CDB1053 Introduction to

Engineering Thermodynamics
By Dr. Oh Pei Ching

ENERGY AND
ENERGY TRANSFER
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Learning Outcome
Introduce the concept of energy and define its various
forms.
Discuss the nature of internal energy.
Define the concept of heat and the terminology
associated with energy transfer by heat.
Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Define the concept of work
Discuss the various forms of work: mechanical or nonmechanical

CDB1053 Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics

QUESTION Thermodynamics Concept

Consider a room whose door and windows are tightly closed. The walls
are well-insulated so that heat loss or gain through the walls is negligible.
Place a refrigerator in the middle of the room with its door open, and plug
it into a wall outlet. Will the average temperature of air in the room
increase or decrease? Or will it remain constant?

If we take the entire room (including the air

and the refrigerator) as the system, which
is an adiabatic closed system since the
room is well-sealed and well-insulated, the
only energy interaction involved is the
electrical energy crossing the system
boundary and entering the room.
As a result of the conversion of electric
energy consumed by the device to heat,
the room temperature will rise.
The first law of thermodynamics

FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.

Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.

Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole

with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of
its elevation in a gravitational field.

Microscopic forms of energy: Those

related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular
activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all
the microscopic forms of energy.

The macroscopic energy of an object

changes with velocity and elevation. 4

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy per unit mass

Potential energy

Potential energy per unit mass

Total energy of a system

Energy of a system per unit mass

Open system (Control volume)

Mass flow rate

Energy flow rate

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Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic
energies
of
the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear
energy:
The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
The internal energy of a
bonds within the nucleus of the
system is the sum of all forms atom itself.
of the microscopic energies.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

The various forms of

microscopic
energies that make 6
up sensible energy.

The total energy of a system, can be

contained or stored in a system, and
thus can be viewed as the static
forms of energy.

The forms of energy not stored in a

system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.

The dynamic forms of energy are

recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a system
during a process.

The only two forms of energy

interactions associated with a closed
system are heat transfer and work.

The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is

heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work.

A control volume (open system) can also exchange energy via mass
transfer.

ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or
a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.

FIGURE 2-14

FIGURE 2-15

Adiabatic process: A process during

which there is no heat transfer.

Energy is recognized as heat transfer

only as it crosses the system boundary.

Heat transfer per unit mass:

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

Q = Amount of heat
transferred (kJ)

Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer

rate is constant:
Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer
rate changes with time:
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Historical Background on Heat

Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as

tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the
random
motion
of
atoms
and
molecules.

Heat transfer mechanisms:

Conduction: The transfer of energy

from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles.
Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation: The transfer of energy due
to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons).

FIGURE 2-19

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Work done per unit mass:

Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system
are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Specifying the directions of heat and work.

Heat vs. Work

Both are recognized at the boundaries of

a system as they cross the boundaries.
That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
Both are associated with a process, not a
state. Unlike properties, heat or work
has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
states).

FIGURE 2-22

Properties are point functions and have exact

differentials (d ).
Example: The total volume change during a process
between states 1 and 2 is:

Path functions have inexact differentials ( ).

Example: The total work done during process 1-2 is:

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EXAMPLE 2-3 Burning of a Candle in an Insulated Room

A candle is burning in a well-insulated room. Taking the room (the air plus the
candle) as the system, determine
(a) If there is any heat transfer during this burning process
(b) If there is any change in the internal energy of the system

The interior surfaces of the room form the system boundary. Heat is recognized as it
crosses the boundaries. Since the room is well insulated, we have an adiabatic system and
no heat will pass through the boundaries. Therefore, Q = 0 for this process.

EXAMPLE 2-4 Heating of a Potato in an Oven

A potato initially at room temperature (25oC) is being baked in an oven
that is maintained at 200oC. Taking the potato as the system, is there any
heat transfer during this baking process?

Since the potato is the system, the outer surface of the skin of the potato can be
viewed as the system boundary. Part of the energy in the oven will pass through
the skin to the potato. Since the driving force for this energy transfer is a
temperature difference, this is a heat transfer process.

Electrical Work
Electrical work
V = potential difference
N = coulombs of electrical charge

Electrical power

I = current or
number of electrical charges
flowing per unit time

When potential difference

and current change with time

When potential difference

and current remain constant

FIGURE 2-27

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and
its surroundings to exist:
there must be a force acting on the boundary.
the boundary must move.
Work = Force Distance

When force is not constant

FIGURE 2-28

In many thermodynamic problems, mechanical work is the only form of

work involved.
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MOVING BOUNDARY WORK

For quasi-equilibrium
process

Moving boundary work (P dV work): The expansion and compression work

in a piston-cylinder device.
Quasi-equilibrium process: A process during which the system remains
nearly in equilibrium at all times.

The work associated with a moving boundary

(expansion and compression) is called
boundary work.

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Consider a gas enclosed in a piston-cylinder device.

If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-equilibrium
manner, the differential work (boundary work) done during this process is:

Where
P = initial pressure
dV = volume change
P is the absolute pressure and is always positive.
When dV is positive, Wb is positive for expansion
When dV is negative, Wb is negative for compression

Total boundary work from initial state to final state:

To calculate total boundary work, the process by

which the system changed states must be known,
i.e. the functional relationship between P and V
during the process.
P=f (V ) should be available: equation of the process
path on a P-V diagram.

A gas does a differential

amount of work Wb as it
forces the piston to move
by a differential amount ds.
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P-V diagram of quasi-equilibrium

expansion process:
The boundary work = Area under the process
curve plotted on a P-V
diagram
Differential area is equal to differential work:

dA = PdV
Total area under the process curve:

The area under the process curve on a P-V

diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work
done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion
or compression process of a closed
system.
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 A gas can follow several different paths

(with different area underneath) as it
expands from state 1 to state 2.
Each process path gives a different value
for boundary work.

The boundary work done during a process depends

on the path followed as well as the end states.

The net work output is produced during

a cycle if the work done by the system
during the expansion process (area
under path A) is greater than the work
done on the system during the
compression part of the cycle (area
under path B).
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Some typical processes

P
1

V
P-V diagram for V = Constant

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(b) Boundary work for a constant-pressure process

If the pressure is held constant, the boundary work equation becomes

P
2

V
P-V diagram for P = Constant
For the constant pressure process shown above, is the boundary work
positive or negative and why?

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The above equation is the result of applying the ideal gas assumption for
the equation of state. For real gas undergoing an isothermal process, the
integral in the boundary work equation would be done numerically.

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Process

Exponent n

Constant pressure

Constant volume

Isothermal & ideal gas

Adiabatic & ideal gas

k = Cp/Cv

Where
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure;
Cv= specific heat at constant volume

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How to determine the boundary work for polytropic process?

2

Wb PdV

P CV n

C
dV
n
V

1
C n dV
1 V

P2V2 P1V1

1 n
2

V2 n 1 V1 n1
C
n 1
since C = P1V1n =P2V2n

For an ideal gas (PV=mRT), this equation can also be written as

mRT2 T1
Wb
,n 1
1 n

For special case of n=1 the boundary work becomes

V
V
Wb PdV CV 1dV PV ln 2 mRT ln 2
1
1
V1
V1
2

Isothermal
process
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EXAMPLE 4-1 Boundary Work for a Constant-Volume Process

A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150oC. As a result of heat transfer to the
surroundings, the temperature and pressure inside the tank drop to 65oC and 400
kPa, respectively. Determine the boundary work done during this process.

Solution:
The boundary work can be determined to be

EXAMPLE 4-2 Boundary Work for a Constant-Pressure Process

A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of steam at 400 kPa
and 200oC. Heat is now transferred to the steam until the temperature
reaches 250oC. If the piston is not attached to a shaft and its mass is
constant, determine the work done by the steam during this process.
P, kPa

P0 = 400 kPa
400

m = 5 kg
P = 400 kPa

v1 = 0.53434

v2 = 0.59520

v, m3/kg

EXAMPLE 4-2 Boundary Work for a Constant-Pressure Process

Solution:
Assumption: The expansion process is quasi-equilibrium.
Analysis: Even though it is not explicitly stated, the pressure of the steam within the cylinder
remains constant during this process since both the atmospheric pressure and the weight of the
piston remain constant. Therefore, this is a constant-pressure process, and

or
since V = mv. From the superheated vapor table, the specific volumes are determined to be
v1 = 0.53434 m3/kg at state 1 (400 kPa, 200oC) and v2 = 0.59520 m3/kg at state 2 (400 kPa, 250oC).
Substituting these values yields

Discussion: The positive sign indicates that the work is done by the system. That is, the steam
used 122 kJ of its energy to do this work. The magnitude of this work could also be determined by
calculating the area under the process curve on the P-V diagram, which is simply P0 V for this case.

EXAMPLE 4-3 Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas

A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and
80oC. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the
temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work
done during this process.

EXAMPLE 4-3 Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas (Cont.)

Solution:
Assumption: 1 The compression process is quasi-equilibrium. 2 At specified condition, air can be
considered to be an ideal gas since it is at a high temperature and low pressure relative to its criticalpoint values.
Analysis: For an ideal gas at constant temperature T0,

PV mRT0 C or

C
V

where C is a constant. Substituting this into boundary work equation, we have

2

Wb PdV
1

2 dV
V
V
C
dV C
C ln 2 P1V1 ln 2
1 V
V
V1
V1

P1V1 can be replaced by P2V2 or mRT0. Also, V2 / V1 can be replaced by P2 / P1 for this case since
P1V1= P2V2.
Substituting the numerical values yields

0.1 1 kJ
55.5 kJ
Wb (100 kPa)(0.4 m3 ) ln

3
0.4 1 kPa.m
Discussion: The negative sign indicates that this work is done on the system (a work input), which
is always the case for compression processes.

Shaft Work
Often the torque T applied to a rotating shaft is
constant (Force F applied is also constant).
For a specified constant torque, the work done
during n revolutions is determined as follows:
A force F acting through a moment arm r
generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance s

Shaft work

The power transmitted through the shaft is

the shaft work done per unit time
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EXAMPLE 2-7 Power Transmission by the Shaft of a Car

Determine the power transmitted through the shaft (kW) of a car when the
torque applied is 200 N.m and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000
revolutions per minute (rpm).

Solution:

 When a force is applied on a spring, the

length of the spring changes.
When the length of the spring changes
by a differential amount dx under the
influence of a force F, the work done is

For linear elastic springs, the displacement

x is proportional to the force applied

Spring Work
Substituting and integrating yield

x1 and x2: the initial and the final

displacements

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Elongation of a spring under

the influence of a force.

The
displacement
of a linear
spring doubles
when the force
is doubled.

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Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.

Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is the
voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is the
magnetic field strength and the generalized
displacement is the total magnetic dipole
moment.
Electrical polarization work: The generalized
force is the electric field strength and the
generalized displacement is the polarization of
the medium.
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Summary
Forms of energy
Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)

Energy transfer by heat

Energy transfer by work
Mechanical forms of work

Moving boundary work

Constant-volume process
Constant-pressure process
Isothermal process
Polytropic process
Shaft work
Spring work

Non-mechanical forms of work

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