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International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research

Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved

ISSN 2277-7156
Review Article
Recycled fibers: An overview
Dinesh Bhatia1, Ankush Sharma2 and Urvashi Malhotra3
1,2

Department of Textile Technology

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India) 144011
3
J.N.G.E.C Sundernagar, Himachal Pradesh (India) 175018
Cell: +91 8054603399, E mail: dineshbhatia55@rediffmail.com

Received 30 October 2014; accepted 13 November 2014

Abstract
Today, in the world of modern technologies, the demand for production is increasing so rapidly in all aspects of the
required living commodities. In order to meet all the required demands, over production and utilization of all resources
seem not enough. Therefore, the increasing demand for textile making huge clothing production is not only based on
demand for more population but its also changing new fashion habits as well. Improving raw material exploitation has
become the most important challenge facing scientific and industrial community. Textile production wastes are undesirable
but inevitable by- products in many manufacturing process (spinning, weaving, knitting, or garment manufacturing) and
are frequently undervalued. However, if one can convert such wastes into useful product economically, there will be great
contribution to the market. In this paper attempt has been made to give idea about different types of waste produced in
textile industries (spinning, weaving, knitting, or garment manufacturing) and also types of waste which can be used again
in recycling process to make some value added product. Also give different types of methods by which this waste can be
used to make new high quality products from existing material.
2014 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
Keywords: Fibers, Recycled, Textile and Waste.
1. Introduction
A situation of production waste has developed since the
industrial revolution. As demand increased, the
manufacturing industry evolved and manual labour systems
were replaced by mechanized manufacturing. This allowed
textile to be produced cheaper, quicker and in vast
qualities. This has resulted in an overabundance of mass
produced cheap and often poor quality products and large
volume of textile fibers waste that has limited end use
applications. Textile production wastes cover all those raw
materials which are either accruing or being used in the
textile industry such as production remnants, wastes from
fibre and filament manufacture, wastes from spinning,
weaving, knitting and making-up as well as reprocessed
materials.
Textile production wastes fall into three categories : (a)
trashy waste - waste which requires cleaning before
reprocessing, examples are blow room wastes, carding
waste, card flat strips and filter waste; (b) clean waste waste which requires no further cleaning, examples are
comber waste, card, draw frame and combed sliver waste,
filter waste from draw frames, speed frames, ring spinning
frames and rotor spinning machines; (c) hard waste - waste

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which requires opening on special machines, examples are

twisted roving, yarns, and textile fabrics (woven rags and
knitted rags) [1]. In the past, waste produced during the
manufacturing processes (spinning, weaving and knitting)
was normally collected and sold to the waste spinner for
relatively low prices. Certain blending of wastes with good
materials was necessary in order to upgrade the quality of
waste yarns produced and prevent excessive end breakage
rate during spinning.
With ever increasing price hike of both cotton and
manmade fibres, most of the export avenues downing their
shutters, heavy investments on sophisticated machines and
modernisation with doubtful returns and above all labour
demanding ever increasing wages with disproportionate
and decreasing productivity, many of the textile mills are in
doldrums. Inflation and increasing unemployment have
further reduced demands for garments and clothing. Hence
in order to survive the heavy competition, it is absolutely
essential that waste incurred during manufacturing
processes should be brought within critical limits or
recycled that waste to produce a value added products in
place of selling it at low price.
To overcome this problems number of company produced

International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82

different methods of recycling process. The company

Patagonia in the US now recycles many garments made
from Polartec polyester fabric [2]. In Turkey, recycled
polypropylene is reinforced with silk and cotton waste,
resulting in a composite with improved mechanical and
physical properties [3]. Upholstery and automotive needle
punch fabric manufacturers experience an increased
demand for polyester recycled fibres, for which
conventional recycling processes of making reclaimed
fibres can well be used [4]. Denim cutting-room scraps
pose an environmental and economic problem. Burlington
Industries and North Carolina State University have at last
come up with a solution and have developed a technique to
make jeans, in part, from reclaimed denim. The denim is
made from 50% reclaimed denim yarn and 50% virgin
cotton yarn [5]. Another innovative use of denim scraps is
the manufacturing of unbleached 100% cotton rag paper,
called Blue Jean Bond, which is undertaken by Esleeck in
the US.
Products made from recycled fabric waste include
nonwovens used for insulation, padding, upholstery, oil
filters, hospital drapes and gowns, as well as a variety of
absorbent products like disposable wipes, geotextiles,
carpets, fibrefill and spun-bonded fabrics from
polyethylene. Many other products such as trims from
unravelled knits are also manufactured [4, 6]. Flocked
fibres from finely cut fabric waste those are applied to
adhesive-coated surfaces and then used for various
purposes for instance packaging materials for jewellery, is
another practice [7].
A process for using recycled waste material for producing a
textile product is provided. This process can include
collecting different categories of waste material from a
variety of textile formation processes. The process can also
include selecting specific categories of waste material to be
blended together depending on the final textile product to
be produced. Recycling of textile waste gives fiber a
second life in a rejuvenated life cycle and thus increases the
total value of that recycled fibre. Still most of recycled
fibres end up in low value products, so the development of
new higher value products from recycled fibres will
encourage utilization of the waste fibres and contribute to
the future sustainability of industry.
Today, recycling has become a necessity not only because
of the shortage of any item but also to control pollution.
There are three ways to reduce pollution. One is to use
newer technologies that pollute less. The other is to
effectively treat the effluent so that the final effluent
conforms to the expected norms. The third and the most
practical way are to recycle the waste several times before
it is discharged [8].
In the study, the attempt has made to describe the wastage
amount of various textile process along with their
classification, in addition to that it also describe textile
recycling techniques. The target is to form different
categories of waste produced from different sources like,
spinning, weaving, knitting and garment manufacturing. It
includes the waste that is recyclable along with its
recycling process; on the other hand different application
areas are also introduced.

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2. Types of waste
2.1 Preconsumer Waste
Pre-consumer waste is a material that was discarded
before it was ready for consumer use. Pre-consumer
recycled materials can be broken down and remade into
similar or different materials, or can be sold "as is" to third
party buyers who then use those materials for consumer
products. Preconsumer textile waste usually refers to waste
by-products from fiber, yarn, textile, and apparel
manufacturing. It can be mill ends, scraps, clippings, or
goods damaged during production, and most is reclaimed
and reused as raw materials for the automotive, furniture,
mattress, coarse yarn, home furnishing, paper, and other
industries [9].
2.2 Postconsumer Waste
Postconsumer textile waste usually refers to any product
that the individual no longer needs and decides to discard
due to wear or damage and normally includes used or worn
clothing, bed linens, towels, and other consumer textiles.
Postconsumer waste which can be recovered are clothing,
drapes/curtains, towels, sheets and blankets, clean rags and
sewing remnants, table cloths belts hand bags paired shoes
and socks [10].
3. Classification of waste on the basis of production
industry:
Different types of waste produced in different types of
production industries are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Types of waste produced in different production
industries.
Production Type
Spinning waste,
yarn waste
Clothing waste
Nonwovens
production waste
Carpet mill waste
Used textiles

Types of waste
Opening Waste, Carding Waste, Sliver Waste,
Roving Waste, Combed Noil, Bonda soft waste,
Pneumafil Waste, Bonda hard waste from ring
spinning, winding and doubling.
Knitting waste fiber and yarn, Woven waste fiber
and yarn, Woven and knit cutting waste.
Thermally and chemically bonded, lightweight
webs, needled webs, coated, uncoated.
Needle felt, tufted carpet, cut waste, coated,
uncoated
Old clothing

4. Benefits of Recycling Waste

Using recycling waste can benefit both business and the
environment by:
Reducing cost of purchasing materials.
Increasing profitability.
Minimizing costs of disposal and treatments.
Minimizing environmental impacts by reducing use of
new raw materials and producing products from earlier
one.
Textile recycling requires less energy than any other
type of recycling.
Textile recycling does not create any new hazardous
waste or harmful by-products.
5. Method of converting old clothing into fibers
Before going into different applications of recycled fibers
firstly we know about the procedure of converting old
clothes into fibres. Old clothes are converted into fibers by
following operations. (1) Freed from dust. (2) Carefully
sorted. (3) Oiled so they will be soft and pliable. (4) Then

International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82

converted into strip- form of particular dimensions

according to specification of rag puller. (5) Then, the strips
were distributed evenly on the feed lattice. As the strips
were delivered by means of feed roller, the torn-out
garment strips were torn-off by the high speed spiked
beater. The fibres produced were collected at the container
while the unfilled-opened strips were collected at the
separator for re-processing [11].
6. Fiber Recycling Technologies
A vast number of products are made from reprocessed fiber
because much of this fiber is re-spun into new yarns or
manufactured into woven, knitted, or non-woven
fabrications, or upholstery material, or composite
biomaterial, or other methods including garment linings,
household items, furniture upholstery, insulation materials,
automobile sound absorption materials, automobile
carpeting, and toys [12].
6.1 Yarns from Recycled Fibres
The waste produced in a textile mill is an important factor
in determining the operating cost and therefore in
influencing mill profits. The recovered fibers from waste
can be used to produce blended yarns (waste/virgin fibers)
in different portions. These fibers can be reused for the
open end spinning and friction spinning but nowadays
attempts on ring spinning are also in progress. The
requirements of quality imposed on the finished products
allow only the addition of tiny quantities of recovered
fibers. Therefore the proportion of secondary raw material
blended with primary material must be carefully studied. In
a study focused to the rotor spinning process concluded that
up to 20% of recovered fibers can be blended with primary
raw material without noticeable changes in quality. It is
found from the studies that the introduction of 15 and 25%
waste fiber into the cotton will not affect the tenacity, the
irregularity and the rotor yarn elongation. Results also
indicated that the recovered fibers have a good clean ability
which allows its blend with virgin fibres. This yarn can be
woven or knitted for some special purpose but till a date it
is not able to fulfil the work of virgin fibres. Researchers
claimed that yarn can be used for specific use if waste is
selected in specific amounts from the various waste
categories and mixed together properly. For example, a
formula that includes the percentage by weight of the type
of waste from the various waste categories can be used that
is based on characteristics of the yarn to be produced.
Researcher make yarn of 100 % cotton waste (30% ring
spinning waste; 30% card waste; 20% weaving yarn waste;
and 20% combed waste yarn) that has a count of 24/1 Ne
which can be used for a warp yarn in producing a woven
bed sheeting. Attempt on making Dref yarns from recycled
fibres also shows good results but as raw materials used is
totally waste materials so fabrics produced of course
belongs to cheap fabrics which are suggested to be used in
the field of cleaning cloths, wrapping cloths and covering
cloths [11].
6.2 Upholstery material From Recycled Fibers
At least 3-4% of the weft yarn including catch ends is
unavoidable waste in every type of weaving machine. The
catch selvedge yarn strip is sold at throw away price. The
fibres are separated by the garnetter who uses them for

79

stuffing of pillows and quilts. Some use this waste for

making fancy composites for floor covering. By using
100% wool yarn for 100% wool weft or polyester-wool
blended yarn, the wool rich catch selvedge can be teased to
recover fibres to feed to the woollen cards to produce
blankets which have a market in cooler regions. This is a
cost effective solution and provides for the wool rich raw
materials needed for producing blankets [8].
6.3 Composite Biomaterials from Recycled Fibers
Protein fiber wastes such as by-products from the wool
textile industry, poor quality raw wools not fit for spinning,
represent an important renewable source of biopolymers.
Hairs and feathers are largely made of keratin, that could be
recovered and transformed into new materials with
innovative properties suitable for textile or non-textile uses
(fibers, compostable packaging, disposables, agricultural
films, membranes and coatings). Wool fibers when
disrupted in their histological components attaching the
intercellular cement by ultrasonic-enzyme treatments, the
resulting cells were embedded in a polymeric film-forming
matrix of cellulose acetate, of obtaining new composite
material, suitable for film production and filament
spinning. Cellulose acetate is largely used in the production
of yarns for textiles, filters, plastics; electrical insulations,
photographic films, transparent and pigmented sheets,
medical and sanitary application since it exhibit a
remarkable resistance to moulds and bacteria. Nevertheless,
cellulose acetate is highly flammable and very difficult to
dye. Plastics and textile fibres with novel properties, such
as improved fire resistance, moisture regain, dyeing
performances and colour effects, handle and look might be
produced from new composite materials combining
properties of man-made and protein polymers which are
naturally hydrophilic, non-burning and dyed well by most
of the commercial dye-stuffs. Improvement of the thermal
properties has been obtained with respect to the pure
cellulose acetate film. Cortical cells from wool also give to
cellulose acetate a more hydrophilic character and,
potentially, other performances typical of wool, such as
novel dyeing properties and colour effects, which are very
important characteristics for textile applications [13].
6.4 Nonwovens made from Recycled Fibres
Depending on product functions, reclaimed fibres can be
looked upon as conventional in technical textiles,
particularly in nonwoven (mobility textiles which mainly
serve to cover up surfaces or to insulate materials, agrotextiles, and geo-textiles which are used to protect soil
against erosion). In all these cases, reclaimed fibres are
used because of low prices, or because they merely cover
something up. However, reclaimed fibres are also applied
in nonwoven to utilise highly valuable functional
components. This concerns fibres, which would not be
available at a competitive price if made from primary
material, such as:
The high- grade woollen hair found in laminated
nonwoven used to make motor vehicle seats.
Aramide fibers used to protect against cutting or
impact penetration.
Micro- fiber materials used for insulation or cleaning.
Geo - textiles may be looked upon as an ideal field for the

International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82

Table 6.1 Requirements to be met by technical textiles.

Most urgent requirement to be met by recycled fibres
Application
Polymer
Reinforcing fibre

Wrap yarn for technical textiles

Nonwoven to protect against erosion

Geotextile nonwoven

Fineness

application of reclaimed fibres. To make them, it is

important to use well-selected textile waste and to exactly
tune the process parameters when breaking it up. In this
way quality requirement below in Table 6.1 can be met
[14].
6.5 Other Method of Using recycled Fibers.
6.5.1 Insulation Materials
Insulation materials are an important part in construction,
material are used for the ventilation purposes and
conduction, radiation and thermal insulation. Therefore
Insulation materials are made from textile waste, insulation
material is the key to keep balance of energy consumption.
Insulation material made up of textile waste is shown in
Figure 6.1.

Strength

Length

Colour

X
X

X
X

6.5.3 Stuffed toys

Stuffed toys are made of different type of textile, normally
textile is recycled. In this kind of toys are made from plain
clothes and pile textile, in addition there are other type
of textile like, cotton, synthetic fiber batting and terrycloth.
These types of toys are used for comfort as well as playing
for kids. Stuffed toys made of textile waste are shown in
Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 Stuffed toys made of textile waste.

Figure 6.1 The insulation material made from textile waste.

6.5.2 Carpet underlay
Generally carpet underlay is the thin layer of cushioning
which is used in different form of carpets which are used
for different purposes. Therefore, the categories and types
of underlay vary like, sponge rubber, foam and crumb
rubber. Thus, it is also used in the carpet in order to
moisture noise and heat. Some examples of underlay carpet
are shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Example of underlay carpet.

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6.5.4 Shoe insoles

Shoes insoles are important to make for shoes, they are
used underneath in the shoes in order to make shoes more
comfortable to wear, and they can be easily removed from
the shoes. Some examples of shoe insoles are shown in
Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 Example of shoe insoles.

International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82

Table 7.1 Industries which uses recycled fibres along with their application area
Industry

Nonwovens industry

Furniture industry

Carpet industry

Building industry

Textile industry
Agriculture industry

Paper industry

Application Area
Automobile industry: insulating webs for sound and heat insulation, hardpressed parts for floors, side and seat linings, trunk compartment, luggage dump
etc., bottom felts for carpeting, stitch-knit nonwovens (Moliwatt, Molivlies).
Mattress covers, mattress webs, bottom webs for seating in furniture, upholstery
material, wadding material.
Wiping cloths
Needled webs.
Bottom felts for carpeting

Sound and heat insulating webs, filter products, nonwoven coating substrates,
and footfall sound insulation. Textile shreds as filling material for insulating
webs, as aggregate for textile concrete in road construction.
Spinning waste, blended yarns or 100% waste yarns for spinning to the DREF
or rotor spinning process (wiping cloths, blankets, and home furnishings),
comforters made of acrylic knit goods waste.
Covering webs, seed carrier webs.

Wearing felts for paper production, Crude felts for bitumen roofing felts.

7. Uses and Ranges of Application for Recycled Textile

Fibres
Reclaimed fibres can be manufactured from a variety of
textile waste. Both quality and process ability of such fibres
depend on the kind of waste. Well-known are the pure
sorted fibres of high-quality which are achieved from
spinning-fibre waste. In contrast, reclaimed fibres made
from end-of-life textiles are of much poorer quality. They
will rarely be found of homogenous fiber type.
There are many ways open to using reclaimed fibres in both
textile and non-textile products. The suitability of processes
depends on waste characteristics and on how much they
cost. Yarns are a frequent example of how reclaimed fibres
can be used. Yarns made from reclaimed fibres may serve
to produce fabrics for garment and household textiles as
well as for simple technical applications. However, as yarns
made from reclaimed fibres, in most cases, are grey or dark
by nature, they are not frequently used in garment or
household textiles. With technical yarns, colour ranks in
second place. Even special-purpose fibre materials are
made into reclaimed fibres today.
In the following, a few examples of possible uses in the
snonwovens, carpet, building, textiles, agricultural and
paper industries are given, but new ranges of application
are opened up every day (see Figure 7.1). The various uses
mainly depend on how the textile and nonwovens waste is
formed during the individual process stages. This will then
determine the possible recycling process. Consequently,
various technologies are required for reprocessing. Some
industries along with their application area which uses

81

recycled fibres are shown in Table 7.1.

8. Limitation of Recycling
Promoting waste avoidance on purely environmental
reasons may not be sufficient. As costs for collection
and disposal services are not linked directly with the
quantity and sorting of wastes generated through
charging,
There is no financial incentive for waste producers to
reduce waste.
Low values, high transportation cost or lack of market
demand for recovered materials particularly.
The predominance of small and medium recovery and
recycling enterprises discourages investments in waste
recovery technologies.
9. Conclusion
A large amount of textile waste is disposed of in landfills
each year. That not only poses economic and
environmental problems to the society but also represents a
severe waste of resources. Although the environmental
awareness of the general public has increased significantly
in recent years, still their willingness to actively participate
in waste reduction by recycling needs to be enhanced. Fiber
recycling technologies, usage and range of application of
recycled fibres described in this paper will become a handy
tool to assimilate the waste as value added product, which
waste was earlier considered as garbage and sold unduly.
So people those are impetuous for waste disposal would
think rationally about the rejuvenation of waste fibers for
raise the profit for their firm and also it reflects noble cause
for society by reducing the contamination in environment.

International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82

Figure 7.1 Reuse and recyclability of textile waste.

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Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None declared

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International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2014; 4(4): 77-82