Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Manuscript Draft
Manuscript Number: PROTEC-D-14-01020
Title: Design and Fabrication of Copper/Diamond Functionally Graded Materials by Centrifugal
Sintered-Casting Method: Application to Grinding Wheel for Machining CFRP
Article Type: Research Paper
Keywords: functionally graded material; metal-matrix composite; diamond; centrifugal sintering;
centrifugal casting; CFRP
Abstract: This study aims to design and fabricate copper/diamond functionally graded materials
(FGMs) by the originally-designed material processing: the combination of centrifugal sintering and
centrifugal casting. This combinational method is referred to hereinafter as centrifugal sinteredcasting method. The copper/diamond FGM has been designed for grinding wheel which is applicable
for precision machining of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP). At first, a ring-shaped copper-matrix
preform including diamond abrasive grains has been produced by centrifugal sintering. Subsequently,
molten copper has been poured into the fabricated preform by centrifugal casting to obtain
copper/diamond FGM. Effects of fabrication conditions (i.e., sintering temperature, holding time and
casting temperature) on microstructure of the fabricated copper/diamond FGMs have been
investigated. As a result, copper/diamond FGMs have been successfully obtained by centrifugal
sintered-casting method. Precision drilling without burr and delamination has been achieved in CFRP
plates by using a copper/diamond FGM as grinding wheel.

Cover Letter: this item must contain a statement that the submission is original and is not being submitted for publication elsew

Cover Letter for Submission of a Paper to Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Takahiro KUNIMINE
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington
Box 352600 Seattle, WA 98195-2600

June 7, 2014

Dear Editors-in-Chief,
We wish to submit a new manuscript entitled Design and Fabrication of Copper/Diamond Functionally Graded
Materials by Centrifugal Sintered-Casting Method: Application to Grinding Wheel for Machining CFRP for
consideration by the Journal of Materials Processing Technology.
We confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently under consideration
for publication elsewhere.
In this paper, we report on new fabrication process of copper/diamond functionally graded materials and its
machinability for CFRP plates as a grinding wheel. This is significant because precision drilling without burr and
delamination has been achieved in CFRP plate by using fabricated copper/diamond FGMs as grinding wheel. The
paper should be of interest to readers in the areas of casting and mechanical machining. We believe our findings
would appeal to the readership of the Journal of Materials Processing Technology.
Please address all correspondence concerning this manuscript to me at kuniminet9@gmail.com.
Thank you for your consideration of this manuscript.
Sincerely,
Takahiro KUNIMINE

Research Highlights

Highlights

The originally-designed material processing has been developed.

Functionally graded grinding wheel has been designed for CFRP machining.

The originally-designed functionally graded grinding wheel has been fabricated.

Fabrication condition of functionally graded grinding wheel has been optimized.

Precision drilling without burr and delamination has been achieved in CFRP plates.

*Manuscript
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Design and Fabrication of Copper/Diamond Functionally Graded Materials

by Centrifugal Sintered-Casting Method:
Application to Grinding Wheel for Machining CFRP

Takahiro KUNIMINE a, 1, *, Masafumi SHIBUYA a,

Hisashi SATO a and Yoshimi WATANABE a

Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology,

Gokiso-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8555, Japan

Present address
1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington,

Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA

*Corresponding author
E-mail: kuniminet9@gmail.com
Phone number: +1-206-769-7498

Abstract

This study aims to design and fabricate copper/diamond functionally graded materials (FGMs)

by the originally-designed material processing: the combination of centrifugal sintering and centrifugal

casting.

This combinational method is referred to hereinafter as centrifugal sintered-casting method.

The copper/diamond FGM has been designed for grinding wheel which is applicable for precision

machining of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP).

At first, a ring-shaped copper-matrix preform

including diamond abrasive grains has been produced by centrifugal sintering.

Subsequently, molten

copper has been poured into the fabricated preform by centrifugal casting to obtain copper/diamond FGM.

Effects of fabrication conditions (i.e., sintering temperature, holding time and casting temperature) on

microstructure of the fabricated copper/diamond FGMs have been investigated.

As a result,

copper/diamond FGMs have been successfully obtained by centrifugal sintered-casting method.

Precision drilling without burr and delamination has been achieved in CFRP plates by using a

copper/diamond FGM as grinding wheel.

Keywords: functionally graded material; metal-matrix composite; diamond; centrifugal sintering;

centrifugal casting; CFRP

Introduction

Nowadays carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) is widely used as main structural parts of

airplane due to its high strength, stiffness and lightweight.

However, it is well known that CFRP has

some specific problems in machining by common drills, such as fiber pullout, delamination, burrs and

splintering for its high strength and structure.

Thus, these problems have led numerous researchers to

the challenges for precision machining in CFRP.

In particular, precision machining in CFRP has been

the key issue mainly in the airplane industry to obtain good hole-quality.

studied drilling CFRP at high speed for reducing machining time.

Lin and Chen (1996) have

Chen (1997) has proposed a concept

of delamination factor to analyze and compare the delamination degree easily in drilling of CFRP

composite laminates.

Faraz et al. (2009) have reported drilling CFRP by some drill bits based on the

concept of delamination factor as well.

These results show that delamination degree become worse with

increasing drilling thrust force or number of drilled holes.

needed in drilling CFRP.

For this reason, tool change is frequently

Therefore, improvement of tool life for machining CFRP is also important

subject since high-priced diamond grains have been widely used as abrasive.

In recent years, Watanabe et al. (2011) have developed a novel CFRP-machining equipment, i.e.,

gyro-driving grinding wheel system for machining CFRP as a solution for the problem related to fiber

pullout, delamination, burrs and splintering.

This machining equipment uses a grinding wheel instead of

drill bits for drilling (Watanabe et al., 2011).

In addition, metal-based diamond grinding wheels for this

novel machining system have been also fabricated by centrifugal mixed-powder method as reported by

Kunimine et al. (2012).

As grinding wheel is subjected to the torsion force in gyro-driving grinding

wheel system, equipped grinding wheels need toughness for desirable mechanical properties (Watanabe et

al., 2011).

Large holes in CFRP plates without delamination, burr and splintering have been

successfully obtained by this machining system equipped with metal-based diamond grinding wheel

(Watanabe et al., 2011).

Meanwhile, functionally graded materials (FGMs) are well known as a relatively new class of

inhomogeneous composite materials.

In FGMs, the materials have property gradient caused by a

position-dependent chemical composition, microstructure or atomic order (Kieback et al., 2003).

Generally, these FGMs have been fabricated based on powder metallurgy or melt processing technique

(Kieback et al., 2003).

As a melt processing technique to fabricate metal based-FGMs, various kinds of

centrifugal method have been developed: centrifugal casting (Watanabe et al., 1999), centrifugal in situ

method (Watanabe et al., 2005), centrifugal mixed-powder method (Watanabe et al., 2009) and so on.

In

centrifugal mixed-powder method developed by Watanabe et al. (2009), molten metal or alloy has been

poured into a mold having pre-designed powder mixture.

It has been shown that FGM-ring reinforced

with nano-particles can be successfully fabricated by centrifugal mixed-powder method (Watanabe et al.,

2009).

However, in the case of centrifugal mixed-powder method, the pre-designed powder mixture

tends to flow during centrifugal casting as reported by Miura-Fujiwara et al. (2012).

In the present study, as an attempt to improve the problems in centrifugal mixed-powder method,

fabrication of metal/diamond FGMs have been performed by the originally-designed material processing:

the combination of centrifugal sintering and centrifugal casting.

to hereinafter as centrifugal sintered-casting method.

This combinational method is referred

Effects of fabrication conditions (i.e., sintering

temperature, holding time and casting temperature) on microstructure of the fabricated metal/diamond

FGMs have been systematically investigated for application to grinding wheel.

Optimized fabrication

condition of metal/diamond functionally graded grinding wheel has been discussed by investigating the

volume fraction and distribution of diamond grains in metal matrix as well.

In addition, this study also

aims to reduce the consumption of diamond abrasive grains used for grinding wheel by design of

functionally graded diamond grinding wheel based on the concept of FGMs.

Materials Design in Grinding Wheel for Machining CFRP

For machining CFRP, we have newly designed a grinding wheel based on the concept of FGMs.

Figures 1 show schematic illustrations showing a conventional and a functionally graded grinding wheel.

In conventional grinding wheel, abrasive grains are homogeneously distributed in the base metal as

shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Schematic illustrations showing a conventional and a newly designed functionally graded

grinding wheel.

In the case of precision machining in CFRP by using grinding wheel, abrasive grains in inner part of the

grinding wheel is not necessary due to a severe standard of hole size.

functionally graded grinding wheel as shown in Fig. 1.

Here, we propose a concept of a

In functionally graded grinding wheel, abrasive

grains are only distributed in the outer part of grinding wheel.

Therefore, reduction in consumption of

abrasive grains will be achieved by functionally graded grinding wheel.

Furthermore, shaping of

grinding wheel such as equipment of pulley indeed become easier in this functionally graded grinding

wheel.

Meanwhile, electroplated grinding wheel are commercially available.

has structure having abrasive grains distributed in the outer part of the one.

This grinding wheel also

In this grinding wheel, as

abrasive grains are fixed around base metal by electroplating, electroplated grinding wheel has an

interface between the base metal and electroplated abrasive layer.

origin of delamination of electroplated abrasive layer.

wheel have no interface of this kind.

This interface sometimes becomes

On the other hand, functionally graded grinding

Thus, this structure prevents abrasive grain from detachment.

This is also advantageous for functionally graded grinding wheel.

Figure 2 shows the schematic illustration showing the process of centrifugal sintered-casting

method.

Fig. 2 The schematic illustration showing the process of centrifugal sintered-casting method.

In the centrifugal sintered-casting method, ring-shaped metal-matrix preform including abrasive grains is

produced by centrifugal sintering at first.

Pre-designed powder mixture of abrasive grains (dispersion

particles) and metal particles for matrix is inserted into a rotating mold as shown in Fig. 2 (a).

Subsequently, the powder mixture is sintered under the centrifugal force as shown in Fig. 2 (b). Then,

molten matrix metal is poured into the fabricated preform by centrifugal casting to obtain metal/diamond

FGM as shown in Fig. 2 (c).

As a result, the molten matrix metal penetrates into the space between the

particles by the centrifugal force.

from molten matrix.

At the same time, metal particles for matrix are melted by the heat

Finally, a ring or disc shaped FGM with abrasive grains distributed on its surface

can be obtained as shown in Fig. 2 (d).

In this study, copper and diamond has been selected as matrix metal and abrasive grain,

respectively.

Copper is optimum material as base metal for its mechanical properties and high thermal

conductivity.

Diamond abrasive grains are commonly used for machining CFRP.

Experimental Procedure

Pure copper powder of 99.9% purity with dendritic morphology and diamond powder having

sizes in the range of 40 - 55 m were used as primary materials.

Figure 3 shows the SEM micrograph of

the copper powder.

Fig. 3 The SEM micrograph of the copper powder with dendritic morphology.

This copper powder was uniformly mixed with diamond powder.

The volume fractions of diamond in

powder mixtures have been chosen as 10 vol.% and 25 vol.%, respectively.

The pre-designed powder mixtures were set in the cylindrical mold having rotation axis with 20

mm in diameter and 30 mm in length, respectively.

vacuum.

These molds were heated at 623 K for 1 h in

Then, the mixed powders were sintered in the spinning cylindrical mold under the centrifugal

force of about 1100 G at 1073 - 1273 K for 1-3 h in vacuum, respectively.

centrifugal force to gravity ( G number).

Here,

G is the ratio of

The centrifugal sintering conditions of each fabricated

preforms are listed in Table 1.

Table 1

Centrifugal sintering conditions for fabrication of preform under the centrifugal force of 1100

After centrifugal sintering, rotation of the mold was stopped at 873 K in cooling.

was ejected from the mold after cooling at room temperature.

Figure 4 shows the cross sectional drawing of a mold for centrifugal casting.

Fig. 4 The cross sectional drawing of a mold for centrifugal casting.

Fabricated preform

Obtained cylindrical copper/diamond preform with 20 mm in outer diameter, 2 mm in thickness and 30

mm in length was placed into the mold for centrifugal casting as shown in Fig. 4.

set in vacuum centrifugal casting machine (Yasui & Co, Japan).

Then, this mold was

Copper ingots of 99.9% purity were

also set in the crucible which was in vacuum centrifugal casting machine.

After that, molten copper was

poured into the mold by applying centrifugal force of 34 G or 78 G in vacuum at casting temperature of

1373 - 1473 K, respectively.

Table 2 summarizes the centrifugal casting conditions with fabricated

preforms.

Table 2

Centrifugal casting conditions with fabricated preforms

For ideal processing, centrifugal direction in centrifugal casting should correspond to the one in

centrifugal sintering as shown in Fig. 2.

However, this vacuum centrifugal casting machine was used

due to a convenient means for experiment because of machine performance in this study.

The microstructural observations of the fabricated preforms and cast samples were carried out

with a scanning electron microscope (SEM: JSM-5900LV, JEOL, Japan).

10

Area fractions of diamond

abrasive grains in copper matrix were evaluated from SEM images with software: Motic Images Plus.

Results and Discussion

Figure 5 shows copper matrix preforms including diamond abrasive grains fabricated by

centrifugal sintering at various conditions.

Fig. 5

Copper matrix preforms including diamond abrasive grains fabricated by centrifugal sintering at

various conditions.

Ring-shaped copper/diamond preforms have been successfully fabricated at all temperatures (1273 K,

1173 K and 1073 K) as shown in Fig. 5.

Average thicknesses of these preforms were measured to

investigate effects of centrifugal sintering conditions such as sintering temperature and holding time on

average thickness of preform for controlling microstructure of copper/diamond FGMs.

Figure 6 shows the relationships between sintering temperature and average thickness of preform

for the Cu-10vol.%Diamond with the holding time of 1 h.

11

Fig. 6

The relationships between sintering temperature and thickness of preform for the

Cu-10vol.%Diamond with the holding time of 1 h.

The value of average preform-thickness was 2.84 mm at sintering temperature of 1073 K.

increasing sintering temperature, average preform-thickness decreased.

preform-thickness was 2.24 mm.

With

At 1273 K, the average

The relationships between holding time and thickness of preform for

the Cu-10vol.%Diamond at sintering temperature of 1273 K are also shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

The relationships between holding time and thickness of preform for the Cu-10vol.%Diamond at

sintering temperature of 1273 K.

12

Average preform-thickness decreased from 2.24 mm for 1 h to 2.04 mm for 3 h with increasing holding

time.

Therefore, sintering temperature has a more significant influence on preform thickness compared

to the holding time.

In other words, thickness of copper/diamond preform can be precisely controlled by

selecting various combinations of sintering temperature and holding time.

Figure 8 shows the secondary electron images (SEM-SEI) and the backscattered electron images

(SEM-BEI) showing the microstructure of copper matrix preforms including diamond abrasive grains.

Fig. 8

The SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the microstructure of copper matrix preforms including

diamond abrasive grains.

13

The microstructure of preform sintered at 1073 K still consists of the dendritic-shaped copper matrix

which shapes are similar to those of primary copper powder as shown in Fig. 3.

copper has been somewhat melted and bonded each other.

preform consists of porous structure.

In addition, the amount of pore has been

These microstructural changes are consistent with the results of measurement in preform

thickness as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.

color.

Thus, the microstructure of fabricated

With increasing the sintering temperature and the holding time, the

dendritic-shaped copper matrix changes to semi-melted one.

decreased.

These dendritic-shaped

In SEM-BEI, diamond abrasive grains have been seen as black

In addition, microstructural observations revealed that diamond abrasive grains were

homogeneously distributed and embedded in the copper matrix.

It is expected that these preforms are

good candidates for application to grinding wheel.

Figure 9 shows a typical appearance of cast sample fabricated by centrifugal casting with copper

matrix preform including diamond abrasive grains.

Fig. 9

A typical appearance of cast sample fabricated by centrifugal casting with copper matrix preform

with diamond abrasive grains.

This sample has been cast at 1373 K under centrifugal force of 34 G with

Cu-10vol%Diamond preform.

14

This sample has been cast at 1373 K under centrifugal force of 34 G with Cu-10vol%Diamond preform.

Cast samples with similar appearance have been made at all centrifugal casting conditions as well.

Finally, grinding wheels have been obtained by cutting these cast samples at the 5-mm end of the ones.

The microstructural observations of these cast samples have been carried out to investigate the

effects of centrifugal casting temperature on microstructure of cast samples.

Figure 10 shows the

macrographs of fabricated grinding wheel and SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the microstructure in the

outer part of the grinding wheels.

Fig. 10

Macrographs of fabricated grinding wheels and SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the

microstructure in the outer part of the ones.

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1473 K (A), 1423

K (B), 1393 K (C) and 1373 K (D) under the centrifugal force of 34 G with obtained

Cu-10vol.%Diamond preforms.

15

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1473 K (A), 1423 K (B), 1393 K (C) and 1373 K (D) under the

centrifugal force of 34 G with obtained Cu-10vol.%Diamond preforms.

In the case of grinding wheels

cast at 1473 K and 1423 K, the diamond abrasive grains have not been observed in copper matrix as

shown in Fig. 10.

At these higher casting temperatures, Cu-10vol.%Diamond preforms were fully

melted by heat from molten copper.

Subsequently, diamond abrasive grains in copper matrix might be

immediately swept by molten copper against the flow direction as shown in Fig. 4.
explained by Stokes law.

This phenomenon is

It is well known that the motion of particles in a viscous liquid under a

centrifugal force obeys Stokes law.

The equation for velocity of a solid particle in a viscous liquid can

be written as:

2
dx p m GgDp

,
dt
18

where

is density of particles,

particle diameter and

(1)

density of molten matrix, g gravitational acceleration,

viscosity of melt (Watanabe et al., 1998).

diamond is 3.52 Mg/m3.

In addition, density of molten matrix

In this study, the value of

Dp
for

for copper is 8.00 Mg/m3.

Therefore, diamond abrasive grains in copper matrix were immediately swept by molten copper against
the flow direction as the value of

for diamond is more lightweight than that of

for copper.

It

should be noted that the diamond abrasive grains are distributed at only outer part of the grinding wheel

16

cast at 1393 K and 1373 K as shown in Figs. 10 (C) and (D).

Thus, the copper/diamond FGMs have

been obtained under the casting temperature of 1393 K and 1373 K in this study.

Area fractions of

diamond abrasive grains in copper matrix have been evaluated as 2.1 % at 1393 K and 2.6 % at 1373 K,

respectively.

Effects of amount of diamond abrasive grains in fabricated preform on microstructure of cast

samples have been also investigated.

Figure 11 shows the macrographs of fabricated grinding wheel and

SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the microstructure in the outer part of grinding wheels.

Fig. 11

Macrographs of fabricated grinding wheels and SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the

microstructure in the outer part of the ones.

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1393 K under the

centrifugal force of 78 G with obtained Cu-10vol.%Diamond (E) and Cu-25vol.%Diamond (F) preforms.

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1393 K under the centrifugal force of 78 G with obtained

Cu-10vol.%Diamond (E) and Cu-25vol.%Diamond (F) preforms.

Estimated area fractions of diamond

abrasive grains in copper matrix are 1.8 % with Cu-10vol.%Diamond preform and 5.7 % with

17

Cu-25vol.%Diamond one.

It is found that amount of diamond abrasive grains in copper/diamond

preform has considerable effect on the area fraction of diamond in copper/diamond FGMs.

By considering the results obtained from Fig. 10 (C) and Fig. 11 (E), effects of centrifugal force

on microstructure of copper/diamond FGMs have been also revealed.

Since the values of the area

fractions of diamond abrasive grains in copper matrix are 2.1 % under 34 G and 1.8 % under 78 G,

respectively, effects of centrifugal force on the area fraction of diamond abrasive grains in

copper/diamond FGMs are less significant compared to the amount of diamond abrasive grains in

copper/diamond preform.

Therefore, it is understood that centrifugal force is effective parameter for

fine control of volume fraction of diamond abrasive grain in copper/diamond FGMs.

As a result, by

controlling these centrifugal casting parameters, we can optimize volume fraction of diamond abrasive

grain in copper/diamond FGMs, precisely.

In SEM-SEI of Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, a certain amount of pores can be seen.

Since these

fabricated copper/diamond FGMs are applied to grinding wheels, these pores are effective as a role of

chip space.

Therefore, it is concluded that the centrifugal sintered-casting method is useful to fabricate

the copper/diamond functionally graded grinding wheels.

CFRP drilling tests have been carried out with gyro-driving grinding wheel system (Watanabe et

al., 2011) equipped with fabricated copper/diamond FGMs as grinding wheel.

Machining conditions

were selected as follows: peripheral wheel speed of 7000 rpm, spindle speed of 2800 rpm, feed rate of 5

mm/min and dry machining.

As workpiece material, bidirectional CFRP composite laminates having a

18

thickness of 5 mm were used.

Figure 12 shows the photograph of a drilled hole having diameter of 20

mm in CFRP plate.

Fig. 12

A photograph of a drilled hole having diameter of 20 mm in CFRP plate.

Precision drilling without burr and delamination has been achieved in CFRP plate. For further

investigation, some detailed CFRP-machining tests, such as durability test, by gyro-driving grinding

wheel system equipped with obtained copper/diamond functionally graded grinding wheel will be

performed.

Conclusions

Design and fabrication of copper/diamond functionally graded materials (FGMs) by centrifugal

sintered-casting method were conducted.

The important findings of the present study are:

(1) Copper/diamond preforms were fabricated by centrifugal sintering.

Thickness of preform can be

precisely controlled by selecting various combinations of sintering temperature and holding time.

19

(2) Copper/diamond FGMs were successfully obtained by centrifugal sintered-casting method under

casting temperature of 1393 K and 1373 K.

It is found that volume fraction of diamond abrasive grains

in copper/diamond FGMs can be precisely controlled by parameters of centrifugal sintered-casting

method.

(3) Structure of copper/diamond FGMs with a certain amount of pores which act as chip space is

appropriate for application to grinding wheel used for machining CFRP.

(4) Precision drilling without burr and delamination has been achieved in CFRP plate by gyro-driving

grinding wheel system equipped with fabricated copper/diamond FGMs as grinding wheel.

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Regional Innovation Cluster Program (Global Type) Tokai
Region Nanotechnology Manufacturing Cluster from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

and Technology (MEXT) of Japan.

Y. Watanabe acknowledges the financial support from The Light

Metal Educational Foundation Inc. of Japan.

The authors are grateful to Mr. Hideaki TSUGE, Industrial

Research Institute of Gifu Prefecture, for use of gyro-driving grinding wheel system and his valuable

input.

20

References

Chen, W.C., 1997. Some experimental investigations in the drilling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic

(CFRP) composite laminates. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 37, 1097-1108.

Faraz, A., Biermann, D., Weinert, K., 2009. Cutting edge rounding: An innovative tool wear criterion in

drilling CFRP composite laminates. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49,

1185-1196.

Kieback, B., Neubrand, A., Riedel, H., 2003. Processing techniques for functionally graded materials.

Materials Science and Engineering A 362, 81-105.

Kunimine, T., Yamada, M., Sato, H., Watanabe, Y., 2012. Fabrication of aluminum alloy-based diamond

grinding wheel by the centrifugal mixed-powder method for novel machining technology of CFRP. In:
Weiland, H., Rollett, A.D., Cassada, W.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13 th International Conference on

Aluminum Alloys (ICAA13), Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 189-194.

Lin, S.C., Chen, I.K., 1996. Drilling carbon fiber-reinforced composite material at high speed. Wear 194,

156-162.

Miura-Fujiwara, E., Sato, H., Yamada, M., Watanabe, Y., 2012. Fabrication of metal-based functionally

graded grinding wheel by a centrifugal mixed-powder method. Materials Science Forum 706-709,

661-666.

Watanabe, Y., Yamanaka, N., Fukui, Y., 1998. Control of composition gradient in a metal-ceramic

functionally graded material manufactured by the centrifugal method. Composites Part A 29A, 595-601.

21

Watanabe, Y., Yamanaka, N., Fukui, Y., 1999. Wear behavior of Al-Al3Ti composite manufactured by a

centrifugal method. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 30A, 3253-3261.

Watanabe, Y., Oike, S., 2005. Formation mechanism of graded composition in Al-Al2Cu functionally

graded materials fabricated by a centrifugal in situ method. Acta Materialia 53, 1631-1641.

Watanabe, Y., Inaguma, Y., Sato, H., Miura-Fujiwara, E., 2009. A novel fabrication method for

functionally graded materials under centrifugal force. Materials 2, 2510-2525.

Watanabe, Y., Miura-Fujiwara, E., Sato, H., Takekoshi, K., Tsuge, H., Kaga, T., Bando, N., Yamagami, S.,

Kurachi, K., Yokoyama, H., 2011. Fabrication of functionally graded grinding wheel by a centrifugal

mixed-powder method for CFRP-drilling applications. International Journal of Materials and Product

Technology 42, 29-45.

22

Figure Captions

Fig. 1

Schematic illustrations showing a conventional and a newly designed functionally graded

grinding wheel.

Fig. 2 The schematic illustration showing the process of centrifugal sintered-casting method.

Fig. 3 The SEM micrograph of the copper powder with dendritic morphology.

Fig. 4 The cross sectional drawing of a mold for centrifugal casting.

Fig. 5

Copper matrix preforms including diamond abrasive grains fabricated by centrifugal sintering at

various conditions.

Fig. 6

The relationships between sintering temperature and thickness of preform for the

Cu-10vol.%Diamond with the holding time of 1 h.

Fig. 7

The relationships between holding time and thickness of preform for the Cu-10vol.%Diamond at

sintering temperature of 1273 K.

Fig. 8

The SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the microstructure of copper matrix preforms including

diamond abrasive grains.

Fig. 9

A typical appearance of cast sample fabricated by centrifugal casting with copper matrix preform

with diamond abrasive grains.

This sample has been cast at 1373 K under centrifugal force of 34 G with

Cu-10vol%Diamond preform.

Fig. 10

Macrographs of fabricated grinding wheels and SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the

microstructure in the outer part of the ones.

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1473 K (A), 1423

23

K (B), 1393 K (C) and 1373 K (D) under the centrifugal force of 34 G with obtained

Cu-10vol.%Diamond preforms.

Fig. 11

Macrographs of fabricated grinding wheels and SEM-SEI and SEM-BEI showing the

microstructure in the outer part of the ones.

These grinding wheels have been cast at 1393 K under the

centrifugal force of 78 G with obtained Cu-10vol.%Diamond (E) and Cu-25vol.%Diamond (F) preforms.

Fig. 12

A photograph of a drilled hole having diameter of 20 mm in CFRP plate.

Table Captions

Table 1

Centrifugal sintering conditions for fabrication of preform under the centrifugal force of 1100

Table 2

Centrifugal casting conditions with fabricated preforms

24

Figure 1
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Figure 2
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Figure 3
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Figure 4
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Figure 5
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Figure 6
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Figure 7
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Figure 8
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Figure 9
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Figure 10
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Figure 11
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Figure 12
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Table 1

Preform Volume Fraction of Diamond [vol.%] Sintering Temperature [K] Holding Time [h]
a
10
1273
3
b
10
1273
2
c
10
1273
1
d
10
1173
1
e
10
1073
1
f
25
1073
1

Table 2

Cast Sample Used Preform

A
a
B
b
C
c
D
d
E
e
F
f

G Number [G]
34
34
34
34
78
78

Casting Temperature [K]

1473
1423
1393
1373
1393
1393