Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
____________________________________________________________________________
(A copy of this report can be downloaded for personal use from www.steeltips.org)
Abstract
A synopsis of the basic mechanics of the electroslag welding process of joining structural steel
elements is presented. This is followed by the historical progression of electroslag welding
(ESW), from 1888 to modern time. The US Federal Highway Administration's suspension of
ESW in the late 1970s is highlighted. Results of research, sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration, is discussed. The most significant result was the introduction of Narrowgap Improved Electroslag Welding (NGI-ESW, ESW-NG). Shop and field applications of
electroslag welding are presented.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Ronald D. Medlock
VP Technical Services
High Steel Structures, LLC
1915 Old Philadelphia Pike
Lancaster, PA 17602
rmedlock@high.net
Disclaimer: The information presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognized engineering
principles and is for general information only. While it is believed to be accurate, this information should not be used or
relied upon for any specific application without competent professional examination and verification of its accuracy, suitability, and applicability by a licensed professional engineer, designer or architect. The publication of the material contained
herein is not intended as a representation or warranty on the part of the Structural Steel Educational Council or of any other person named herein, that this information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from infringement
of any patent or patents. Anyone making use of this information assumes all liability arising from such use.
Caution must be exercised when relying upon specifications and codes developed by others and incorporated by reference
herein since such material may be modified or amended from time to time subsequent to the printing of this document. The
Structural Steel Educational Council or the authors bear no responsibility for such material other than to refer to it and
incorporate it by reference at the time of the initial publication of this document.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Structural Steel Education Council (SSEC) for accepting this
topic for a Steel Tips and for their careful review and thoughtful comments. Review services
were also provided by Heather Gilmer, Florida Structural Steel and David McQuaid,
DLMcQuaid & Associates. William (Bill) Bong, President of Arcmatic Welding Solutions is
gratefully acknowledged for providing the authors with a wealth of documentation related to
ESW-NG. Both Brett Manning, Director of the Structural Steel Education Council and VP of
Northwest Sales, Schuff Steel and Bill Bong demonstrated patience, attention, and kindness
when responding to the authors' numerous queries; and for their unflagging support. Much
appreciation goes to Mark Sapp welding historian of New Bern, North Carolina, for gifting the
first author with a hard copy of the out-of-print book on the O.E. Paton institute's research.
Thanks also to Don Chambers for his editing and proofing assistance. Finally, the authors
wish to acknowledge the structural engineers who have been amenable to reviewing and accepting ESW welding over the past three decades. Without them this welding process would
not be available today.
RONALD D. MEDLOCK
VP Technical Sales
High Steel Structures, LLC
______________________________________________
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT / Page 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS / Page 2
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION / Page 4
CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSLAG WELDING FUNDAMENTALS / Page 5
CHAPTER 3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROSLAG WELDING / Page 13
CHAPTER 4. NARROW-GAP IMPROVED ELECTROSLAG WELDING (NGI-ESW, ESW-NG) /
Page 18
CHAPTER 5. ELECTROSLAG T-JOINT SHOP-WELDING / Page 27
CHAPTER 6. ELECTROSLAG WELDING IN THE FIELD / Page 32
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION / Page 39
REFERENCES / Page 40
ABOUT THE AUTHORS / Page 42
LIST OF PUBLISHED STEEL TIPS REPORTS / Page 43
____________________________________________________________________________________
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
1. Introduction
Comparing all welding methods, electroslag welding (ESW) is the most economical to reliably
weld thick joints [from about 1 in. (25 mm) to 6 in. (150 mm)]. It is therefore prudent that persons involved in the design, fabrication, or erection of steel structures possess general knowledge
of electroslag welding. The objective of this Steel Tips is to provide this knowledge.
In order to orient the reader, the first substantive chapter of this Steel Tips, Chapter 2, provides a
description of the necessary ingredients, instrumentation, and process to manufacture an
electroslag weld. After the basics are given, the historical development and use of ESW are presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 3 includes a discussion of a 1976 ESW fabrication error and the
consequent moratorium on ESW for bridge construction in the United States. The moratorium
precipitated a surge in ESW research that ultimately introduced electroslag welding - narrow gap
(ESW-NG). The AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code permits the use of ESWNG to weld members or member components made from common types of bridge steels (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 2010). A description of ESWNG, including the Bridge Welding Code's specifications and recommendations, are the subject of
Chapter 4. The remaining substantive chapters describe shop (Chapter 5) and field (Chapter 6)
applications of electroslag welding.
Run-off tabs
Hose
receptacles
Sump
a. Base metal.
c. Side containment.
ESW welding process may be applied in the field. Moreover, an otherwise horizontal joint could be fabricated
at 45 degrees from the vertical to accommodate an ESW field weld (refer to section 6.4 of this Steel Tips).
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
The electroslag welding process is aptly named since it employs an electrode immersed in a slag
pool (Figures 2 and 3). The commencement of the electroslag welding process requires an arc
applied through pre-deposited flux (Figures 2a and 2b). A slag pool is soon formed that extinguishes the arc (Figure 2c). Electroslag welding is unique from other welding methods in that
after a brief initial electric arc is extinguished, heat generated from electric current, rather than an
electric arc, is used to perform resistance welding. The electric current travels from an electrode
("wire," "filler metal") to the base metal. The slag pool's resistance to the electric current transforms the electric energy into thermal energy (heat). At a temperature of approximately 3500
degrees F, the slag pool is hot enough to sustain continuous melting of the base metal and wire.
The force generated by wire feeding into the joint and the force of gravity transfers melted metal
droplets downward through the lighter slag pool to the heavier weld pool. The solidified weld
pool forms the weld.
Figure 3 presents a cross-section of an electroslag weld during its fabrication. The wire must be
guided into the weld cavity and not touch the base metal or welding shoes, causing an electric
short-circuit. Therefore, it is encased in a guide. Consumable metal guides are much easier to
use and quickly replaced non-consumable guides during the evolution of ESW. Early guides
were round and were hence referred to as "guide tubes". Later, winged and webbed flat guides
were introduced (Figure 4). However, the name "guide tube" is often used today for all types of
wire guides. As the slag pool rises, it melts (consumes) the stationary consumable guide. Wire
feed rate is synchronized with guide consumption such that wire is always submersed in the slag
pool. Depending on the thickness of the base metal, single or multiple wires encased in a fixed
or an oscillating guide have been used. Multi-pass electroslag welds can also be made. Each
pass is vertical and extends the full height of the weld cavity (Bong 2012). Multi-pass ESW
welds have been successfully used to join very thick (greater than 4 in.) plates.
Wire is fed into a slag pool maintained at a uniform depth of about 1 inch (25 mm), which is a
requirement for sustaining the slag pool's necessary temperature to melt the welding consumables and fuse the joint. If a slag pool is too deep, incomplete fusion, a "cold lap", will form in
the joint.
2.2 Electroslag Weld Grain Structure, Electric Variables, and Weld Parameters
Grain structures in solidified ESW welds are indicative of their toughness, which is commonly
measured by Charpy V-notch tests ("Charpy tests"). Acceptable Charpy test values are usually
established by applicable welding codes and depend on the structural components welded, and
the geographical location and importance of the structure that contains ESW welds.
Guide
Flux
Wire
Electric arc
Electric current
Wire
Guide
Slag pool
Weld droplets
Submerged guide
and wire
Unsubmerged/submerged wire
Submerged wire
Weld pool
Weld
Wire
a. Round
b. Winged
c. Webbed
HAZ: f
ine gra
ins
grains
HAZ: c
oarse
Coarse Colum
nar Grains (Z
one D)
Along the cross-section of an ESW weld there are several grain structure zones (Figure 5). The
outer extremity of the heat affected zone (HAZ) consists of fine grains, and its inner portion contains a coarse-grained structure that forms when temperatures well above those needed for austenite transformation exists for a relatively long time. Within the weld itself, two or three zones
may exist. A coarse-columnar grain (CCG) structure exists in the outer zone of the weld, Zone
D. As its name implies these grains are elongated. This type of grain structure is known to possess high toughness and strength. The inclusion of nickel and molybdenum alloys in the cored
wire promotes an equiaxed grain structure (Zone EG) at the center of the weld. Large amounts
of acicular ferrite, associated with high toughness and strength, are included in Zones D and EG.
Between zones D and EG is a zone of fine-columnar grain structure (FCG) consisting of a
proeutectoid ferrite of lower toughness than Zones D and EG, but exhibits good resistance to hot
cracking (Federal Highway Administration 1996).
Weld
Critical ESW parameters include cooling rate, amount of base metal dilution ("dilution"), and the
weld pool form factor ("form factor"). The effects of an increase in electric voltage, electric current, and welding speed on these parameters are presented in Figure 6. The desired effect on a
parameter, an increase or decrease, is shown using arrows. The actual effect of an increase in an
variable is also shown. When the actual effect is opposite to the desired effect, a red arrow is
shown, and when a green arrow is shown the actual effect is a desirable effect. Figure 6 is further explained in the remaining paragraphs of this section.
Tough microstructures are developed when the cooling rate of an ESW weld is high. Heat transfer can be quantified by the Adams cooling rate equation, R:
2 k Tc To
fH
(2.1)
where k=thermal conductivity of the metal; Tc=initial base metal temperature; To=temperature at
which the cooling rate is calculated; f=heat transfer efficiency of the source; and H=heat input,
the amount of energy generated per length (e.g., in.) of weld, is further defined as
EI
V
(2.2)
where E= electric potential (voltage), I= electric current (amperage), and V=welding velocity
(i.e., rate of wire feed). 1
ESW Parameter
Variable
Cooling
Rate
Dilution
Form Factor
Effect
Actual
Desired Actual
Desired
Actual
Desired
Voltage
Current
Speed
Figure 6: Effect of Variables on ESW Parameters
1
Electric potential is also known as electrical potential or voltage because the unit of electric potential is volts.
Electric potential is electric potential energy per unit of charge moved (coulomb). The unit of electric current is
coulomb per second or ampere. Like electric potential, electric current is often referred to by its units, amperage or
amps. Electric potential (voltage) times electric current (amperage) is electric power, which is measured in watts.
2V k Tc To
fEI
(2.3)
Thus, the cooling rate equation is directly proportional to the welding velocity and inversely proportional to voltage and current.
Examination of (2.3) indicates that the higher the voltage (E), the slower the cooling rate, which
is undesirable. However, fusion may be inadequate if the voltage is too low. The required voltage depends on the root opening (gap), thickness of the joint, diameter and number of welding
wires, guide, and welding equipment. Conventional electroslag welding, which includes a 1.25
in. (32 mm) gap, requires about 41 volts. Welding narrower gaps of approximately 7/8 in. (22
mm) requires 28-37 volts. (Also refer to Chapter 4, Table 1.)
Dilution, the percent of base metal in the weld metal, is also indicative of tough welds. Generally, the lower the dilution, the greater the weld toughness. On the other hand, insufficient dilution
is associated with incomplete fusion. Dilution of sound conventional electroslag welds for 2inch (50 mm) plates is about 40%. As voltage is increased, the weld metal becomes more diluted
with the base metal. Increasing the welding speed reduces base metal dilution. Figure 6 indicates that the effect of electric current on dilution is inconclusive. However, dilution increases
with increasing current up to a maximum value and then decreases with further increases in current. The magnitude of the current where a reduction in dilution is realized is a function of the
voltage and electrode (wire) guide geometry (Federal Highway Administration 1996).
During electroslag welding, velocity (V) and electric current (I) are interdependent. As the electric current increases during the welding process, the wire feed rate accelerates. When the acceleration exceeds the rate of the increase in the electric current, the cooling rate increases. Therefore, the cooling rate of electroslag welding must be a differential (dynamic) equation and Adam's cooling rate equation can only be conceptually applied to electroslag welding.
The geometry of the weld pool is quantified by its form factor ff (Figure 7):
ff
W
d
(2.4)
where W= average weld pool width, and d= depth of the weld pool.
The form factor may indicate how likely the weld pool is susceptible to cracking during solidification. Wide, shallow weld pools have lower susceptibility to solidification cracking. High
form factors of 2-3 have demonstrated good resistance to cracking. Form factors depend predominantly on current, welding velocity, and voltage. Increasing voltage increases the form factor. The electric current and welding velocity are inversely proportional to the form factor (Federal Highway Administration 1996, Paton 1962).
The cooling rate is directly proportional to welding velocity and inversely proportional to voltage
and current. Therefore, research is needed to derive an accurate mathematical formula to describe the relationship between electroslag welding's form factor and its cooling rate.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
10
Weld pool
The term "drooper" was adopted for these power supplies because they utilize downward-sloping amperage vs voltage output
curves.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
11
head decreases, which reduces the electric resistance. A gradual reduction in the voltage supplied usually accommodates this global reduction in electric resistance.
Constant-potential (CP) power supplies with variable balance (VB) control that quickly restores
the supply-demand balance of power are well suited to electroslag welding. These power supplies also mitigate the formation of a strong magnetic field that erratically pulls the molten weld
puddle and/or guide during the welding process.1
Traditional sine wave power generation also proved unsuitable for electroslag welding. The initial arc needed to commence the electroslag welding process was often extinguished using AC
power. The introduction of square wave power generation eliminated this problem while also
contributing to the mitigation of a strong magnetic field during the welding process.
Thus, VB/CP/AC square wave power supplies are ideal for electroslag welding applications.
These include SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) power supplies, IGBT (insulated-gate bipolar
transistor) power supplies, and DC power supplies connected "Electrode Positive" (DCEP), also
referred to as DC Reverse Polarity, and connected "Electrode Negative" (DCEN), also referred to
as DC Straight Polarity (Bong 2014a).
12
1Born
in 1918, Boris Paton remains the long-term leader of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine at the
time of this writing.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
13
14
A single stationary wire within an ESW weld cavity could created a weld of reasonably uniform
properties in joints of up to approximately 2 inches (50 mm) thick. To ensure an even deposition
of weld material across thicker joints, Hobart developed a method of oscillating one or more
consumable guides, which were used in their "Porta-slag Welding" (Hannahs 1970, Hobart
Brothers 1970). Refer to Figure 11. The consumable guides were oscillated across the thickness
of the base metal, using either a linear motion with pauses at the end of each stroke, or with a
sinusoidal motion. When using more than one guide, the guides could be moved toward and
away from each other in order to promote an even distribution of heat and weld material.
Hobart's Porta-slag welding method also incorporated insulating rings, spaced at six inch intervals along the guide, which prevented electric short-circuiting (Figure 12). An experienced
welding operator added flux according to the sounds emitted from the weld pool. Flux was added when the operator heard the weld arcing. If the weld became too quiet, too much flux had
been added. In this way, the optimal depth of the slag pool was maintained. Hobart's oscillating
guide also provided greater uniformity in the depth of the fusion and heat affected zones than
Linde's method.
Czech researchers also made interesting contributions toward controlling the depth of the slag
pool in electroslag welding (Mosny and Pavelka 1961, Cabelka 1962).
From the 1960s to mid 1970s, electroslag welding was rapidly gaining momentum for welding
thick steel joints in buildings and bridges. These included shop-welding of stiffener plates to the
flanges of girders and shop-welding plate splices.
Guide
Insulator
Tack weld
15
welds have been in service, without incident, for the past 30-40 years.
16
Unfortunately, the Blue Ribbon Committee's findings were never published, and most engineers,
designers, and steel fabricators in the United States became apprehensive about using electroslag
welding.
After imposing the moratorium, the FHWA sponsored research to develop methods to improve
electroslag welding at Northwestern University and the Oregon Graduate Institute (OGI)1. This
research resulted in a new method of electroslag welding, referred to as Narrow-gap Improved
Electroslag Welding (NGI-ESW) (Federal Highway Administration 1996). NGI-ESW narrowed
the weld cavity, increased the speed, decreased the heat-affected zone (HAZ), eliminated the
need for oscillating guides, and increased the notch toughness of ESW welds. ESW-NG is now
the preferred acronym for the welding method that originated with the research conducted at
OGI. ESW-NG has been accepted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials/American Welding Society's Bridge Welding Code (American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials 2010)2.
A summary of the Bridge Welding Code's ESW-NG requirements is presented within the next
chapter of this Steel Tips.
ESW-NG may also be used for Demand Critical Welds for steel frame construction. Demand
Critical Welds are sometimes required to weld base plates to columns, splices, and connections.
The American Institute of Steel Construction's (AISC) Seismic Provisions requires that Demand
Critical Welds satisfy the American Welding Society's (AWS) Structural Welding Code and its
seismic supplement (American Institute of Steel Construction 2014 and 2010, American Welding
Society 2009 and 2010). Moreover, electroslag welding is specifically cited in the commentary
to the specifications for the welding of the flanges of the Bolted Flange Plate Connection, a special and intermediate steel moment frame connection for seismic applications:
"Since the welds are shop welds, considerable latitude is possible in the selection of the
weld process as long as the finished weld meets the Demand Critical Weld requirements
stipulated in the AISC Seismic Provisions. In the test specimens used to prequalify this
connection, electroslag, gas shielded metal arc, and flux cored arc welding have been
used." (American Institute of Steel Construction 2014, Sato et al. 2007).
1The Oregon Graduate Institute of Science & Technology (OGI) was part of the Oregon Health and Science University (OHSU). By 2010, its academic programs and research were disseminated to other OHSU units.
2 Refer to clauses 1.3.3 and Q1.1 of the Bridge Welding Code.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
17
18
1.25
3/4 + 1/8
Wire Type
Solid
Potential (volts)
3/32 in. single wire
3/32 in. two wires
1/16 in. single wire
1/16 in. two wires
41-42
Parameter
Current (amperes)
1
2
33-37
31-36
29-35
28-33
6002
600-1000
Vitreous aluminosilicate fiber refractory material is glass-like material composed of silicon and oxygen and
countercations that are stable at high temperatures.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
19
Wire in channel
Guide
Shoe
Shoe relief
Channels
Base metal
Base metal
Shoe
Guide
Insulators
b. Isometric of single-wire
guide in joint.
c. Guide manufacturing.
Table 2: Bridge Welding Code's Specifications for Guide Clearance and Spacing (inches1)
Elements
Minimum Maximum
Between guide edge and inside surface of welding shoe
1/4
5/8
Between inside surface of welding shoe and center of channel
1/2
1-1/4
Center-to-center spacing of channels
2
Channel width for 3/32 in. diameter wire
1/8
Channel width for 1/16 in. diameter wire
3/32
1
No. of wires
1
1
1
2
2
2
Wire separation
(inches1)
1
1
2
20
4.4 Bridge Welding Codes' Specifications for Wire (Electrode) and Guide Chemistry
Table 4 presents the Bridge Welding Code's maximum allowable quantities of alloying agents in
ESW-NG weld wire and guides. These specifications are intended to reduce susceptibility to solidification cracking and ensure satisfactory toughness.1
The Bridge Welding Code specifies a maximum diffusible hydrogen of 4 mL/100 g for ESW-NG
weld wire. The chemistry and diffusible hydrogen of each wire lot must be evaluated according
to the procedures described in Annex I of the Bridge Welding Code.
Table 4: Maximum Alloy Limits of ESW-NG Wire and Consumable Guide
% by Weight
Element
Wire
Consumable Guide
Carbon (C)
0.03
0.06
Manganese (Mn)
1.0-1.4
1.0
Silicon (Si)
0.30-0.45
0.6
Chromium (Cr)
0.05
0.1
Nickel (Ni)
2.7-3.2
0.23
Molybdenum (Mo)
0.25-0.45
0.03
Aluminum (Al)
0.03
0.05
Copper (Cu)
0.06
0.05
Titanium (Ti)
0.01-0.04
0.05
Sulfur (S)
0.015
0.02
Phosphorus (P)
0.015
0.02
Vanadium (V)
0.01
0.01
Boron (B)
0.001
0.001
Niobium (Nb)
0.01
0.01
High levels of carbon, nickel, sulfur, and phosphorous may cause cracking. Manganese, silicon, and titanium help
reduce the probability of cracking.
2 The Bridge Welding Code also accepts copper variations such as tough pitch copper, OFHC copper, and phosphorus-deoxidized copper. Copper alloys, brasses, and bronzes are not appropriate for ESW-NG welding.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
21
ESW-NG welding shoes should be at least 4 in. (100 mm) wide and 12 in. - 18 in. (300 mm - 450
mm) long. These dimensions provide a good balance between heat dissipation and economics.
The primary function of welding shoe reliefs (see Figure 14a) is to facilitate a reinforced weld.
The Bridge Welding Code suggests a depth of relief of 0.075 in. to 0.083 in (1.9 mm - 2.1 mm)
and a width between 15/16 in. (24 mm) and 1-1/16 in. (26 mm).
Welding shoes have been developed that provide better control of heat dissipation than standard
welding shoes and versatile fit-up. These two improvements are discussed below.
While rapid heat transfer is desirable, if heat escapes through the welding shoes too rapidly, the
weld cross-section will be of exaggerated barrel-shape, or worse, incomplete fusion at the weld
corners can occur. Voltage may be increased to solve this problem, at the expense of an increase
in heat input. Therefore, proper architecture of welding shoes can promote complete and uniform fusion of the weld and base metals. A tri-part welding shoe (Tri-part Shoe) has been developed that has three features that enable complete fusion at the weld's corners without the need to
increase voltage. These are the shoe reliefs, discussed previously, and contact surface reduction
adjacent to the base metal (see Fig. 14a), and two outer sections of the shoe that are water-cooled
and a center section that is not (Fig. 15a). The outer sections of the Tri-part Shoe have a larger
water channel, providing greater flow volume, than standard ESW welding shoes. Arcmatic
found that reliable ESW-NG welds made with Tri-part Shoes and an electric current of 1000
amps requires 8 volts or less than a weld constructed with standard welding shoes. This reduction in 8 volts for a 1000-amp weld reduces the electric power, which is directly proportional to
heat input, by an impressive 8000 watts.
The Tri-part Articulated (Flex) Shoe has also been developed (Figure 15b). The center section of
this welding shoe consists of multiple 1/8 in. (3 mm) thick strips of copper. This flexible component allows the welding shoe to snugly fit against misaligned plates and plates with small differences in thickness. An unforeseen enhancement (beyond ease of shoe fit-up) to the ESW-NG
process was discovered during the development of the Tri-part Flex Shoe. The grooves of the
flexible part of the welding shoe retained more flux than a rigid welding shoe. This additional
flux provides insulation that impedes the center of the welding shoe from chilling the weld pool,
and fusion is enhanced at the corners of the weld cavity. Thus, a rigid tri-part serrated welding
was developed (Figure 15c). There are also welding shoes for welding plates of different thickness (Figure 15d) and a welding shoe for welding T-joints, which is particularly useful for welding stiffener plates and base plates to the flanges of W-shapes and plate girders (Figure 15e).
Welding shoes have also been designed for oblique-angled joints (refer to section 6.2 of this
Steel Tips).
The Bridge Welding Codes' welding shoe specifications are presented in Table 5.
22
a. Tri-part Shoe
c. Serrated Shoe
shoe
transition shoe
shoe
d. Transition Shoes
e. T-joint Shoes
23
Specification
Material
Copper
Coolant Type
Water
Coolant temperature
For each side of joint: 5-20 degrees F (3-11 degrees C) from inlet of the first shoe to outlet of the last shoe for each group (series) of shoes.
2 minutes after slag pool advances to next shoe or upon completion of weld.
1Generally,
duty cycle is the percentage of one period a signal is active. In the context of welding in the United
States, a duty cycle is the percent of time in a 10 minute interval that a welding power supply can operate at its rated
output.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
24
Plate Thickness,
in. (mm)
Number
of Wires
Current,
amperes
Wire
Welding
1 (25)
1-1/4 (32)
1-1/2 (38)
1-3/4 (45)
2 (50)
2 (50)
2-1/4 (57)
2-1/2 (65)
2-3/4 (70)
3 (75)
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
600-650
650-700
790-850
850-910
900-950
900-980
1050-1210
1170-1310
1270-1370
1340-1470
230 (580)
255 (650)
280 (710)
310 (785)
340 (860)
170 (430)
210 (540)
230 (590)
245 (630)
260 (665)
3 (75)
2-5/8 (67)
2-1/2 (65)
2-1/4 (55)
2 (50)
2 (50)
1-7/8 (48)
1-3/4 (43)
1-5/8 (41)
1-1/2 (38)
During ESW-NG welding, the wire feed rate sustains the required voltage (Table 1). The feeding mechanisms must deliver sufficient torque to push the weld wire over a distance defined by
the wire spool and the weld pool. It must also support a power supply with a 100% duty cycle
rating.
The Bridge Welding Code also specifies at least two electrical leads ("work leads") to minimize
magnetization -- one on either side of the sump.
4.8 The Bridge Welding Code's Specifications on ESW-NG Restarts, Interruptions, and
Repairs
An ESW-NG welding process should be continuous for the entire construct of a joint. Restarts
are allowed if the point of restart is clearly marked. Further, the restart region plus a minimum
of 3 inches (75 mm) above and below the restart area cannot be considered to be part of the final
completed product.
If the construct of an ESW-NG weld is interrupted (e.g., by depletion of welding wire) the entire
weld must be removed to at least 1/8 in. (3mm) beyond the fused metal zone and rewelded.1
Removal is also required if weld defects, as defined by AASHTO, are within 1/4 in. (6 mm) of
the weld centerline and their cumulative length is greater than 15% of the weld's length.
The Bridge Welding Code specification details of the ESW-NG welding process that have not
been previously discussed in this Chapter are presented in Table 7.
1
The Contractor also has the option of rewelding the joint with another process approved by the Bridge Welding
Code.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
25
Specification
Sump
Depth
Opening width
Base thickness
26
Welding Shoes
Weld Cavity
Column
Flange
Welding Shoes
Stiffener Plate
Base Plate
27
Figures 17a and 17b present two stiffener plate joint configurations. One option, presented in
Figure 17a, utilizes two plates1, the "double-sided-two-plates" option. The web dams the molten
weld when a double-sided-two-plates configuration is used, making a sump unnecessary. However, back-gouging is required. Another option, developed between 2005 and 2010, incorporates only a single plate, the "double-sided-single-plate" option (Figure 17b). This option permits a doubly symmetric open shape to remain in one position during the ESW welding process,
while the double-sided-two-plates option requires a 180 degree rotation of the girder after completion of the welding of the first stiffener plate to a girder flange. During fabrication of the
double-sided-single-plate stiffener plate joint, a beveled slot must be cut entirely through the web
of the girder. The slot is approximately 3/4 in. (19 mm) wider than the thickness of the stiffener
plate and extends the length defined by the inside faces of the flanges. Unlike the double-sidedtwo-plates option, the welding instrumentation of the double-sided-single-plate stiffener plate
must include a sump.
k-area
toe of fillet
a. Double-sided-two-plates:
requires girder rotation
during welding.
b. Double-sided-single-plate: requires
web machining & welding sump.
c. k-Area
1Using
this option, the side of the plate next to the web must be beveled and welded to the web, or fillet welded to
the web on either side of each plate.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
28
Section 4 of AWS D1.8: 2009 addresses the general seismic provisions for stiffener plates. This
specification includes reference to the k-area of a W-shape (Figure 17c)1. Residual stresses, a
consequence of the hot-rolling process, reduces k-area toughness. Welding in the k-area can lead
to cracking. The slot required for the double-sided-single-plate configuration relieves the k-area
residual stresses. After the development of the double-sided-single-plate configuration, the "dual
stiffener" plate option was developed, which leaves a portion of the web beneath the stiffener
plate intact. Fabrication of a dual stiffener plate requires machining slots that extend from the
face of the flange to a distance required to complete the welding process - about 1/2 inch longer
than the width of the welding shoe. Like the double-sided-single-plate configuration, the dual
stiffener plate option does not require rotation of the girder. This configuration also involves less
machining than the double-sided-single-plate configuration.
Prior to the FHWA moratorium on electroslag welding, the following major California structural
steel fabricators, in addition to many others throughout the United States, were using electroslag
welding:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Between the late 1960s and late 1980s these fabricators collectively welded over a hundred thousand stiffener plates with the ESW process in Northern and Southern California2. The October
17, 1989, Loma Prieta and January 17, 1994 Northridge earthquakes provided "real world" comparisons of all of the welding processes used to fabricate steel structures in California. Millions
of dollars were spent to repair cracked gasless FCAW welds after the Northridge earthquake.
According to the lead Los Angeles structural inspection firm assessing weld damage after the
Northridge earthquake, not one failure or crack propagation was discovered in any of the
electroslag welds inspected (Bong 2009b).
1The
American Welding Society defines the k-area as "...the region of the web that extends from the tangent point of
the web and the flange-web fillet (AISC k dimension) a distance 1-1/2 in [40mm] into the web beyond the k detail..." (American Welding Society 2009).
2Two of the tallest buildings in California were welded using ESW - The Bank of American building in San Francisco, and the twin tower Security Pacific building in Los Angeles. Countless smaller buildings were also welded
during this period of time in the greater San Francisco Bay area, the Los Angeles basin, and the San Diego area.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
29
5.3 Electroslag Welding Applied to Shop-Welding Continuity Plates of Built-up Box Columns
Continuity plates are commonly incorporated in built-up box columns (box columns) at their
beam-column joints. Prior to the advent of electroslag welding, fabricators welded three sides of
a box column together, then inserted the continuity plates into the box column and welded three
sides of each stiffener plate to the three inside walls of the box column via bevel welds (Figure
18a). The final wall of the box column consisted of three plates. These plates were welded to
the continuity plates. As high-rise buildings got taller, the continuity and box column plates of
the columns that supported the bottom floors of the buildings became very thick, some as thick
as 6 inches (15 cm). Their continuity plate welds took several days to complete until ESW was
introduced into the box column fabrication process (circa 1970). The process initially used only
one electroslag weld per stiffener plate, which joined the final (fourth) side of the continuity
plate to the final (fourth) monolithic (i.e., did not require cutting into three pieces) box column
plate (Figure 18b). The continuity plate was fabricated such that a gap between the fourth continuity plate edge and the fourth box column plate existed, which formed an ESW weld cavity.
Holes (keyholes) were then cut through two parallel box column plates in line with the centerline of the gap, where a sump and run-off tabs were installed, and finally, a wire guide was inserted to commence the ESW welding process (Figure 18b). The process was dubbed the "keyhole" welding procedure. The vertical rate of rise required to produce a sound keyhole weld is
about 1/2 inch per minute (13 mm/minute). Figures 18c and 18d illustrate how ESW-NG can be
used to achieve even greater economy when welding stiffener plates to the walls of box columns.
Figure 19 presents cross-sections ESW-NG keyhole joint before and after welding. Note that
welding shoes do not contain the weld during welding. Containment plates of 1/2 in. (13 mm)
thickness and of the same steel as the stiffener plates contain the weld. A spacer of 1/8 in. (3
mm) thickness, also of the same steel as the stiffener plates, serves to widen the weld at the face
of the box column. The outer containment plate provides an additional heat sink that retards
shrinkage crack development. The use of only one pair of containment plates with no spacer
caused a crack to initiate from the containment plate (Sarkisian et al. 2013).
Continuity
plate
Keyholes
Location of
ESW weld
Typical keyhole
locations
Guide (typ.)
CJP, 3 sides
Plan view
Elevation view
a. Early configuration.
30
Containment plate
1 in. = 25.4 mm
a. Cross-section of set-up for Box Column
continuity plate ESW-NG Welding.
b. Completed weld.
31
Figure 20: East Span, San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge Tower Under Construction
An example of a field application of conventional electroslag welding is the construction of the Mercedes-Benz
Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana, circa 1975. The tension ring of the dome consisted of 24 curved sections.
The flanges were spliced together using Electroslag welding (Williams and Gibson 1976).
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
32
Figure 21: East Span, San FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge SAS Tower Base (Turpin et al.
2012)
33
Five unique joints, requiring custom welding shoes, exist in the tower base (Figure 22). During
the ESW-NG welding, three shoes per side were leap-frogged in unison ahead of the molten slag
and weld pools. Thirty-six feet (11 m) long consumable low-carbon guides channeled two 332in. (2.4 mm) diameter wires into the molten slag and weld pools.
The ESW-NG welds were completed in 60 days. Less than 5% of the total length of the welds
required repairs. Weld defects were generally due to variations (on the shallow side) in the optimal slag pool depth. Only one of the 20 welds was interrupted. This interruption was due to an
unexplained loss of primary power.
The above information was obtained from Turpin et al. 2012. Further details, including the special challenges and the ESW-NG approval process (including full-scale testing) for these welds,
may be obtained from this AWS Journal article. The article includes the following testimony
that suggests the use of ESW-NG welding will be increasingly common in field construction.
ESW-NG has been shown to be the safest and most economical choice for welding thick joints in
steel structures regardless of the seismic design category of the structure.
"The narrow-gap improved electroslag welding... was used... because of its ability to produce single-pass vertical welds on heavy-section structural steel without a preheating requirement. Access within the tower base was limited and the preheating requirement with
any other welding process would have been prohibitive from the standpoint of safety and
economy. In addition, these welds had to be made in a very short amount of time and
FCAW-G, SMAW, and FCAW-S do not offer the deposition rates necessary to meet the
schedule requirements...The extraordinary length of the tower base welds presented several challenges. Alternatives such as FCAW-G, SMAW, and FCAW-S would have been
more challenging for the welders, would have had higher repair rates and would have
taken impossibly longer. The ESW process proved to be safe, reliable, and efficient."
(Turpin et al. 2012)
Figure 22: East Span, San FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge SAS Tower Base Joints (Turpin
et al. 2012)
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
34
e Co
re
Belt
Tru
ss
Figure 23: Erection Drawing Showing Concrete Core, Outrigger BRB Braces, and
Belt Truss at the 28th-31st Stories of Wilshire Grand, Los Angeles, California
The Wilshire Grand, located at the corner of Wilshire Boulevard and Figueroa Street, will include 73 stories, and
will be 934 ft. (285 m) high at the roof, 1100 ft. (335 m) at the spire. It was designed by AC Martin & Associates
and engineered by Brandow and Johnston (engineer of record) and Thornton Tomasetti. The steel fabricator and
erector is Schuff Steel. It is scheduled to be completed in 2017.
2 There will be no belt trusses between the 53rd and 59th floors.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
35
36
Face of
box column
ESW-NG
weld cavity
Belt truss
members
Figure 25: Wilshire Grand Hotel Box Column and Belt Truss Joint
6.4 ESW-NG for General Field-welding of Building Structures
ESW-NG played a critical role in the splicing of the steel plates at the base of the San FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge's tower, and now it's being used for key components of the lateral force resisting system of the soon-to-be tallest building in California. This welding method has shown to
be the most economical and reliable choice for field-welding steel components in heavy construction.
Field application of ESW-NG is also poised for general building construction. Portable ESWNG welding systems have been developed for welding processes that would otherwise be done in
a steel fabrication shop. Because joints oriented at up to 45-50 degrees from the vertical can be
successfully welded with ESW-NG, it is well suited to the field-welding of column flange splices
(Figure 26) (Bong 2014b). Portable welding equipment can be elevated to a recently constructed
floor and rolled to a column splice location to complete the field-welding. It takes a day or more
to splice a column flange using FCAW. In comparison, it takes about one minute to weld an
inch of ESW-NG weld. That is, a 14-inch flange can be welded in about 14 minutes.
Electroslag Welding Facts for Structural Engineers, Chambers & Medlock
37
Figure 26: ESW-NG Welding Applied to Column Splicing Showing 45 Column Flange
Splice, Weld Cavity, Sump, and Run-off Tabs
38
7. Conclusion
Electroslag welding is the most cost-effective choice for the production of thick welds in steel
bridges and buildings. Not only is ESW much faster than multi-pass welding methods, it is also
immune to the defects that can be caused by a weld pass. Modern ESW has been made possible
by more than a century of research. An FHWA-funded research program, which was the serendipitous outcome of a 1976 ESW fabrication blunder, made ESW even more economical and reliable than before. Prior to this research, ESW weld cavities were about 1.25 inches (32 mm)
wide. Modern ESW includes a much narrower joint, approximately 3/4 inch (19 mm) wide. It
was therefore dubbed electroslag welding - narrow gap (ESW-NG).
An ESW-NG weld consists of coalesced alloy-cored wire, base metal, and a stationary consumable wire guide. The manufacture of a sound weld requires about one inch of molten slag floating
atop a molten weld pool, an automatic flux dispenser, a wire feeding machine, water (coolant),
plumbing, and a power supply. A power supply with variable balance, constant potential, and
AC square wave power generation is well suited to ESW-NG. Containment of the molten weld
and slag pools is achieved via a sump, runoff tabs, copper welding shoes, and sealant. Welding
shoes are detailed for optimal heat transfer and joint orientation.
Shop-welding applications of ESW-NG include thick plate splices and T-joints formed by welding stiffener, continuity, or base plates with the flanges of open shapes. The "key hole" ESWNG welding method has also proved to be economical for shop-welding thick stiffener plates to
the inside walls of box columns.
Because ESW-NG does not require preheating and can be done in one pass, it has now recognized by prominent steel fabricators and erectors as the most reasonable choice for field-welding
thick steel joints. The first field application of ESW-NG was the production of the 20 - 33 ft. (10
m) welds that joined the steel plates forming the major foundation at the bottom of the single
tower in the self-anchored suspension (SAS) bridge of the East span of the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge (completed on February 3, 2014). Major steel components of the lateral
force-resisting system of the tallest building West of Chicago, the Wilshire Grand Hotel in Los
Angeles, California, will include field-welded ESW-NG welds. Joints oriented up to 45 degrees
can be efficiently welded using ESW-NG. Therefore, the steel construction industry will likely
commonly use ESW-NG for the field-splicing of thick column flanges.
ESW-NG is accepted by the AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code to weld common types of bridge steels and can also satisfy criteria for Demand Critical Welds in steel buildings, including those in special moment and braced frame connections, column splices, belt
chord connections, and base plate joints.
39
______________________________________________________________________
References
______________________________________________________________________
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American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (2010). AASHTO/AWS
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42
Ronnie Medlock is Vice President, Technical Services, at High Steel Structures, LLC in Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, where he is responsible for engineering and quality control and also plays a lead role in
the implementation of innovative welding processes
and techniques. His professional affiliations include
the American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on
Structural Welding (D1) and American Association
of State Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) /AWS Bridge Welding Committee
(D1.5); National Steel Bridge Alliance (NSBA)
Technical Committee (chair); AASHTO/ NSBA
Steel Bridge Collaboration (co-founder, main committee chair); and American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way Association (chair, Steel
Structures Committee), and the Transportation Research Board (TRB). Prior to joining High Steel in
2006, he worked at Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), where he worked in steel bridge fabrication quality assurance and structural design.
He can be reached at:
High Steel Structures, Inc.
1915 Old Philadelphia Pike
Lancaster, PA 17602
Phone: 717.823.6115
Email: rmedlock@high.net
43
44
Dec. '96: Seismic Design Practice for Eccentrically Braced Frames (Based on the 1994 UBC), by Roy Becker and Mi
chael Ishler.
Nov. '95: Seismic Design of Special Concentrically Braced Steel Frames, by Roy Becker.
Jul. '95: Seismic Design of Bolted Steel Moment Resisting Frames, by Abolhassan Astaneh Asl.
Apr. '95: Structural Details to Increase Ductility of Connections, by Omer W. Blodgett.
Dec. '94: Use of Steel in the Seismic Retrofit of Historic Oakland City Hall, by William Honeck & Mason Walters.
Dec '93: Common Steel Erection Problems and Suggested Solutions, by James J. Putkey.
Oct. '93: Heavy Structural Shapes in Tension Applications.
Mar. '93: Structural Steel Construction in the '90s, by F. Robert Preece and Alvaro L. Collin.
Aug. '92: Value Engineering and Steel Economy, by David T. Ricker.
Oct. '92: Economical Use of Cambered Steel Beams.
Jul. '92: Slotted Bolted Connection Energy Dissipaters, by Carl E. Grigorian, Tzong Shuoh Yang and Egor P. Popov.
Jun. '92: What Design Engineers Can Do to Reduce Fabrication Costs, by Bill Dyker and John D. Smith.
Apr. '92: Designing for Cost Efficient Fabrication, by W.A. Thornton.
Jan. '92: Steel Deck Construction.
Sep. '91: Design Practice to Prevent Floor Vibrations, by Farzad Naeim.
Mar. '91: LRFD Composite Beam Design with Metal Deck, by Ron Vogel.
Dec. '90: Design of Single Plate Shear Connections, by Abolhassan Astaneh Asl, Steven M. Call and Kurt M.
McMullin.
Nov. '90: Design of Small Base Plates for Wide Flange Columns, by W.A. Thornton.
May '89: The Economies of LRFD in Composite Floor Beams, by Mark C. Zahn.
Jan. '87: Composite Beam Design with Metal Deck.
Feb. '86: UN Fire Protected Exposed Steel Parking Structures.
Sep. '85: Fireproofing Open Web Joists & Girders.
Nov. '76: Steel High Rise Building Fire.
45
Steel
46