Biology, the science of life.

The term was introduced in Germany in 1800 and popularized by the

French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck as a means of encompassing the growing number of
disciplines involved with the study of living forms. The unifying concept of biology received its
greatest stimulus from the English zoologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who was also an important
educator. Huxley insisted that the conventional segregation of zoology and botany was
intellectually meaningless and that all living things should be studied in an integrated way.
Huxleys approach to the study of biology is even more cogent today, because scientists now
realize that many lower organisms are neither plants nor animals (see Prokaryote; Protista). The
limits of the science, however, have always been difficult to determine, and as the scope of
biology has shifted over the years, its subject areas have been changed and reorganized. Today
biology is subdivided into hierarchies based on the molecule, the cell, the organism, and the
population.
Molecular biology, which spans biophysics and biochemistry, has made the most fundamental
contributions to modern biology. Much is now known about the structure and action of nucleic
acids and protein, the key molecules of all living matter. The discovery of the mechanism of
heredity was a major breakthrough in modern science. Another important advance was in
understanding how molecules conduct metabolism, that is, how they process the energy needed
to sustain life.
Cellular biology is closely linked with molecular biology. To understand the functions of the cell
the basic structural unit of living mattercell biologists study its components on the
molecular level. Organismal biology, in turn, is related to cellular biology, because the life
functions of multicellular organisms are governed by the activities and interactions of their
cellular components. The study of organisms includes their growth and development
(developmental biology) and how they function (physiology). Particularly important are
investigations of the brain and nervous system (neurophysiology) and animal behavior
(ethology).
Population biology became firmly established as a major subdivision of biological studies in the
1970s. Central to this field is evolutionary biology, in which the contributions of Charles Darwin
have been fully appreciated after a long period of neglect. Population genetics, the study of gene
changes in populations, and ecology, the study of populations in their natural habitats, have been
established subject areas since the 1930s. These two fields were combined in the 1960s to form a
rapidly developing new discipline often called, simply, population biology. Closely associated is
a new development in animal-behavior studies called sociobiology, which focuses on the genetic
contribution to social interactions among animal populations.
Biology also includes the study of humans at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. If the
focus of investigation is the application of biological knowledge to human health, the study is
often termed biomedicine. Human populations are by convention not considered within the

province of biology; instead, they are the subject of anthropology and the various social sciences.
The boundaries and subdivisions of biology, however, are as fluid today as they have always
been, and further shifts may be expected.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Cell (biology), basic unit of life. Cells are the smallest structures capable of basic life processes,
such as taking in nutrients, expelling waste, and reproducing. All living things are composed of
cells. Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they
consist of a single cell. Plants, animals, and fungi are multicellular; that is, they are composed of
a great many cells working in concert. But whether it makes up an entire bacterium or is just one
of trillions in a human being, the cell is a marvel of design and efficiency. Cells carry out
thousands of biochemical reactions each minute and reproduce new cells that perpetuate life.
Cells vary considerably in size. The smallest cell, a type of bacterium known as a mycoplasma,
measures 0.0001 mm (0.000004 in) in diameter; 10,000 mycoplasmas in a row are only as wide
as the diameter of a human hair. Among the largest cells are the nerve cells that run down a
giraffes neck; these cells can exceed 3 m (9.7 ft) in length. Human cells also display a variety of
sizes, from small red blood cells that measure 0.00076 mm (0.00003 in) to liver cells that may be
ten times larger. About 10,000 average-sized human cells can fit on the head of a pin.
Along with their differences in size, cells present an array of shapes. Some, such as the bacterium
Escherichia coli, resemble rods. The paramecium, a type of protozoan, is slipper shaped; and the
amoeba, another protozoan, has an irregular form that changes shape as it moves around. Plant
cells typically resemble boxes or cubes. In humans, the outermost layers of skin cells are flat,
while muscle cells are long and thin. Some nerve cells, with their elongated, tentacle-like
extensions, suggest an octopus.
In multicellular organisms, shape is typically tailored to the cells job. For example, flat skin
cells pack tightly into a layer that protects the underlying tissues from invasion by bacteria.
Long, thin muscle cells contract readily to move bones. The numerous extensions from a nerve
cell enable it to connect to several other nerve cells in order to send and receive messages rapidly
and efficiently.
By itself, each cell is a model of independence and self-containment. Like some miniature,
walled city in perpetual rush hour, the cell constantly bustles with traffic, shuttling essential
molecules from place to place to carry out the business of living. Despite their individuality,
however, cells also display a remarkable ability to join, communicate, and coordinate with other
cells. The human body, for example, consists of an estimated 20 to 30 trillion cells. Dozens of
different kinds of cells are organized into specialized groups called tissues. Tendons and bones,
for example, are composed of connective tissue, whereas skin and mucous membranes are built

from epithelial tissue. Different tissue types are assembled into organs, which are structures
specialized to perform particular functions. Examples of organs include the heart, stomach, and
brain. Organs, in turn, are organized into systems such as the circulatory, digestive, or nervous
systems. All together, these assembled organ systems form the human body.
The components of cells are molecules, nonliving structures formed by the union of atoms. Small
molecules serve as building blocks for larger molecules. Proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
and lipids, which include fats and oils, are the four major molecules that underlie cell structure
and also participate in cell functions. For example, a tightly organized arrangement of lipids,
proteins, and protein-sugar compounds forms the plasma membrane, or outer boundary, of
certain cells. The organelles, membrane-bound compartments in cells, are built largely from
proteins. Biochemical reactions in cells are guided by enzymes, specialized proteins that speed
up chemical reactions. The nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the hereditary
information for cells, and another nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid(RNA), works with DNA to build
the thousands of proteins the cell needs.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Computer system
A system of interconnected computers that share a central storage system and various peripheral devices such as
a printers, scanners, or routers. Each computer connected to the system can operate independently, but has the ability to
communicate with other external devices and computers.
Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/computer-system.html#ixzz2kXXnSai2

The Computer Revolution/Programming/Five Steps of

Programming
< The Computer Revolution
This page may need to be reviewed for quality.

Before going on to discuss the five steps of creating a program it is important to determine what exactly a
program is. A program is a list of instructions that contain data for a computer to follow. Different programs are
written with different languages. An editing program is made with a different programming "language" than one
that uses graphics. Some well known programming languages are COBOL -business, BASIC -language, and C which is used in science. Programming is complicated process, below is general overview of this 5 step
procedure.
Contents
[hide]

1 Clarify Programming Needs

2 Design the Program

2.1 Three control structure:

3 Code the Program

4 Test the Program

5 Document and Maintain

Clarify Programming Needs[edit]

Knowing the objective is the first consideration. Is it a payroll or editing program? Knowing who the end user
will be is also important. Determining the inputs and outputs is next. How will the program operate and what
data is needed to make it happen. After this has been decided feasibility is the next consideration. How many
programmers will it take, is the project within budget, does the project have a realistic outline. Finally, if the
project is a go, then one must take measures to ensure the project is properly documented and analyzed.
Six mini steps:s

Clarify desired processing

Double - check feasibility of implementing the program

Document the analysis

kopp

Design the Program[edit]

Programs use algorithms which are like equations that tell the computer what task to perform. The aim of the
programmer is to create algorithms that are clear and simple. Algorithms are expressed first in logical
hierarchical form known as modularzation. Using modules or (a complete thought) the programmer creates a
logical thought process for the computer to follow. After that the program is broken down in greater detail
using pseudocode. Pseudocode uses terms like if, else, and, then to relate the programs rules to the computer.
Two mini steps:

Determine program logic through top down approach and modularization, using a hierarchy chart

Design details using pseudocode and/or flowcharts, preferably involving control structure.

A module, a processing step of a program, made up of logically related program statements.

A hierarchy chart, which represents top-down program design, explains the main purpose of the program.
Pseudocode, a way of designing a program which uses normal language statements in order to describe the
logic and the processing flow.
Program flowcharts, graphically shows the detailed series of steps

Three control structure:[edit]

Sequence control structure - No decision making

Selection control structure -

Loop control structure/Repetition or Iteration Structure

Code the Program[edit]

After the program has been designed it must be coded or written. Using the pseudocode and logic
requirements from step two an appropriate programming language must be selected. As stated in the
introduction, coding languages differ in specifications and usability. Once the appropriate code language has
been chosen, it is imperative that the programmer follow the syntax rules with as little deviation as possible in
oder for the program to have high accuraccy.
Two mini steps:

Select the appropriate high-level programming language

Code the program in that language following the syntax carefully

Test the Program[edit]

After the program is written it then enters the programming debugging and testing phase of the Program
Development Life Cycle (PDLC). During this time the programmer will be looking for errors in both logic and
syntax, as well as exploring other areas that may cause the program to either not work properly or to not run at
all.
This process is a lengthy and tedious one, oftentimes consisting of up to 50% of a programs time in
development (Morley 523). However, with a careful eye paid to program design and coding the amount of time
spent debugging can be cut considerably.

As stated, debugging will uncover errors in both logic and syntax. Syntax errors will prevent the program from
executing. They can be such simple things as misspelled words or can involve breaking the syntax rules of the
programming language used.
On the other hand, logic errors will allow the program to run but will provide incorrect results. Errors of this kind
may consist of merely using the wrong relational operator or other, larger, mistakes in writing formulas.
Once the programmer locates the errors they are then fixed and the program is run again. This will happen
multiple times, often called execute, check, and correct (526), until the program runs flawlessly.
The program will then enter the testing phase.

The Bug hard at work inputting errors.

Reference: Morley, Deborah and Charles S. Parker. Understanding Computers Today and Tomorrow, 13th
Edition.

Testing the program comes in two phases, alpha and beta.

Alpha testing is the process of reading through the program in search of errors in logic. The second
step is to run a diagnostic program to search for syntax or input errors.

Beta testing involves using the program in the real world to see if it contains any bugs or other
deficiencies.

Document and Maintain[edit]

Documentation should be ongoing from the very beginning because it is needed for those involved with
program now and future. Upon completion User Documentation for commercial use, Operator
Documentation for people who run computer systems, and Programmer Documentation for programmers
charged with maintenance.
Four mini steps:

Write user documentation

Write operator documentation

Write programmer documentation

Maintain the program

Qualitative research - Qualitative research allows you to explore perceptions, attitudes and motivations
and to understand how they are formed. It provides depth of information which can be used in its own
right or to determine what attributes will subsequently be measured in quantitative studies. Verbatim
quotes are used in reports to illustrate points and this brings the subject to life for the reader. However, it
relies heavily on the skills of the moderator, is inevitably subjective and samples are small. Techniques
include group discussions/workshop sessions, paired interviews, individual in-depth interviews and
mystery shopping (where the researcher plays the role of a potential student, etc in order to replicate the
overall experience).

Quantitative research - Quantitative research is descriptive and provides hard data on the numbers of
people exhibiting certain behaviours, attitudes, etc. It provides information in breadth and allows you to
sample large numbers of the population.

It is, however, structured and does not yield the reasons behind behaviour or why people hold certain
attitudes. Techniques commonly used in HE/FE include postal surveys (particularly appropriate in the
case of student populations where name and address information is available), telephone surveys
(appropriate for surveys of employers), on-line or web-based surveys (very cost-effective for reaching
audiences where e-mail penetration is high, such as students and university/college staff) and mystery
shopping (in this case to test quantifiable aspects of the service).

Secondary or desk research - The collating and analysis of secondary data is called desk research.
Secondary data is data that already exists and may be found within your own organisation or is published
by another party and readily available.