.

Anlaan
1996

ME 445
INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS

PROCESS
PLANNING

. Anlaan
1996

PROCESS PLANNING
The 21st century engineering response to world competition is concurrent
engineering.
Concurrent engineering requires the integration of all aspects of the
product life cycle, that is:
design,
manufacturing,
assembly,
distribution,
service,
disposal
Two important areas in the life cycle of a product are design and
manufacturing. Process planning serves as an integration link between
design and manufacturing.
Process planning consists of preparing a set of instructions that describe
how to fabricate a part or build an assembly which will satisfy
engineering design specifications.
The resulting set of instructions may include any or all of the following:
operation sequence,
machines,
tools,
materials,
tolerances,
cutting parameters,
processes (such as how to heat-treat),
jigs,
fixtures,
time standards,
setup details,
inspection criteria,
gauges,
graphical representations of the part in various stages of
completion.

. Anlaan
1996

Process planning emerges as a key factor in CAD/CAM integration

because it is the link between CAD and CAM. After engineering designs
are communicated to manufacturing, either on paper or electronic media,
the process planning function converts the designs into instructions used
to make the specified part.
CIM cannot occur until this process is automated; consequently,
automated process planning is the link between CAD and CAM.

CAD

CAM

Conceptual design
Mathematical analysis
Geometric data
(graphical representation)

Process design
Process planning (CNC codes)
Tool selection
Facilities management

CAPP
COMPUTER AIDED
PROCESS
PLANNING

Some typical benefits of automated process planning include:

50% increase in process planner productivity
40% increase in capacity of existing equipment
25% reduction in setup costs
12% reduction in tooling
10% reduction in scrap and rework
10% reduction in shop labor
6% reduction in work in process
4% reduction in material

. Anlaan
1996

If the process planners productivity is significantly improved:

More time can be spent on methods, improvements and cost-reduction

activities.
Routings can be consistently optimized.
Manufacturing instructions can be provided in greater detail
Preproduction lead times can be reduced.
Responsiveness to engineering charges can be increased.

The development of process plans involves a number of activities:

Analysis of part requirement

Selection of raw workpiece
Determining manufacturing operations and their sequences
Selection of machine tools
Selection of tools, workholding devices, and inspection equipment
Determining machining conditions and manufacturing time

ANALYSIS OF PART REQUIRENTS:

The part requirements can be defined as:
part features
process determination
steps of processes
dimensions
machine tool size
tolerance specifications
machine tool capability
CNC code generation

. Anlaan
1996

SELECTION OF RAW WORKPIECE:

It involves such attributes as:
shape
standard materials
rod
slab
blank
profile
pre-shaped materials
cast
forged
extruded
size
machine tool size
material
cutting conditions
tool selection
DETERMINING MANUFACTURING OPTIONS AND THEIR
SEQUENCES:
selection of processes
availability
accuracy requirement
suitability
cost
sequence of operations
work holding method
cutting tool availability

SELECTION OF MACHINE TOOLS:

work piece related attributes
part features
dimensions
dimensional tolerances
raw material form
. Anlaan
1996

 machine tool related attributes

process capability
size
mode of operation
manual
semiautomatic
automatic
CNC
tooling capabilities
type of tool
size of tool
tool changing capability
manual
automatic
production volume related information
production quantity
order frequency

EVALUATION OF MACHINE TOOL ALTERNATIVES:

Machine tool capability:

c o n tr o l lin e s

-3

-2

-1

0
6 8 .2 6 %

9 5 .4 6 %
9 9 .7 3 %

. Anlaan
1996

MACHINING CAPABILITY
2
x
x

or = R
d2

n 1

MC =

6
100 (%)
tolerance

MC < 100%
MC = 100%
MC > 100%
have to be sorted)

capability is good
process is just acceptable
It is not acceptable ( or parts produced would

PROCESS CAPABILITY
PC = 1/MC
PC = tolerance/6
PC > 1 process is acceptable
unit cost of product:

The distribution of the size of finished parts are assumed to be normal

lower
tolerance

upper
tolerance

rejected
parts

rejected
parts

acceptedparts

tu
Z =

tl
l
Z =

where:

Zu and Zl are the standard normal variates for the

upper and lower tolerance limits,
tu and tl are the upper and lower tolerance
limits
is the mean of the population
is the standard deviation

. Anlaan
1996

portion of
accepted parts (AP) = (Zu) - (Zl)
where:

(Zu) is the probability of parts having

the dimension less than the upper tolerance value
(Zl) is the probability of parts having the
dimension less than the lower tolerance value

portion of rejected parts (SC) = 1- AP

SC = 1- (Zu) + (Zl)
Yi = Yo + Ys
where:

Yi = number of parts being machined

Yo = number of accepted parts
Ys = number of rejected (scraped) parts

s
Y
SC = i
Y
i
Y
i
k = o
Y
s
Y
s
k = o
Y

SC
1- SC
ki = 1 + ks
ks =

where:

ki and ks are the technological coefficients

material balance

Yi = ki Yo

10

Ys = ks Yo

11

. Anlaan
1996

cost of a part

Xi Yi + Yi f(Yi) = Xo Yo+ Xs Ys
Xo = ki Xi - ks Xs + ki f(Yi)
where:

Xi is the unit cost of a raw part

Xo is the unit cost (value) of a machined part
Xs is the unit value of a scraped part
f(Yi) is the processing (machining) cost per unit

average manufacturing lead time

T = S + t ki Yo
where:

T is the average lead time

S is the setup time
t is the average machining (processing) time

EXAMPLE:
Suppose 500 units of a shaft are to be manufactured within

25 0.075mm. Suppose there are three alternative machine tools

as follows:
Types of machine tools
Turret lathe
Engine lathe
Automatic screw
machine

Standard deviation; Processing cost per Processing time per

Unit ($/unit)
Unit (min/unit)
Setup time (min)
(mm)
0.175
7
1.00
15
0.025
10
0.90
30
0.013
15
0.70
60

Unit raw material cost = $10.00

Unit salvage value = $2.00
Process average = 25.038 mm

12

. Anlaan
1996

Determine the most suitable machine tool for the job.

(Take the turret lathe case first)

Zu = 25.075- 25.038 = 0.21

0.175
Zl = 24.925- 25.038 = - 0.64
0.175
Use a normal distribution table to determine the scrap rate.
(Zu) = 0.5832
(Zl) = 0.2611
% of parts above upper tolerance limit =
(1 - 0.5832) x 100 = 41.68
% of parts below lower tolerance limit =
(0.2611) x 100 = 26.11
total scrap:
SC = 0.4168 + 0.2511 = 0.6779
technological coefficient of scrap:

ks =

SC = 0.6779 = 2.1047
1- SC
1- 0.6779

technological coefficient of input:

ki = 1 + ks = 1 + 2.1047 = 3.1047
number of units scraped:
Ys = ks Yo = 2.1047 x 500 = 1052
number of raw part required:
13

Yi = ki Yo = 3.1047 x 500 = 1552

14

. Anlaan
1996

manufacturing lead time:

T = S + t Yi = 15+1.00 x 1552 = 1567 min
unit output cost:
Xo = ki Xi - ks Xs + ki f(Yi)
Xo = 3.1047 x 10.00 - 2.1047 x 2.00 + 3.1047 x 7.00
Xo = 48.47 $/part (for turret lathe case)
Type of machine tools

Unit cost
($/unit)

Turret lathe
Engine lathe
Automatic screw machine

Scrap
(units)
48.57
21.28
25.03

1052
33
1

Manufacturing lead time

(min)
1567
510
410

Turret lathe should not be the choice. However there is a trade-off

between the unit cost and the number of units of scrap as well as the
manufacturing lead time for the engine lathe and automatic screw
machine.
SELECTION OF TOOLS, WORKHOLDING DEVICES, AND
INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:
Tools
tool material
shape
size
nose radius
tolerance
Workholding devices

The primary purpose of a workholding device is to position the

workpiece accurately and hold it securely.
manually operated devices
collets
chucks
mandrel
faceplates

15

. Anlaan
1996

designed devices
power chucks
specially designed fixtures and jigs
flexible fixtures used in flexible manufacturing systems
Inspection equipment
on-line inspection equipment
off-line inspection equipment

DETERMINING CUTTING CONDITION AND MANUFACTURIN

TIMES:
Machining conditions
cutting speed
feed rate
depth of cut
Object is to set the cutting conditions in such a way that the economically
best production state is achieved.
What is the economically best production state?
It is :
1- Minimum production cost
or
2- Maximum production rate
CHOICE OF FEED
Finishing cut: Proper feed rate to provide desired surface quality
(relatively low)
Roughing cut: Feed rate is not effective as cutting speed over tool life,
therefore, feed should be set to maximum possible value
limitations:
maximum tool force that the machine or the tool can stand and the
maximum power available
CHOICE OF CUTTING SPEED
Cutting speed is set to provide the optimum tool life.

16

. Anlaan
1996

High V :

Low V:

low tool life

high tool cost
high production rate
short production time
high tool life
low tool cost
low production rate
long production time

MINIMUM COST PER PIECE:

Cost per
component, Cu = nonproductive cost
+ machining cost
+ tool changing cost
+ tooling cost

Cu co t l co t c co t d t ac ct t ac
T
T
where:
co = labor and overhead cost ($/min)
ct = tool cost per cutting edge ($/edge)
tl = nonproductive time (min/piece)
tc = machining time (min/piece)
td = tool changing time (min/edge)
For a single pass turning operation:

t c LD
vf
where:
tc = machining time (min/piece)
L = length of workpiece (mm)
D = diameter of workpiece (mm)
v = cutting speed (mm/min)

f = feed rate (mm/rev)

. Anlaan
1996

Taylors equation for tool life:

vTn C
where:
v = cutting speed (mm/min)
T = tool life (min/edge)
n = Taylor exponent
C = cutting speed for one minute of tool life
(mm/min)
Combine the above equation one can get the cost per piece equation:

1
n

Cu co t l co LD co LD v t d ct LD v
vf
vf C
vf C
Differentiating this equation with respect to cutting speed and equating to
zero, then solving for cutting speed will give the cutting speed for
minimum production cost.

v min

C
1 1 co t d c t
n
co

Tmin 1 1 co t d ct
n
co
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE:
Time per
piece:

Tu = nonproductive time
+machining time
+tool changing time

1
n

Tu t l t c t d t c
T
or
1
n

LD

LD
v
Tu t l

t
vf
vf C d

. Anlaan
1996

Differentiating Tu with respect to v and equating it to zero, then solving

for v will give the cutting speed for maximum production rate:

v max

11 t
d
n

and

Tmax 1 1 t d
n

MANUFACTURING LEAD TIME:

Lead time = S + Tu Q
where:
S = major set up time
Tu = production time per piece
Q = lot size
EXAMPLE:
A lot of 500 units of steel rods 30 cm long and 6 cm in diameter is turned
on a CNC lathe at a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev and a depth of 1 mm. The tool
life is given by:
vT0.2 = 200 (m/min)
The other data are:
Machine labor rate
Machine overhead rate
Grinding labor rate
Grinding overhead rate
Workpiece loading and
unloading time
Tool
Cost of tool
Grinding time
Tool changing time

= 10 $/hr
= 50% of labor
= 10 $/hr
= 50% of grinding labor
= 0.5 min/piece
= Brazed insert
= 27.96 $/tool
= 2 min/edge
= 0.5 min/edge

Tool can be ground only five times before it is discarded.

. Anlaan
1996

Determine:
a) Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to minimize the cost
b) Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to maximize the
production rate
c) Minimum cost per component, time per component and corresponding
lead time
d) Maximum production rate, corresponding cost per component, and
lead time
SOLUTION:

a)

c0 10 0.5x10 = 0.25 $ / min

60
ct 27.96
6
Tmin

2(10 0.5x10)
5.16 $ / edge
60

1
cotd ct

co

1
.
0.25x0.5 516
Tmin
1
84.56 min

0.2
0.25
vmin Cn 200 0.2 82.3 m / min
Tmin 84.56

b)
Tmax 1 1 t d 1 1 0.5 2 min
n
0.2
vmax Cn 200
1741
. m / min
0
.
2
Tmax 2

. Anlaan
1996

c) Minimum cost:
tc LD = 3.14 x 300 x 60 = 3.4 min / piece
vminf
1000 x 82.3 x 0.2
Cu co t l co t c co t d t ac ct t ac
T
T
Cu = 0.25 $/min x 0.5 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 3.43 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min x 0.50 min/edge
+ 5.16 $/edge x 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min
Cu = 1.20 $/piece
Time per component:

Tu t l t c t d t c
T
Tu = 0.5 min/piece
+ 3.43 min/piece
+ 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min x 0.5 min/edge
Lead Time =

Tu = 3.95 min/piece 500 units x 3.95 min/piece

Lead Time = 1976.4 min

d) Maximum production rate:

LD = 3.14 x 300 x 60
= 1.62 min / piece
vminf
1000 x 174.1 x 0.2

. Anlaan
1996

Production time per piece:

Tu t l t c t d t c
T
Tu = 0.5 min/piece
+ 1.62 min/piece
+ 1.62 min/piece x () edge/min
x 0.5 min/edge
Tu = 2.53 min/piece
Lead Time = 500 units x 2.53 min/piece
Lead Time = 1264.4 min
Cost for maximum production rate:

Cu co t l co t c co t d t ac ct t ac
T
T
Cu = 0.25 $/min x 0.5 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 1.62 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 1.62 min/piece
x (1/2) edge/min x 0.50 min/edge
+ 5.16 $/edge x 1.62 min/piece
x (1/2) edge/min
Cu = 4.82 $/piece

THE PRINCIPAL PROCESS PLANNING APPROACHES:

Manual experience-based process planning method
Computer-aided process planning method

. Anlaan
1996

MANUAL EXPERIENCE-BASED PROCESS PLANNING METHOD:

most widely used method
time consuming
inconsistent plans
requires highly skilled, therefore, costly planners
COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS PLANNING METHOD:
it can systematically produce accurate and consistent process plans
it can reduce the cost and lead time of process planning
less skilled process planners may be employed
it increases the productivity of process planners
manufacturing cost, manufacturing lead time and work standards can
easily be interfaced with the CAPP system
Product design and
development request
Organizational
planning
system

Part list

Production
order

Geometry data

Parts master file

MRP
Material resource
planning
Capacity planning

Corrected data

CAD

CAPP

Process plan
Machine tool
Fixture
Data bank
Actual
data

CAM

NC
program

Corrected
data

Production control

Acomputeraidedprocessplanningframework

There are two basic methods used in computer-aided process planning:

1) Variant CAPP method
2) Generative CAPP method

. Anlaan
1996

The Variant CAPP Method:

process plan is developed for a master part which represent the
common features of a family of parts
a process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying, and
retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary
modifications for the new part
to use the method efficiently, parts classifying coding system must be
used
Advantages of variant process planning:
efficient processing and evaluation of complicated activities and
decisions, thus reducing the time and labor requirements
standardized procedures by structuring manufacturing
knowledge of the process planers to companys needs
lower development and hardware costs and shorter development
times
Disadvantages of variant process planning:
maintaining consistency in editing is difficult
it is difficult to adequately accommodate various combinations
of
material,
geometry,
size,
precision,
quality,
alternative processing sequences,
machine loading
The quality of the final process plan generated depends to a large
extent on the knowledge and the experience of the process
planners
The Generative CAPP Method:
In a generative approach, process plans are generated by means of
decision logic
formulas
technology algorithm
geometry based data
to perform uniquely the many processing decisions for converting a part
from raw material to a finished state

. Anlaan
1996

There are basically two major components of generative process planning

system:
a geometry based coding scheme
process knowledge in the form of decision logic and data
Geometry Based Coding Scheme:
The objective is to define all geometric features for all process-related
surfaces together with feature dimensions, locations, and tolerances, and
the surface finish desired on the features.
The level of details is much greater in a generative system than a variant
system.
Process Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data:
In this phase, part geometry requirement is matched with manufacturing
capabilities in the form of decision logic and data.
Selection of
processes
machine tools
tools
jigs and fixtures
inspection equipment
sequence of operations
are achieved.
Finally, operation instruction sheets (for manual operations) or NC
codes (for CNC) machines are generated.
DECISION TABLES:
Decision tables provide a convenient way to document manufacturing
knowledge.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the problem of the selection of lathes or grinding machines for
jobs involving turning or grinding operations. Data on conditions such as
lot size, diameter, surface finish and tolerance desired are available.

. Anlaan
1996

They are compiled in form of a decision table as shown below.

Conditions
LS< = 10
LS>= 50
LS>= 4000
Relatively large diameter
Relatively small diameters
SF 2-3 m
SF 1-2 m
+-0.05 < tol <+- 0.1 mm
+-0.01 < tol <+- 0.05 mm
+-0.005 < tol <+- 0.01 mm
Engine lathe
Turret Lathe
Automatic screw machine
Centerless grinding machine

Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3

X
X
X

Rule 4

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
1

X
X
X

FUTURE TRENDS IN COMPUTER-AIDED PROGESS PLANNING:

One of the major strategies for reducing cost and lead time is to integrate
various functional areas such as design, process planning, manufacturing,
and inspection.
There are a number of difficulties in achieving the goal of complete
integration.
For example, each functional area has its own stand-alone relational
database and associated database management system. The software and
hardware incompatibilities among these systems pose difficulties in full
integration. There is a need to develop a single-database technology to
address these difficulties.
Other challenges include automated translation of the design dimensions
and tolerances into manufacturing dimensions and tolerances considering
process capabilities and dimensional chains, automatic recognition of
features, and making the CAPP systems affordable to the small and
medium-scale manufacturing companies.