u e of i m m i g r a n t c u l t u r e s ,
w h i c h initially d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s s t u b b o r n l y in e t h n i c t e r m s a n d
revive t r a d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s u n d e r t h e assimilationist p r e s s u r e of t h e
n e w e n v i r o n m e n t b u t t h e n quickly d e v e l o p a m o d e of life equally
d i s t a n t f r o m b o t h assimilation a n d t r a d i t i o n .
21

I n m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies, t h e c o e x i s t e n c e of f o r m s of life with

e q u a l r i g h t s m e a n s e n s u r i n g every citizen t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to g r o w
u p w i t h i n t h e w o r l d of a c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a n d to have his o r h e r
c h i l d r e n g r o w u p in it w i t h o u t suffering d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . It m e a n s t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y to c o n f r o n t this ( a n d every o t h e r ) c u l t u r e a n d to p e r
p e t u a t e it in its c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m o r to t r a n s f o r m it, as well as t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y to t u r n away f r o m its c o m m a n d s with i n d i f f e r e n c e o r
b r e a k with it self-critically a n d t h e n live s p u r r e d o n by h a v i n g m a d e
a c o n s c i o u s b r e a k with t r a d i t i o n , o r even with a d i v i d e d identity. T h e
a c c e l e r a t e d p a c e of c h a n g e in m o d e r n societies e x p l o d e s all station
a r y f o r m s of life. C u l t u r e s survive only if they d r a w t h e s t r e n g t h to
t r a n s f o r m t h e m s e l v e s f r o m criticism a n d secession. Legal g u a r a n t e e s
c a n b e b a s e d only o n t h e fact t h a t w i t h i n his o r h e r o w n c u l t u r a l
m i l i e u , e a c h p e r s o n r e t a i n s t h e possibility of r e g e n e r a t i n g this
s t r e n g t h . A n d this i n t u r n d e v e l o p s n o t only by setting o n e s e l f a p a r t
b u t at least as m u c h t h r o u g h e x c h a n g e s with s t r a n g e r s a n d t h i n g s
alien.
I n t h e m o d e r n e r a rigid f o r m s of life s u c c u m b to e n t r o p y . F u n d a
m e n t a l i s t m o v e m e n t s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n i r o n i c a t t e m p t to give
o n e ' s o w n lifeworld ultrastability by restorative m e a n s . T h e i r o n y lies
in t h e way t r a d i t i o n a l i s m m i s u n d e r s t a n d s itself. I n fact, it e m e r g e s
f r o m t h e v o r t e x of social m o d e r n i z a t i o n even as it a p e s a s u b s t a n c e
t h a t h a s a l r e a d y d i s i n t e g r a t e d . As a r e a c t i o n to t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g
p u s h for m o d e r n i z a t i o n , f u n d a m e n t a l i s m is itself a t h o r o u g h l y m o d
e r n m o v e m e n t of r e n e w a l . N a t i o n a l i s m t o o c a n t u r n i n t o f u n d a m e n
talism, b u t it s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d with it. T h e n a t i o n a l i s m of t h e
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n allied itself with t h e universalistic p r i n c i p l e s of

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t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state; at t h a t t i m e n a t i o n a l i s m a n d
r e p u b l i c a n i s m w e r e k i n d r e d spirits. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f u n d a m e n
talism afflicts n o t only societies t h a t a r e c o l l a p s i n g b u t even t h e
e s t a b l i s h e d d e m o c r a c i e s of t h e West. All w o r l d r e l i g i o n s h a v e p r o
d u c e d t h e i r o w n f o r m s of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , a l t h o u g h by n o m e a n s
d o all s e c t a r i a n m o v e m e n t s display t h o s e traits.
As t h e R u s h d i e case r e m i n d e d us, a f u n d a m e n t a l i s m t h a t l e a d s to
a p r a c t i c e of i n t o l e r a n c e is i n c o m p a t i b l e with c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m o c
racy. S u c h a p r a c t i c e is b a s e d o n religious o r h i s t o r i c o - p h i l o s o p h i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e w o r l d t h a t claim exclusiveness for a privileged
way of life. S u c h c o n c e p t i o n s lack a n a w a r e n e s s of t h e fallibility of
t h e i r claims, as well as a r e s p e c t for t h e " b u r d e n s of r e a s o n " (Rawls).
O f c o u r s e , religious convictions a n d g l o b a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e
w o r l d a r e n o t o b l i g e d to s u b s c r i b e to t h e k i n d of fallibilism t h a t
c u r r e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e s h y p o t h e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e in t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
sciences. B u t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t worldviews a r e d o g m a t i c in a d i f f e r e n t
sense: t h e y leave n o r o o m for reflection o n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p with
t h e o t h e r worldviews with w h i c h they s h a r e t h e s a m e u n i v e r s e of
d i s c o u r s e a n d a g a i n s t w h o s e c o m p e t i n g validity claims t h e y c a n ad
v a n c e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s only o n t h e basis of r e a s o n s . T h e y leave n o
r o o m for " r e a s o n a b l e d i s a g r e e m e n t . "
22

I n c o n t r a s t with f u n d a m e n t a l i s t worldviews, t h e subjectivized

"gods a n d d e m o n s " of t h e m o d e r n w o r l d a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a
reflexive a t t i t u d e t h a t d o e s m o r e t h a n allow for a m o d u s v i v e n d i
s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n b e legally e n f o r c e d given r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m . I n
a spirit of t o l e r a n c e a la Lessing, t h e n o n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t worldviews
t h a t Rawls c h a r a c t e r i z e s as " n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e c o m p r e h e n s i v e d o c
t r i n e s " allow for a civilized d e b a t e b e t w e e n convictions, i n w h i c h
o n e p a r t y c a n r e c o g n i z e t h e o t h e r p a r t i e s as c o - c o m b a t a n t s in t h e
s e a r c h for a u t h e n t i c t r u t h s w i t h o u t sacrificing its o w n claims to
validity. I n m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies t h e n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n toler
ate only f o r m s of life a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e m e d i u m of s u c h n o n f u n
d a m e n t a l i s t t r a d i t i o n s , b e c a u s e c o e x i s t e n c e with e q u a l r i g h t s for
t h e s e f o r m s of life r e q u i r e s t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e different
c u l t u r a l m e m b e r s h i p s : all p e r s o n s m u s t also b e r e c o g n i z e d as m e m
b e r s of e t h i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n t e g r a t e d a r o u n d d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s
23

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n in t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

of t h e g o o d . H e n c e t h e ethical i n t e g r a t i o n of g r o u p s a n d s u b c u l t u r e s
with t h e i r o w n collective i d e n t i t i e s m u s t b e u n c o u p l e d f r o m t h e
a b s t r a c t political i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s all citizens equally.
T h e political i n t e g r a t i o n of citizens e n s u r e s loyalty to t h e c o m m o n
political c u l t u r e . T h e latter is r o o t e d in a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of consti
t u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e n a t i o n ' s historical
e x p e r i e n c e . To this e x t e n t t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n n o t b e ethically
n e u t r a l . P e r h a p s o n e w o u l d d o b e t t e r to s p e a k of a c o m m o n horizon
of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h c u r r e n t issues give rise to p u b l i c
d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e citizens' political s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e "histori
a n s ' d e b a t e " i n 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 in G e r m a n y is a g o o d e x a m p l e of t h i s .
B u t t h e d e b a t e s a r e always a b o u t t h e b e s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s a m e
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s a n d p r i n c i p l e s . T h e s e f o r m t h e fixed p o i n t of
r e f e r e n c e for a n y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m t h a t situates t h e system of
r i g h t s w i t h i n t h e historical c o n t e x t of a legal c o m m u n i t y . T h e y m u s t
b e e n d u r i n g l y l i n k e d with t h e m o t i v a t i o n s a n d convictions of t h e
citizens, for w i t h o u t s u c h a m o t i v a t i o n a l a n c h o r i n g t h e y c o u l d n o t
b e c o m e t h e driving force b e h i n d t h e dynamically c o n c e i v e d p r o j e c t
of p r o d u c i n g a n association of free a n d e q u a l individuals. H e n c e t h e
s h a r e d political c u l t u r e in w h i c h citizens r e c o g n i z e t h e m s e l v e s as
m e m b e r s of t h e i r polity is also p e r m e a t e d by ethics.

24

At t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e ethical s u b s t a n c e of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p a t r i o t
ism c a n n o t d e t r a c t f r o m t h e legal system's n e u t r a l i t y vis-a-vis c o m m u
nities t h a t a r e ethically i n t e g r a t e d a t a subpolitical level. R a t h e r , it
h a s to s h a r p e n sensitivity to t h e diversity a n d integrity of t h e differ
e n t f o r m s of life c o e x i s t i n g w i t h i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l society. It is crucial
to m a i n t a i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two levels of i n t e g r a t i o n . If
they a r e c o l l a p s e d i n t o o n e level, t h e majority c u l t u r e will u s u r p state
p r e r o g a t i v e s at t h e e x p e n s e of t h e e q u a l r i g h t s of o t h e r c u l t u r a l
f o r m s of life a n d violate t h e i r claim to m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e
n e u t r a l i t y of t h e law vis-a-vis i n t e r n a l ethical d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s stems
f r o m t h e fact t h a t in c o m p l e x societies t h e citizenry as a w h o l e c a n
n o l o n g e r b e h e l d t o g e t h e r by a substantive c o n s e n s u s o n values b u t
only by a c o n s e n s u s o n t h e p r o c e d u r e s for t h e l e g i t i m a t e e n a c t m e n t
of laws a n d t h e l e g i t i m a t e exercise of power. Citizens w h o a r e politi
cally i n t e g r a t e d in this way s h a r e t h e rationally b a s e d conviction t h a t

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Chapter 8

u n r e s t r a i n e d f r e e d o m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e political p u b l i c
s p h e r e , a d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s for settling conflicts, a n d t h e constitu
t i o n a l c h a n n e l i n g of political p o w e r t o g e t h e r p r o v i d e a basis for
c h e c k i n g illegitimate p o w e r a n d e n s u r i n g t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o w e r
is u s e d in t h e e q u a l i n t e r e s t of all. T h e universalism of legal p r i n c i
ples manifests itself in a p r o c e d u r a l c o n s e n s u s , w h i c h m u s t b e e m
b e d d e d t h r o u g h a k i n d of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m in t h e c o n t e x t of
a historically specific political c u l t u r e .
V

Immigration, Citizenship, and National Identity

Legal e x p e r t s have t h e a d v a n t a g e of discussing n o r m a t i v e q u e s t i o n s

in c o n n e c t i o n with cases to b e d e c i d e d . T h e i r t h i n k i n g is o r i e n t e d
to a p p l i c a t i o n . P h i l o s o p h e r s avoid this decisionist p r e s s u r e ; as con^
t e m p o r a r i e s of classical i d e a s t h a t e x t e n d over m o r e t h a n two t h o u
s a n d years, they a r e n o t e m b a r r a s s e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s
p a r t i c i p a n t s in a c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t will g o o n forever. H e n c e it is all
t h e m o r e fascinating w h e n s o m e o n e like C h a r l e s Taylor a t t e m p t s to
g r a s p his o w n t i m e s in i d e a s a n d to show t h e r e l e v a n c e of p h i l o s o p h i
cal insights to t h e p r e s s i n g political q u e s t i o n s of t h e day. H i s essay is
a n e x a m p l e of this, as u n u s u a l as it is b r i l l i a n t a l t h o u g h , o r r a t h e r
b e c a u s e , h e d o e s n o t follow t h e f a s h i o n a b l e p a t h of a n " a p p l i e d
ethics."
After t h e u p h e a v a l s in C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e t h e r e h a s b e e n
a n o t h e r t h e m e o n t h e a g e n d a of t h e day in G e r m a n y a n d in t h e
E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e : i m m i g r a t i o n . After a c o m p r e h e n
sive p r e s e n t a t i o n of this p r o b l e m , a D u t c h c o l l e a g u e arrives at t h e
following u n a d o r n e d p r o g n o s i s :
W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . . . will d o t h e i r u t m o s t t o p r e v e n t i m m i g r a
t i o n f r o m T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s . T o this e n d t h e y will g r a n t w o r k p e r m i t s
to p e r s o n s w h o h a v e skills of i m m e d i a t e r e l e v a n c e t o t h e society i n fairly
e x c e p t i o n a l cases o n l y ( s o c c e r players, software specialists f r o m t h e U S ,
s c h o l a r s f r o m I n d i a , e t c . ) . T h e y will c o m b i n e a v e r y restrictive e n t r y policy
w i t h policies a i m e d a t d e a l i n g m o r e quickly a n d effectively with r e q u e s t s for
asylum, a n d w i t h a p r a c t i c e of d e p o r t i n g w i t h o u t d e l a y t h o s e w h o s e r e q u e s t
h a s b e e n d e n i e d . . . . T h e c o n c l u s i o n is, t h a t t h e y will individually a n d j o i n t l y
u s e all means a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l to s t e m t h e t i d e .
2 5

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n fits precisely t h e c o m p r o m i s e o n political asylum

t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n in G e r m a n y m a d e t h e basis
for a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e in 1 9 9 3 . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e g r e a t
majority of t h e p o p u l a t i o n w e l c o m e s this p o l i c y X e n o p h o b i a is wide
s p r e a d t h e s e days in t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y as well. It is m o r e
m a r k e d in s o m e c o u n t r i e s t h a n in o t h e r s , b u t t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e
G e r m a n s d o n o t differ substantially f r o m t h o s e of t h e F r e n c h a n d
t h e E n g l i s h . Taylor's e x a m p l e e n c o u r a g e s u s to see h o w a p h i l o
s o p h i c a l p o i n t of view c a n h e l p a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r this
policy of sealing ourselves off f r o m i m m i g r a t i o n is justified. I will
b e g i n by discussing t h e q u e s t i o n i n t h e a b s t r a c t a n d t h e n reviewing
t h e G e r m a n d e b a t e o n political asylum of 1 9 9 2 - 1 9 9 3 a n d its histori
cal b a c k g r o u n d . I will t h e n o u t l i n e t h e alternatives t h a t w o u l d have
to b e discussed in a p u b l i c d e b a t e o n e t h a t h a s n o t yet b e e n o p e n l y
c o n d u c t e d a b o u t t h e ethical-political s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e n
l a r g e d F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y .
26

A l t h o u g h m o d e r n law differs f r o m p o s t t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y by its

specific f o r m a l characteristics, t h e system of r i g h t s a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s
of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state a r e in h a r m o n y with this m o r a l i t y by v i r t u e
of t h e i r universalistic c o n t e n t . At t h e s a m e t i m e , as we h a v e s e e n ,
legal systems a r e "ethically p e r m e a t e d " in t h a t they reflect t h e politi
cal will a n d t h e f o r m of life of a specific legal c o m m u n i t y . T h e
U n i t e d States, w h o s e political c u l t u r e is s t a m p e d by a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
t r a d i t i o n t h a t is two h u n d r e d years old, is a clear e x a m p l e of this.
B u t t h e j u r i d i f i e d e t h o s of a n a t i o n - s t a t e c a n n o t c o m e i n t o conflict
with civil r i g h t s so l o n g as t h e political legislature is o r i e n t e d to
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h u s to t h e i d e a of actualizing basic
rights. T h e e t h i c a l s u b s t a n c e of a political i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t u n i t e s all
t h e citizens of t h e n a t i o n m u s t r e m a i n " n e u t r a l " with r e s p e c t to t h e
differences b e t w e e n t h e ethical-cultural c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n t h e na
t i o n , e a c h of w h i c h is i n t e g r a t e d a r o u n d its o w n c o n c e p t i o n of t h e
g o o d . T h e u n c o u p l i n g of t h e s e two levels of i n t e g r a t i o n notwith
s t a n d i n g , a n a t i o n of citizens c a n sustain t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of f r e e d o m
only by d e v e l o p i n g a c e r t a i n m e a s u r e of loyalty to t h e i r o w n state, a
loyalty t h a t c a n n o t b e legally e n f o r c e d .
j.
It is this ethical-political s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n t h e p a r t of t h e
n a t i o n t h a t is affected by i m m i g r a t i o n ; for t h e influx of i m m i g r a n t s

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alters t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n in ethical-cultural r e s p e c t s
as well. T h u s t h e q u e s t i o n arises w h e t h e r t h e d e s i r e for i m m i g r a t i o n
r u n s u p a g a i n s t limits in t h e r i g h t of a political c o m m u n i t y to m a i n
tain its political-cultural f o r m of life intact. A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e
a u t o n o m o u s l y d e v e l o p e d state o r d e r is i n d e e d s h a p e d by ethics, d o e s
t h e r i g h t to s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t i n c l u d e t h e r i g h t of a n a t i o n to
affirm its identity vis-a-vis i m m i g r a n t s w h o c o u l d give a different cast
to this historically d e v e l o p e d political-cultural f o r m of life?
F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e r e c i p i e n t society, t h e p r o b l e m of
i m m i g r a t i o n raises t h e q u e s t i o n of l e g i t i m a t e c o n d i t i o n s of entry.
I g n o r i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e stages, we c a n focus o n t h e act of n a t u
ralization, with w h i c h a state c o n t r o l s t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e political
c o m m u n i t y d e f i n e d by t h e r i g h t s of citizenship. U n d e r w h a t c o n d i
t i o n s c a n t h e state d e n y citizenship to t h o s e w h o a d v a n c e a claim to
n a t u r a l i z a t i o n ? Aside f r o m t h e u s u a l provisos (as a g a i n s t c r i m i n a l s ) ,
t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n i n o u r c o n t e x t is in w h a t r e s p e c t c a n a
d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state d e m a n d t h a t i m m i g r a n t s assimilate
in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n t h e integrity of its citizens' way of life. P h i l o
sophically, we c a n distinguish two levels of assimilation:
1. assent to t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d at a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e by t h e ethical-political
s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e citizens a n d t h e political c u l t u r e of t h e
c o u n t r y ; in o t h e r w o r d s , assimilation to t h e way in w h i c h t h e a u t o n
o m y of t h e citizens is i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in t h e r e c i p i e n t society a n d
t h e way t h e "public u s e of r e a s o n " is p r a c t i c e d t h e r e ; a n d
2. t h e f u r t h e r level of a willingness to b e c o m e a c c u l t u r a t e d , t h a t is,
n o t only to c o n f o r m e x t e r n a l l y b u t to b e c o m e h a b i t u a t e d to t h e way
of life, t h e p r a c t i c e s , a n d c u s t o m s of t h e local c u l t u r e across t h e i r
full r a n g e . T h i s m e a n s a n assimilation t h a t p e n e t r a t e s to t h e level of
ethical-cultural i n t e g r a t i o n a n d t h e r e b y h a s a d e e p e r i m p a c t o n t h e
collective i d e n t i t y of t h e i m m i g r a n t s ' c u l t u r e of o r i g i n t h a n t h e
political socialization r e q u i r e d u n d e r (1) a b o v e .
T h e results of t h e i m m i g r a t i o n policy p r a c t i c e d in t h e U n i t e d
States s u p p o r t a liberal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t exemplifies ( 1 ) , t h e
w e a k e r e x p e c t a t i o n of assimilation l i m i t e d to political s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

27

229
S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

A n e x a m p l e of (2) is p r o v i d e d by t h e P r u s s i a n policy o n i m m i g r a t i o n
f r o m P o l a n d u n d e r Bismarck, w h i c h d e s p i t e variations was o r i e n t e d
p r i m a r i l y to G e r m a n i z a t i o n .
A d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state t h a t is s e r i o u s a b o u t u n c o u p l i n g
t h e s e two levels of i n t e g r a t i o n c a n r e q u i r e of i m m i g r a n t s only t h e
political socialization d e s c r i b e d in (1) a b o v e ( a n d practically speak
i n g c a n e x p e c t to see it only in t h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n ) . T h i s e n a b l e s
it to p r e s e r v e t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e political c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h n o t h i n g ,
i n c l u d i n g i m m i g r a t i o n , is p e r m i t t e d to e n c r o a c h u p o n , since t h a t
i d e n t i t y is f o u n d e d o n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s a n c h o r e d in t h e
political c u l t u r e a n d n o t o n t h e basic ethical o r i e n t a t i o n s of t h e
c u l t u r a l f o r m of life p r e d o m i n a n t in t h a t c o u n t r y Accordingly, all
t h a t n e e d s to b e e x p e c t e d of i m m i g r a n t s is t h e willingness to e n t e r
i n t o t h e political c u l t u r e of t h e i r n e w h o m e l a n d , w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o
give u p t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m of life of t h e i r o r i g i n s by d o i n g so. T h e
r i g h t to d e m o c r a t i c s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n d o e s i n d e e d i n c l u d e t h e r i g h t
of citizens to insist o n t h e inclusive c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r o w n political
c u l t u r e ; it safeguards t h e society f r o m t h e d a n g e r of s e g m e n t a t i o n
f r o m t h e e x c l u s i o n of alien s u b c u l t u r e s a n d f r o m a separatist disin
t e g r a t i o n i n t o u n r e l a t e d s u b c u l t u r e s . As I i n d i c a t e d above, political
i n t e g r a t i o n d o e s n o t e x t e n d to f u n d a m e n t a l i s t i m m i g r a n t c u l t u r e s .
B u t n e i t h e r d o e s it justify c o m p u l s o r y assimilation for t h e sake of
t h e self-affirmation of t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m of life d o m i n a n t in t h e
country.
28

29

T h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e h a s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e legiti
m a t e l y a s s e r t e d i d e n t i t y of t h e political c o m m u n i t y will by n o m e a n s
b e p r e s e r v e d f r o m a l t e r a t i o n s indefinitely in t h e w a k e of waves of
i m m i g r a t i o n . B e c a u s e i m m i g r a n t s c a n n o t b e c o m p e l l e d to s u r r e n d e r
t h e i r o w n t r a d i t i o n s , as o t h e r f o r m s of life b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e
h o r i z o n w i t h i n w h i c h citizens h e n c e f o r t h i n t e r p r e t t h e i r c o m m o n
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s m a y also e x p a n d . T h e n t h e m e c h a n i s m
c o m e s i n t o play w h e r e b y a c h a n g e in t h e c u l t u r a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e
active citizenry c h a n g e s t h e c o n t e x t to w h i c h t h e ethical-political
s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t i o n as a w h o l e refers: " P e o p l e live in
c o m m u n i t i e s with b o n d s a n d b o u n d s , b u t t h e s e m a y b e of different
k i n d s . I n a liberal society, t h e b o n d s a n d b o u n d s s h o u l d b e c o m p a t
ible with liberal p r i n c i p l e s . O p e n i m m i g r a t i o n w o u l d c h a n g e t h e

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Chapter 8

c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t it w o u l d n o t leave t h e c o m m u n i t y
without any character."
L e t m e n o w t u r n f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n of w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s a d e m o
cratic c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state m a y i m p o s e o n t h e r e c e p t i o n of i m m i
g r a n t s to a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n : W h o h a s t h e r i g h t t o i m m i g r a t e ?
T h e r e a r e sufficient m o r a l g r o u n d s for a n i n d i v i d u a l legal claim
to political asylum (in t h e sense of Article 16 of t h e G e r m a n Basic
Law, w h i c h m u s t b e i n t e r p r e t e d with r e f e r e n c e to t h e p r o t e c t i o n of
h u m a n dignity g u a r a n t e e d in Article 1 a n d in c o n n e c t i o n with t h e
g u a r a n t e e of legal r e c o u r s e e s t a b l i s h e d in Article 1 9 ) . I d o n o t n e e d
to g o i n t o t h e m h e r e . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a
r e f u g e e . I n a c c o r d a n c e with Article 13 of t h e G e n e v a C o n v e n t i o n o n
t h e Status of Refugees, s o m e o n e is c o n s i d e r e d to b e e n t i t l e d to
asylum if h e is fleeing f r o m a c o u n t r y "where his life o r f r e e d o m
w o u l d b e t h r e a t e n e d o n a c c o u n t of his r a c e , r e l i g i o n , nationality,
m e m b e r s h i p of a p a r t i c u l a r social g r o u p o r political o p i n i o n . " I n
light of r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e , this d e f i n i t i o n n e e d s to b e e x t e n d e d to
i n c l u d e t h e p r o t e c t i o n of w o m e n f r o m m a s s r a p e s . T h e r i g h t to
t e m p o r a r y asylum for r e f u g e e s f r o m civil war r e g i o n s is also u n p r o b
l e m a t i c . B u t since t h e discovery of A m e r i c a , a n d especially since t h e
explosive i n c r e a s e in w o r l d w i d e i m m i g r a t i o n in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n
tury, t h e g r e a t b u l k of t h o s e w a n t i n g to i m m i g r a t e h a s c o n s i s t e d of
individuals i m m i g r a t i n g in o r d e r to w o r k as well as refugees f r o m
p o v e r t y w h o w a n t to e s c a p e a m i s e r a b l e e x i s t e n c e in t h e i r h o m e l a n d .
A n d so it is today. It is a g a i n s t this i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e i m p o v e r
i s h e d r e g i o n s of t h e East a n d S o u t h t h a t a E u r o p e a n c h a u v i n i s m of
affluence is n o w a r m i n g itself.
30

F r o m t h e m o r a l p o i n t of view we c a n n o t r e g a r d this p r o b l e m solely

f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of affluent a n d p e a c e f u l
societies; we m u s t also take t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h o s e w h o c o m e to
f o r e i g n c o n t i n e n t s s e e k i n g t h e i r well-being, t h a t is, a n e x i s t e n c e
w o r t h y of h u m a n b e i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n p r o t e c t i o n f r o m political p e r
s e c u t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r a legal claim t o i m m i g r a t i o n exists
over a n d a b o v e a moral claim is particularly r e l e v a n t in t h e c u r r e n t
situation, w h e r e t h e n u m b e r of p e o p l e w a n t i n g to i m m i g r a t e m a n i
festly e x c e e d s t h e willingness to receive t h e m .

231
Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic State

O n e c a n cite g o o d g r o u n d s for a m o r a l claim. P e o p l e d o n o t

n o r m a l l y leave t h e i r h o m e l a n d s e x c e p t u n d e r d i r e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; as
a r u l e t h e m e r e fact t h a t t h e y h a v e fled is sufficient e v i d e n c e of t h e i r
n e e d for h e l p . A m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o p r o v i d e assistance arises i n
p a r t i c u l a r f r o m t h e g r o w i n g i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s of a g l o b a l society
t h a t h a s b e c o m e so e n m e s h e d t h r o u g h t h e capitalist w o r l d m a r k e t
a n d electronic mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n s that the U N has assumed
s o m e t h i n g like a n overall political responsibility for s a f e g u a r d i n g life
o n t h e p l a n e t , as t h e r e c e n t e x a m p l e of S o m a l i a i n d i c a t e s . F u r t h e r ,
special d u t i e s a r e devolved u p o n t h e First W o r l d as a r e s u l t of t h e
h i s t o r y of c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d t h e u p r o o t i n g of r e g i o n a l c u l t u r e s by t h e
i n c u r s i o n of capitalist m o d e r n i z a t i o n . We s h o u l d also n o t e t h a t in
t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1800 a n d 1960 E u r o p e a n s w e r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n
ately r e p r e s e n t e d in i n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l m i g r a t o r y m o v e m e n t s , m a k i n g
u p 80 p e r c e n t of t h o s e involved, a n d t h e y p r o f i t e d f r o m t h i s t h a t
is, t h e y i m p r o v e d t h e i r living c o n d i t i o n s in c o m p a r i s o n with o t h e r
m i g r a n t s a n d with t h o s e of t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s w h o d i d n o t e m i g r a t e .
At t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e e x o d u s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r i e s i m p r o v e d t h e e c o n o m i c situations in t h e c o u n t r i e s f r o m
w h i c h t h e y fled, j u s t as decisively as did, conversely, t h e i m m i g r a t i o n
to E u r o p e d u r i n g t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d following t h e S e c o n d
W o r l d W a r . E i t h e r way, E u r o p e was t h e b e n e f i c i a r y of t h e s e s t r e a m s
of m i g r a t i o n .
T h e s e a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d r e a s o n s t h a t c o u l d b e given d o n o t , to
b e s u r e , justify g u a r a n t e e i n g a c t i o n a b l e i n d i v i d u a l legal r i g h t s to im
m i g r a t i o n b u t they d o justify a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o h a v e a liberal
i m m i g r a t i o n policy t h a t o p e n s o n e ' s o w n society t o i m m i g r a n t s a n d
r e g u l a t e s t h e flow of i m m i g r a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to existing capacities.
I n t h e defensive s l o g a n "the b o a t is full" o n e h e a r s a lack of willing
ness t o take t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e " b o a t p e o p l e "
in t h e i r rickety crafts, for e x a m p l e , t r y i n g to e s c a p e t h e t e r r o r in
I n d o c h i n a . E u r o p e a n societies, s h r i n k i n g d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d d e
p e n d e n t o n i m m i g r a t i o n if only for e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s , h a v e certainly
n o t r e a c h e d t h e limits of t h e i r capacity t o a b s o r b i m m i g r a n t s . T h e
m o r a l basis for a liberal i m m i g r a t i o n policy also gives rise to a n
o b l i g a t i o n n o t t o limit i m m i g r a t i o n q u o t a s to t h e r e c i p i e n t c o u n t r y ' s
e c o n o m i c n e e d s , t h a t is, n o t to "welcome (only) t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e , "
31

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Chapter 8

b u t i n s t e a d to establish q u o t a s in a c c o r d a n c e with criteria t h a t are

a c c e p t a b l e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of all p a r t i e s involved.
VI

T h e Politics o f Asylum in a U n i t e d Germany

If o n e takes t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s as a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e , t h e c o m p r o m i s e
o n political asylum n e g o t i a t e d b e t w e e n t h e G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t
a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n Social D e m o c r a t s , w h i c h was p u t i n t o effect in
early 1993, c a n n o t b e justified in n o r m a t i v e t e r m s . W i t h o u t g o i n g
i n t o detail, I will list t h e f o u r c e n t r a l flaws of t h e a g r e e m e n t a n d
criticize t h e p r e m i s e s o n w h i c h they a r e b a s e d .
(a) T h e r e g u l a t i o n s p r o v i d e d for by t h e a g r e e m e n t a r e l i m i t e d to
political asylum, t h a t is, to m e a s u r e s d i r e c t e d against "abuses" of t h e
r i g h t to asylum. T h e y i g n o r e t h e fact t h a t G e r m a n y n e e d s a n i m m i
g r a t i o n policy t h a t p r o v i d e s i m m i g r a n t s with o t h e r legal o p t i o n s as
well. T h e p r o b l e m of i m m i g r a t i o n is falsely d e f i n e d i n a way t h a t h a s
n u m e r o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s . A n y o n e w h o dissolves t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e
t w e e n t h e q u e s t i o n of political asylum a n d t h e q u e s t i o n of i m m i g r a
t i o n to e s c a p e p o v e r t y is implicitly d e c l a r i n g t h a t h e o r s h e w a n t s t o
e v a d e E u r o p e ' s m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n to r e f u g e e s f r o m t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d
r e g i o n s of t h e w o r l d a n d i n s t e a d tacitly t o l e r a t e s a flow of illegal
i m m i g r a t i o n t h a t c a n always b e e x p l o i t e d as "abuse of asylum" for
d o m e s t i c political p u r p o s e s .
(b) P a r l i a m e n t ' s a d d i t i o n of Article 16a to t h e Basic Law, as a
r e s u l t of t h e i n t e r p a r t y a g r e e m e n t of J a n u a r y 15, 1 9 9 3 , w e a k e n s t h e
s u b s t a n c e of t h e individual legal r i g h t to political asylum b e c a u s e it
allows refugees c o m i n g i n t o t h e c o u n t r y f r o m a so-called "safe T h i r d
C o u n t r y " to b e d e p o r t e d w i t h o u t legal r e c o u r s e . T h i s shifts t h e
b u r d e n of i m m i g r a t i o n to E a s t e r n E u r o p e , to o u r n e i g h b o r s P o l a n d ,
t h e C z e c h R e p u b l i c , Slovakia, H u n g a r y , a n d A u s t r i a i n o t h e r w o r d s ,
to c o u n t r i e s t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y ill p r e p a r e d to h a n d l e this p r o b l e m
in a legally u n o b j e c t i o n a b l e way. I n a d d i t i o n , c u r t a i l i n g t h e g u a r a n
t e e of legal p r o t e c t i o n for refugees f r o m c o u n t r i e s d e f i n e d as "free
of p e r s e c u t i o n " f r o m G e r m a n y ' s p o i n t of view is p r o b l e m a t i c .
3 2

(c) R a t h e r t h a n m a k i n g it easier for f o r e i g n e r s a l r e a d y r e s i d i n g in

G e r m a n y , especially t h e Gastarbeiter [literally, g u e s t w o r k e r s ] w h o m
we r e c r u i t e d , t o a c q u i r e citizenship, t h e asylum c o m p r o m i s e left t h e

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S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

n a t u r a l i z a t i o n laws u n c h a n g e d . T h e d u a l citizenship t h a t t h o s e
f o r e i g n e r s u n d e r s t a n d a b l y p r e f e r is d e n i e d t h e m ; even c h i l d r e n
b o r n to t h e m i n G e r m a n y d o n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y receive t h e rights
of citizenship. F o r e i g n e r s w h o a r e willing to r e n o u n c e t h e i r p r e v i o u s
citizenship c a n b e n a t u r a l i z e d only after they h a v e b e e n living in
G e r m a n y for at least fifteen years. I n c o n t r a s t , t h e so-called Volksdeutschen o r e t h n i c G e r m a n s p r i m a r i l y Poles a n d Russians w h o c a n
p r o v e G e r m a n a n c e s t r y h a v e a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t to naturaliza
tion. I n 1992, in a d d i t i o n to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500,000 asylum seekers
(of w h i c h 130,000 w e r e f r o m t h e civil war r e g i o n s of t h e f o r m e r
Yugoslavia), 220,000 e t h n i c - G e r m a n i m m i g r a n t s w e r e a c c e p t e d i n t o
G e r m a n y o n this basis.
(d) T h e G e r m a n policy o n political asylum rests o n t h e r e p e a t e d l y
r e a f f i r m e d p r e m i s e t h a t G e r m a n y is n o t a l a n d of i m m i g r a t i o n . T h i s
c o n t r a d i c t s n o t only w h a t we all see in t h e streets a n d subways of o u r
m e t r o p o l i s e s t o d a y twenty-six p e r c e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of Frank
furt consists of f o r e i g n e r s b u t also t h e historical facts. To b e s u r e ,
since t h e early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a l m o s t e i g h t m i l l i o n G e r m a n s
h a v e e m i g r a t e d to t h e U n i t e d States a l o n e . B u t at t h e s a m e t i m e ,
m a j o r waves of i m m i g r a t i o n have o c c u r r e d over t h e last h u n d r e d
years. By t h e First W o r l d War, 1.2 m i l l i o n i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s h a d
e n t e r e d t h e c o u n t r y , a n d 12 m i l l i o n "displaced p e r s o n s " w e r e left
b e h i n d at t h e e n d of t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r p r i m a r i l y f o r c e d l a b o r
d e p o r t e d f r o m P o l a n d a n d t h e Soviet U n i o n . I n 1955, following t h e
p a t h laid o u t by t h e Nazi policy of f o r c e d f o r e i g n labor, a n d d e s p i t e
relatively h i g h u n e m p l o y m e n t in G e r m a n y , c a m e t h e o r g a n i z e d re
c r u i t m e n t of a c h e a p , u n m a r r i e d m a l e w o r k f o r c e f r o m s o u t h e r n a n d
s o u t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e . T h i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l r e c r u i t m e n t c e a s e d in
1973. T o d a y t h e families a n d offspring of t h o s e Gastarbeiter w h o d i d
n o t r e t u r n to t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s live in t h e p a r a d o x i c a l situation of
i m m i g r a n t s with n o clear p r o s p e c t s for i m m i g r a t i o n G e r m a n s with
f o r e i g n p a s s p o r t s . T h e y f o r m t h e b u l k of t h e 8.2 p e r c e n t of t h e
1990 G e r m a n p o p u l a t i o n c o m p o s e d of f o r e i g n e r s living in G e r m a n y .
W i t h o u t t h e m , t h e e c o n o m i c b o o m n o w c o m p a r a b l e only t o t h a t of
J a p a n w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n possible, a n d it is even h a r d e r to u n d e r
s t a n d t h e resistance to t h e full i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e s e f o r e i g n e r s w h e n
o n e c o n s i d e r s t h a t by 1990 West G e r m a n y h a d i n t e g r a t e d 15 m i l l i o n
33

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Chapter 8

refugees, i m m i g r a n t s , a n d f o r e i g n e r s w h o w e r e e i t h e r G e r m a n o r of
G e r m a n d e s c e n t t h u s also Neuburger, n e w citizens: "If a foreign
p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 4.8 m i l l i o n is a d d e d , n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d of t h e
West G e r m a n p o p u l a t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d f r o m i m m i g r a t i o n m o v e m e n t s
since W o r l d W a r I I . "
If t h e n o t i o n t h a t "we a r e n o t a l a n d of i m m i g r a t i o n " c o n t i n u e s to
b e p u t f o r t h in t h e political p u b l i c s p h e r e in t h e face of this evi
d e n c e , this i n d i c a t e s t h a t it is a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a d e e p - s e a t e d m e n
talityand t h a t a painful c h a n g e is n e c e s s a r y in t h e way we conceive
of ourselves as a n a t i o n . It is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t o u r n a t u r a l i z a t i o n
d e c i s i o n s a r e b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c i p l e of a n c e s t r y a n d n o t , as in o t h e r
W e s t e r n n a t i o n s , o n t h e p r i n c i p l e of territoriality. T h e s h o r t c o m i n g s
d e s c r i b e d a b o v e in t h e way G e r m a n y is d e a l i n g with t h e p r o b l e m of
i m m i g r a t i o n m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t t h e historical b a c k g r o u n d
of t h e G e r m a n s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m s e l v e s as a n a t i o n of
Volksgenossen o r e t h n i c c o m r a d e s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d l a n g u a g e a n d cul
t u r e . A n y o n e w h o is b o r n in F r a n c e is c o n s i d e r e d to b e F r e n c h a n d
h o l d s t h e r i g h t s of a F r e n c h citizen. I n G e r m a n y , u n t i l t h e e n d of
t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r fine distinctions w e r e still b e i n g m a d e b e
t w e e n Deutschen, o r citizens of G e r m a n d e s c e n t , Reichsdeutschen, o r
G e r m a n citizens of n o n - G e r m a n d e s c e n t , a n d Volksdeutschen, o r indi
viduals of G e r m a n d e s c e n t living i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
3 4

In France national consciousness could develop within the frame

w o r k of a t e r r i t o r i a l state, while i n G e r m a n y it was originally l i n k e d
with t h e r o m a n t i c a l l y i n s p i r e d e d u c a t e d middle-class n o t i o n of a
Kulturnation,
a n a t i o n d e f i n e d by its c u l t u r e . T h i s i d e a r e p r e s e n t e d
a n i m a g i n a r y u n i t y t h a t h a d to seek s u p p o r t in a s h a r e d l a n g u a g e ,
t r a d i t i o n , a n d a n c e s t r y in o r d e r to t r a n s c e n d t h e reality of t h e exist
i n g small states in G e r m a n y . Still m o r e i m p o r t a n t was t h e fact t h a t
t h e F r e n c h n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o u l d d e v e l o p in s t e p with t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of d e m o c r a t i c civil liberties a n d in t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t
t h e sovereignty of t h e F r e n c h king, w h e r e a s G e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m
a r o s e o u t of t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t N a p o l e o n , t h u s a g a i n s t a n e x t e r n a l
e n e m y , i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e b a t t l e for d e m o c r a t i c civil liberties a n d
l o n g b e f o r e t h e kleindeutsche n a t i o n - s t a t e was i m p o s e d f r o m a b o v e .
H a v i n g e m e r g e d f r o m a "war of l i b e r a t i o n " of this k i n d , n a t i o n a l
c o n s c i o u s n e s s in G e r m a n y c o u l d b e l i n k e d with t h e p a t h o s of t h e

235
S t r u g g l e s for R e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e D e m o c r a t i c State

u n i q u e n e s s of its c u l t u r e a n d a n c e s t r y a p a r t i c u l a r i s m t h a t h a s
indelibly s t a m p e d t h e G e r m a n s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y t u r n e d away f r o m this Sonderbewufitsein o r sense of e x c e p t i o n a l n e s s after 1945, after t h e s h o c k of
t h e collapse of civilization in t h e Nazi mass e x t e r m i n a t i o n s , a s h o c k
it only g r a d u a l l y c a m e to t e r m s with. Loss of sovereignty a n d a
m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n in a p o l a r i z e d w o r l d r e i n f o r c e d this. R e u n i f i c a t i o n
a n d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e Soviet U n i o n h a v e c h a n g e d this constel
lation in a f u n d a m e n t a l way. H e n c e t h e r e a c t i o n s to t h e right-wing
radicalism t h a t h a s flared u p a g a i n a n d in thi c o n t e x t t h e d e c e p
tive d e b a t e o n asylum as wellraise t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e
e n l a r g e d F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c will c o n t i n u e o n its p a t h t o w a r d a m o r e
civilized politics o r w h e t h e r t h e o l d Sonderbewujitsein is b e i n g r e g e n
e r a t e d i n a different f o r m . T h i s q u e s t i o n is c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e fact
t h a t t h e p r o c e s s of n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n was p u s h e d t h r o u g h a n d
administratively m a n i p u l a t e d f r o m a b o v e a n d h a s set a false c o u r s e
for t h e c o u n t r y i n this r e s p e c t as well. Discussion a n d clarification of
t h e ethical-political s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e citizens of two G e r m a n
states with widely d i v e r g e n t historical fates is u r g e n t l y n e e d e d b u t
h a s n o t yet t a k e n p l a c e . T h e "accession" of n e w L a n d e r , o r f e d e r a l
statesa c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y d u b i o u s legal o p t i o n p r e v e n t e d a consti
t u t i o n a l d e b a t e , a n d p o s i t i o n s in t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e seat of t h e
G e r m a n capital a r e skewed. I n t h e m e a n t i m e t h e citizens of t h e
f o r m e r East G e r m a n y , h u m i l i a t e d in m a n y ways a n d d e p r i v e d of t h e i r
s p o k e s p e r s o n s a n d a political p u b l i c s p h e r e of t h e i r own, have o t h e r
p r o b l e m s to c o n t e n d with; in p l a c e of clearly a r t i c u l a t e d c o n t r i b u
tions to t h e d e b a t e t h e r e arise s m o l d e r i n g r e s e n t m e n t s .
All r e p r e s s i o n p r o d u c e s s y m p t o m s . O n e c h a l l e n g e after a n o t h e r
f r o m t h e Gulf War, Maastricht, t h e civil war in Yugoslavia, t h e asylum
issue a n d right-wing radicalism, to t h e d e p l o y m e n t of G e r m a n mili
t a r y forces o u t s i d e t h e N A T O a r e a a r o u s e s a sense of helplessness
in t h e political p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d in a n i m m o b i l i z e d g o v e r n m e n t .
T h e c h a n g e d c o n s t e l l a t i o n of p o w e r a n d a c h a n g e d d o m e s t i c situ
a t i o n certainly d e m a n d n e w r e s p o n s e s . T h e q u e s t i o n is, with w h a t
k i n d of c o n s c i o u s n e s s will G e r m a n y m a k e t h e a d a p t a t i o n s r e q u i r e d
if it c o n t i n u e s its p a t t e r n of r e a c t i n g with a d h o c decisions a n d
s u b l i m i n a l m o o d shifts?

236
Chapter 8

H i s t o r i a n s w h o d a s h off b o o k s with titles like "Back to History"

a n d "Fear of P o w e r " offer u s a b a c k w a r d - l o o k i n g "farewell to t h e old
F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c " t h a t p u r p o r t s to e x p o s e t h e r e c e n t l y c e l e b r a t e d
success story of p o s t w a r G e r m a n d e m o c r a c y as a Sonderweg o r special
p a t h of its own. T h e f o r m e r West G e r m a n y is said to h a v e e m b o d i e d
t h e f o r c e d a b n o r m a l i t y of a d e f e a t e d a n d d i v i d e d n a t i o n , a n d now,
h a v i n g r e c o v e r e d its n a t i o n a l g r e a t n e s s a n d sovereignty, it m u s t b e
l e d o u t of its u t o p i a n i s m , with its obliviousness to power, a n d b a c k
to t h e p a t h of self-conscious p r e e m i n e n c e in C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t h e
p a t h of p o w e r politics m a r k e d o u t by Bismarck. T h i s c e l e b r a t i o n of
t h e c a e s u r a of 1989 h i d e s t h e r e p e a t e d l y f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e for n o r
m a l i z a t i o n of t h o s e w h o d i d n o t w a n t to a c c e p t t h e c a e s u r a of 1 9 4 5 .
T h e y reject a n a l t e r n a t i v e t h a t d o e s n o t necessarily l e a d to different
o p t i o n s at every t u r n in t h e s h o r t r u n b u t i n s t e a d o p e n s u p a n o t h e r
p e r s p e c t i v e . I n this a l t e r n a t i v e view, t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e o l d Fed
e r a l R e p u b l i c t o t h e West r e p r e s e n t s n o t a s h r e w d b u t a t r a n s i t o r y
f o r e i g n policy decision, a n d a b o v e all n o t solely a political d e c i s i o n ,
b u t r a t h e r a p r o f o u n d intellectual b r e a k with t h o s e specifically Ger
m a n traditions that stamped the Wilhelminian Empire a n d contrib
u t e d to t h e downfall of t h e W e i m a r R e p u b l i c . T h a t b r e a k set t h e
stage for a shift in m e n t a l i t y t h a t affected b r o a d s e g m e n t s of t h e
p u b l i c after t h e y o u t h revolt of 1968 u n d e r t h e favorable c o n d i t i o n s
of a n affluent society, a shift t h a t m a d e it possible for d e m o c r a c y a n d
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state to take political a n d c u l t u r a l r o o t in G e r m a n
soil for t h e first t i m e . T o d a y w h a t is at stake is a d a p t i n g G e r m a n y ' s
political r o l e to n e w realities, w i t h o u t l e t t i n g t h e p r o c e s s of civilizing
politics t h a t was u n d e r w a y u n t i l 1989 b e b r o k e n off u n d e r t h e
p r e s s u r e of t h e e c o n o m i c a n d social p r o b l e m s of u n i f i c a t i o n , a n d
w i t h o u t sacrificing t h e n o r m a t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t s of a n a t i o n a l selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t is n o l o n g e r b a s e d o n ethnicity b u t f o u n d e d o n
citizenship.

3 5

287
Notes

73. Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen, p . 110. [This section is n o t included in the
English translations. Trans.]
74. Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, p . 33.
75. H. M. Enzensberger, Aussichten auf den Burgerkrieg (Frankfurt am Main, 1993),
pp. 73ff. See A. H o n n e t h , "Universalismus as moralische Falle?" Merkur 546/7 (1994):
867-883. Enzensberger n o t only bases his case on a highly selective description of
the current international situation which completely ignores the surprising expan
sion of constitutional regimes in Latin American, Africa, and Eastern Europe in the
last twenty years (cf. Czempiel, Weltpolitik im Umbruch, p p . 107ff.). H e also casually
transmutes the complex relationships between fundamentalist politics, on the one
hand, and social deprivations and the absence of liberal traditions, on the other, into
anthropological features. But precisely the expanded conception of peace points to
preventive, nonviolent strategies and highlights the pragmatic limitations to which
humanitarian interventions are subject, as is shown both by the example of Somalia
and the different situation in the former Yugoslavia. For a case-based analysis of
different types of interventions, see D. Senghaas, Wohin driftet die Welt?, p p . 185ff.
76. A. Gehlen, Moral und Hypermoral (Frankfurt am Main, 1969).
77. Schmitt, Glossarium, p. 259.
78. Ibid., p . 229; also The Concept of the Political, p . 63.
79. Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, p. 54.
80. Ibid., p . 36 [translation modified].
81. See Habermas, Kleine Polilische Schriften I-IV (Frankfurt am Main, 1981), p p . 3 2 8 339.
82. K. Gimther, "Kampf gegen das Bose? Wider die ethische Aufrustung der Kriminalpolitik," Kritische Justiz 17 (1994): 135-157.
83. Ibid., p. 144.
84. Ibid., p . 144.

Chapter 8
1. Cf. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, trans. W. Rehg (Cambridge, MA, 1996),
chap. 3.
2. A. H o n n e t h , Struggles for Recognition, trans. J. Andersen (Cambridge, 1994).
3. Cf. Ch. Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism: Examining the
Politics of Recognition, rev. ed., A. Gutmann, ed., (Princeton, 1994), pp. 25-73.
4. A. Gutmann, "Introduction," Multiculturalism, p . 8.
5. Cf. Taylor, in Multiculturalism, pp. 58-59.

288
Notes

6. Ibid.
7. J. Habermas, "Individuation through Socialization," in Postmetaphysical Thinking,
trans. W. M. Hohengarten (Cambridge, MA, 1992), p p . 149-204.
8. D. L. Rhode, Justice and Gender (Cambridge, MA, 1989), Part 1.
9. Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs," in Unruly Practices (Minneapolis, 1989),
pp. 144-160.
10. S. Benhabib, Situating the Self (New York, 1992), Part 2.
11. P. Berman, ed., Debating PC. (New York, 1992); see also J. Searle, "Storm Over
the University," in the same volume, pp. 85-123.
12. J. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, trans. F. Lawrence (Cam
bridge, MA, 1987).
13. As Gutmann remarks of the deconstructionist method, 'This reductionist argu
ment about intellectual standards is often made on behalf of groups that are underrepresented in the university and disadvantaged in society, but it is hard to see how
it can come to the aid of anyone. The argument is self-undermining, both logically
and practically. By its internal logic, deconstructionism has nothing more to say for
the view that intellectual standards are masks for the will to political power than that
it too reflects the will to power of deconstructionists. But why then bother with
intellectual life at all, which is not the fastest, surest, or even most satisfying path to
political power, if it is political power that one is really after?" "Introduction," Multi
culturalism, pp. 18-19.
14. R. Dworkin, Taking Bights Seriously (Cambridge, MA, 1977).
15. R. Beiner, Political Judgment (Chicago, 1994), p. 138.
16. P. Alter, Nationalism (New York, 1989).
17. This essay was written in early 1993.
18. W. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford, 1991).
19. S. Wolf, "Comment," in Multiculturalism, p. 79.
20. Cf. the Supreme Court decision in Wisconsin v.Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972).
21. D. Cohn-Bendit and T. Schmid, Heimat Babylon (Hamburg, 1992), p p . 316ff.
22. J. Habermas, Justification and Application: Remarks on Discourse Ethics, trans.
C. Cronin (Cambridge, MA, 1993).
23. J. Rawls, ' T h e Idea of an Overlapping Consensus," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
7 (1987): 1-25.
24. J. Habermas, The New Conservatism: Cultural Criticism and the Historians' Debate,
trans. S. W. Nicholsen (Cambridge, MA, 1989).

289
Notes

25. D. J. van de Kaa, "European Migration at the End of History," European Review 1
(January 1993): 94.
26. E. Wiegand, "Auslanderfeindlichkeit in der Festung Europa. Einstellungen zu
Fremden im europaischen Vergleich," Informationsdienst Soziale Indikatoren (ZUMA),
no. 9 (1993): 1-4.
27. M. Walzer, "What Does It Mean to Be an American?" Social Research 57 (1990):
591-614. Walzer notes that the communitarian conception does n o t take account of
the complex composition of a multicultural society (p. 613).
28. R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA,
1992), pp. 128ff.
29. Cohn-Bendit and Schmid, Heimat Babylon, chap. 8.
30. J. H. Carens, "Aliens and Citizens," Review of Politics 49 (1987): 271; cf. also
J. Habermas, "Citizenship and National Identity," in Between Facts and Norms, pp. 4 9 1 515.
31. R C. Emmer, "Intercontinental Migration," European Review 1 (January 1993):
67-74: "After 1800 the dramatic increase in the economic growth of Western Europe
could only be maintained as an 'escape hatch.' T h e escape of sixty-one million
Europeans after 1800 allowed the European economies to create such a mix of the
factors of production as to allow for record economic growth and to avoid a situation
in which economic growth was absorbed by an increase in population. After the
Second World War, Europeans also benefitted from intercontinental migration since
the colonial empires forced many colonial subjects to migrate to the metropolis. In
this particular period there was n o danger of overpopulation . . . . Many of the
colonial migrants coming to Europe had been well trained and they arrived at exactly
the time when skilled labor was at a premium in rebuilding Europe's economy"
(pp. 72f.).
32. With a justification that is outrageous from a constitutional point of view, on May
14, 1996 the second senate of the Federal Constitutional Court upheld the constitu
tionality of the clause concerning "third countries" and the clause defining "safe
countries of origin" laid down in the revised version of the Basic Law. This ruling
subordinates the constitution to functional imperatives that call for p r o m p t expul
sion of asylum seekers. As Heribert Prantl wrote (in the Suddeutschen Zeitung of May
14/15, 1996): "Quick expulsion is more important to the constitutional court . . .
than the right to asylum, more important than h u m a n dignity, more important than
the principle of due process."
33. K J. Bade, "Immigration and Integration in Germany since 1945," European
Review 1 (January 1993): 75-79.
34. Bade, "Immigration and Integration," p. 77.
35. See the title essay in J. Habermas, Die Normalitdt einer Berliner Republik (Frankfurt
am Main, 1995).