Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
8
TV LIGHTING
1.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a
tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a kind
of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e. wave length
from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to effectively use the hardware and
software connected with lighting it is important to know more about this energy.
Light Source
Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured in Candelas. Candela
is equivalent to an intensity released by standard one candle source of light.
Illumination (E)
It is a Luminous Flux incident onto a surface. It is measured in LUMENS/m 2, which is
also called as LUX. A point source of 1 candela at a uniform distance of 1 metre from a
surface of 1 square metre gives illumination of 1 LUX.
Luminance (l)
It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface. Measured in Apostils. A surface that
reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a luminance of 1 Apostils.
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1m
1m
1 LUMEN
Area
A
1
F
Hence E 2
A
d
Colour Temperature
One may wonder, how the light is associated with colour. Consider a black body being
heated, you may observe the change in colour radiated by this body as the temperature
is increased. The colour radiated by this body changes from red dish to blue and then to
white as the temperature is further increased. This is how the concept of relating colour
with temperature became popular. Colour temperature is measured in degree Kelvin i.e.
( o C 273) . The table below gives idea about the kind of radiation from different kinds
of lamps in terms of colour temperature.
Standard candle
Gas filled tungsten lamp
Projection bulb
Flash-bulb
HMI lamp
Electronic flash tube
Average day light
Blue sky
1930o K
2760o K
3200o K
3800o K
6500o K
6000o K
6500o K
12000 - 18000o K
By measuring the energy content of the source over narrow bands at the red and blue
ends of the spectrum the approximate colour temperature can be determined. All the
colour temperature meter are based on this principle.
2.
Colour filters are used to modify the colour temperature of lights and to match colour
temperature for cameras while shooting with different colour temperature, e.g., indoor
and outdoor etc.
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37%
56%
69%
55%
70%
80%
3200 - 5700 o K
3200 - 4300 o K
3200 - 3600 o K
5700 - 3200 o K
5700 - 3800 o K
5700 - 4600 o K
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10 6
5000
K we
200
-83
117 MIREDS
8500o K
The blue filter used in the above example, increased the colour temperature but
decreased the MIRED value.
If an orange filter had been used it would have reduced the colour temperature and
increased the MIRED value.
Consider a moonlight night exterior with natural light sources inside. The
difference between the two will be about 140 mired. Luminaries to simulate
moonlight are filtered blue - (140 mired) and objects illuminated with this
light will appear deep blue while objects under natural sources can be
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under white light. If an orange filter of about + 70 mired is used on the
camera, the white light of the natural sources will appear slightly orange,
the moonlight will come but less blue.
Filtered light in dark areas of a picture will render much higher colour saturation,
in very light areas colours become whitish and de saturated. This fact should be
taken into account when selecting filters for key lights or fill light.
Under natural sunlight the fill light contains usually slightly more blue than the key
light. If sunlight must be imitated, in a studio, it is advisable to give the fill light a
slight blue hue.
Colour television monitors in a studio have a colour temperature of about 6500 o
K. If they are photographed by another camera their screens should be covered
by an orange gel of about - 100 mired.
3.
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Tungsten wire has resistance and is capable of dissipating power in the form of heat. If
sufficient electrical energy is supplied to raise the filament temperature above
approximately 5000 C, light is emitted. Oxygen has to be excluded to avoid combustion.
The filament is enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. The tungsten filament has light
emitting characteristics similar to those of a black body radiator, where high temperature
provides greater efficiency and higher colour temperature. But this lamp usually fails
because of evaporation of filament, the higher the filament temperature the higher the
rate of evaporation. This causes the filament to become thinner, thus reducing the light
output and colour temperature. The inside of the bulb is darkened by the deposition of
evaporated filament. This deposit absorbs some of the light thus reducing its intensity.
The evaporation can be reduced by having a suitable gas (which does not attack the
filament) into the bulb. However the gas molecules conduct the heat away from the
filament and in order to conserve the heat the filament is wound as a tight coil. This gas
enables them to be run at temperatures several hundred degrees higher than those of
vacuum lamps. Evaporation and bulb blackening still take place in the gas-filled lamp
and in order to reduce its effect a large surface for condensation is required. Hence
these studio lamps has very large bulb. Even then towards the end of the filament life,
this deposited layer reduces the light output and colour temperature to unacceptable
levels.
Increasing the pressure of the gas filling may suppress the ratio of evaporation, but the
sizes used are not capable of withstanding more pressure. Use of smaller bulbs in
harder glasses or silica permit the use of higher pressures but the advantage gained is
lost by virtue of the smaller surface area for condensation.
b)
Tungsten halogen lamp is a major break through in lamp design. By the chemical
removal of the deposited tungsten on the bulb the light output has been increased to
100%. The useful life is at least double that of normal tungsten filament lamps and the
lamp is physically smaller.
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Fig. 2 Comparison of size and performance of normal Tungsten and tungsten
halogen lamp
Halogen is a general term for a family of very reactive elements like, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine and iodine. Each of these combine with tungsten in a reversible reaction which
is controlled by temperature. At present the halogen used is iodine or bromine.
Halogen vapour is colourless and at bulb temperatures between 250 - 8000 o C combines
with the deposited tungsten to form tungsten halide in vapour form. At temperatures
above 1250o C, encountered in the region of the filament, the tungsten halide dissociates
- tungsten being deposited on the filament, and halogen being released to repeat the
cycle. It would appear that we now have a lamp with a bulb which never blackens and
an ever-lasting filament.
The tungsten however does not deposit itself back from where it came but on the cooler
part of the filament. Because of the high bulb temperatures involved and small size the
glass has to be strong, so it is made fused silica (quarts). This also enable to have high
gas pressure, which can be 4 times or more than the normal lamps. This reduces
filament evaporation and gives an extension to filament life.
Quartz bulbs should not be touched by hand since minute quantities of acid so deposited
will attack the glass when it is heated. This lamp has an efficiency of 20 Lumens per
watt.
The low pressure sodium lamp is a well known example of a discharge lamp. The
radiation produced in a low pressure mercury vapour discharge tube is mainly ultra-violet
and use is made of this in the fluorescent tube, the ultra-violet energy excites the
fluorescent power coating of the tube to produce visible radiation. The radiation from a
mercury vapour lamp within the visible spectrum is increased if the gas pressure is
increased to about 20 x atmospheric pressure.
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Starting a CSI lamp : The pressure inside a CSI lamp when cold is below
atmospheric. At this pressure a starting pulse of about 10 kilo-volts is
required to cause ionization. Once the lamp has been ionized the arc
voltage falls to about 80V. The warm up period of these lamps is about 30
seconds, during which time the colour of the light changes from the
purple-blue mercury radiation to white radiation indicating the evaporation
and dissociation of the metal iodides. When used with ac. supplies the
lamp will be extinguished when the cycle of voltage falls below 80 V, but
since between successive half cycles the gas does not have time to deionize it will strike again as soon as the next half cycles rises above 80 V.
If the lamp is switched off for a few seconds de-ionization will occur and it
is then impossible to ionize the gas until the lamp cools for several
minutes. This is because at the working temperature of the lamp the gas
pressure is at about 15 atmospheres, and would require about four times
the available striking voltages.
The CSI lamp has a life of approximately 200 hours. The most common cause of failure
is a seal leakage or fracture. Usually before complete failure the light output has falls to
a level which requires the lamp to be changed.
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Important points
The CSI lamp when cold has a gas pressure below atmospheric (0.25 atm) and there
is no risk of explosive failure when handling. However, in operation the gas pressure
builds up inside the lamp (10-25 atm) and there is a risk of the bulb exploding. It is
important, therefore, that the lamp is always used in an enclosed fitting. The main
danger occurs when a short term mains failure causes the lamp to extinguish, the
lamp will not start and gives the impression of a lamp failure. Any action to change
the lamp in these conditions, i.e. when the lamp is hot, is dangerous. It is therefore
recommended that if failure is suspected the lamp is allowed to cool for at least ten
minutes to allow the internal pressure of the lamp to reduce to a safe level before
any attempt is made to change the lamp.
The CSI lamp emits ultra-violet radiation in addition to the visible light. This ultraviolet radiation is harmful as it can cause severe burning of the skin and damage to
the retina of the eye. To prevent this from happening, avoid looking directly at the
light source and use a glass plate over the open luminaries.
Dimming Control : The CSI lamp is not suitable for use in applications where dimming
of the light source is required. This is because of the 30 second warm up
period and the re-strike of 2-5 minutes. 1 kW CSI lamp gives a lamp throw of
75 feet, the illuminated area is a 10 foot diameter circle at an illumination of
approximately 2000 LUX.
The equipment associated with the CSI lamp namely the current limiting inductor, is
remote from the luminaries. This light is mostly used as a follow spot or an effect
projector.
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Wattage rating of HMI bulbs : HMI bulbs are available in a range of sizes 200
W, 1200 W, 2500 W and 4000 W. They have a luminous efficiency of
about 90 lumens/watt and are therefore much brighter than an equally
rated tungsten bulb.
Operation of HMI bulbs : A striking voltage of 24 kV is used with HMI to ensure
that the bulb can be instantly restarted when the lamp is hot. This voltage
is necessary to ensure the restrike with the high gas pressure inside the
hot bulb. This removes the major problem of CSI lamps
Like all other discharge source a choke is used to limit the current when the lamp is
running. HMI has a colour temperature of 60000 oK. it takes several minutes after first
striking for the lamp to reach this colour temperature. The initial colour is blue due to
the mercury vapour, but gradually the light "whitens" as the metal halides dissociate to
add more red and green content to the spectrum. When viewed with the naked eye or
colour camera the lamp could possible appear more magenta then daylight. In this case
a white flame green filter will assist in removing the magenta appearance of the lamp.
Filters may also be necessary to equalize the colour temperature of HMI bulbs.
With an orange filter the HMI bulb can be made to approximate to tungsten light, but the
main use of a high colour temperature source is to mix in with daylight.
TV Lighting
-
Movable vertical rods with varying heights mounted on a cat walk system
below ceiling.
Sun/Moon projector
Water roller
Strobe flicker light
Cloud projector
Running water project
Sequential chaser with manual/music control
Par - par lights having parabolic glass reflector to give confined beam.
Multi ten/Multi twenty - open face light. Size of the broad beam can be
changed with the movement of lamp.
Follow spot with a circular concentrated beam
Fresner lenses
This lens has series of sloped concentric ring cut away from its convexed surface. Each
ring thus acts as a small prism gathering energy from the lamp and reflecting it into
parallel rays. This lens is used on most of the hard spot lights.
Different Lighting Techniques
-
Eye light, Low intensity light on camera itself to get extra sparkle to an
actor's eye.
Rim light, to highlight actor's outline. It is an extra back on entire body at
camera level.
Kickkar light, extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind
and to the side of the actor.
Limbo Lighting, Only object is visible, no back ground light.
Silhouette lighting, No light on subject, background is highly lit.
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TV Lighting
4.
LIGHTING CONSOLE
In a television production, each scene will require its own lighting plan to give the desired
effect. In order to assist in setting up a particular lighting plan, a console should
provide :a)
b)
c)
One man operation and a centralised control desk with ability to switch any
circuit.
Facilities to obtain good balance with flexibility to have dimming on any circuit.
With all controls for power at low voltage and current.
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Dimmers
Thee basic methods for dimming are :a)
b)
Saturable Reactor (System SR) : The basic principle of the saturable reactor
is to connect an iron cored choke in series with the lamp. The inductance of
the choke can be varied by saturating the iron core by means of D.C. supply
on a separate control winding. When the D.C. control current is high the iron
core gets saturated causing the change in inductance in series with the load.
This results in change in voltage and hence the dimming effect.
c)
Auto Transfer : A wiper sliding along the winding varies the turns ratio and
thus the lamp voltage.
Advances in the technology have resulted in improved reliability, more efficient and
cheaper design of dimmers. The operators now have to handle low control voltage with
a maximum value of 20 V. These dimmers are called SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier)
based dimmers. SCR is basically a semi-conductor rectifier which does not conduct until
it has been "switched on" by a gating pulse. It is a 4 layer semi-conductor, with three
electrodes - anode and gate. It is connected in series with the load. Dimming is
achieved by varying the timing of the gate pulses to control the average load current.
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Thyristor or SCR
It is a unilateral device and conduction take place from anode to cathode under proper
conditions of bias. The other member of this family is called "Triac" which is a bilateral
device with three terminals and conducts in both directions. Thyristor and its action can
be considered by seeing it as two transistors connected back to back.
The presence of a positive gate pulse or potential on the base of TR2 turns it on and
current flows through TR2 via the base of TR1. This turns TR1 on and current flow
through TR1 and into the base of TR2, thus holding TR2 on. The gate pulse can now be
removed and the thyristor conduct until the supply is removed and the regenerative
action of TR1/TR2 is destroyed. The internal feed back makes the thyristor an extremely
efficient and fast switching device.
LOAD
CURRENT
AC SUPPLY
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
VC
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SCRS
OR
TRAICS
RAMP
VOLTAGE
GENERATOR
PULSE
GENERATOR
UNIT
Vr
Vc
TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS
DIMMER
UNIT
DIMMER
UNIT
TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS
DIMMER
UNIT
R
CONTACTOR
S
T
TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS
S
T
TIME BASE
UNIT
REF. R
REF. S
REF. T
TRIGGER
PULSE
GEN. UNIT
POWER
SUPPLY
8V / 15V
CONTROL
DESK
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SYSTEM
TIMER
SERIAL
INTERFACE
FRAME INT
LINE INT
LINE INT
MEMORY
MANAGER
CPU
PLAYBACK
CPU
DATA BUS
CMOS RAM
(32k)
COMMON MEMORY ADDR BUS (16 BIT)
TO OTHER
PROCESSORS
CMOS RAM
(32k)
COMMON MEMORY
OPERATORS DESK
SERIAL
INTERFACE
(PANEL)
RS
422
SERIAL
INTERFACE
CPU
MEMORY
CONTROLLER
FUNCTIONS
PLAYBACK
CONTROLLER
CHANNEL
CONTROLLER
GROUP
MASTER
MEMORY
MANAGER
PROCESSOR
PLABACK
PROCESSOR
CHANNEL
CONTROLLER
PROCESSOR
GROUP
MASTER
PROCESSOR
CMOS RAM
(32k)
COMMON MEMORY
CMOS RAM
(32k)
R
SERIAL
& HOLD
(D to A)
MEMORY
MANAGER
PROCESSOR
VIDEO
PROCE
-SSOR
VIDEO
GENERATION
R
S
S
TO DIMMERS
PROCESSING ELECTRONICS
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The fade systems of the Datalite consoles are implemented entirely within the software
of the controller units. The fade algorithm used is the digital version of a dip less cross
fade :
o/p = A + (B-A) / 256)* n
The system timer generates regular pulses which are counted to generate the current
value for n. The processor then does a fast multiply to calculate (B-A)/256)*n. The
result is added to a copy of the initial level A and the total left for the output Greatest
processor to consider in conjunction with the output from the other controllers in the
system.
The file data in the Datalite system is held in battery backed CMOS memory. Each
CMOS card holds 32 kbytes of memory, and up to 192 kbytes of file memory can be
fitted (i.e. 6 cards). With a channel capacity of 1000 channels this means that about 200
lots of file data can be held in the CMOS memory. The operator is free to use any file
number up to 999 and therefore the storage system is divided into a heater area and a
data storage area. The header block contains the file numbers a header area and a
data storage area. The header block contains the file numbers of all the files that are
stored plus pointers to where the associated file data is to be found within the file
storage area.
5.
OPERATIONAL PRACTICE
The incident light level used in any television studio depends on the light required b y the
cameras in that studio to give depth of field consistent with types of programmes. A
dance sequence for example will need higher f - stop no. for more depth of field hence
requiring more light level in the studios.
Contrast Ratio
Contrast is the ratio between the luminance of the lightest and darkest part of the
subject or image. The scene contrast out-doors is on average 160:1 or even higher.
The use of lighting to create areas of light and shade, increases the overall contrast
ratio. In television the contrast should be restricted to about 20:1 and to ensure this
the colours used by Scenic Designers are selected from a range which have
reflectance between 3% and 60%. A television 'White' is a surface which has a
reflectance of 60%.
Illusion of Depth
This is the first artistic consideration, otherwise pictures will tend to look flat and
uninspiring. Subjects (artists and sets) are modeled by light, using shadows to
reveal the shape, form and texture. The greater the shadow areas the more solid
and three dimensional will the subject appear. Texture is revealed to a maximum
when the surface is edge lit. Tonal contrast can be used to create the illusion of
depth by arranging a recession of tones from the background (light) to foreground
(dark). In order to achieve control over the scenic contrast the scenery should,
whenever possible, be lit separately from the artists.
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Types of Luminaries
There are 3 basic types of luminaries :
i)
This is a focussed light source in which the position of the light source relative to
the lens can be increased or decreased to 'SPOT' or 'FLOOD's. Normally it is used
in the fully FLOODED condition to give the widest and most uniform illumination.
The beam has a soft edge which gives the name to the luminaries as soft edge
spot light and the lens used is a Fresnel lens.
Barn doors are fitted to these light to restrict illumination to specific areas. Usually
the luminaries are used in the fully flooded condition because this gives more
uniform illumination and makes the barn doors most effective.
ii)
This is a focussed light source in which the exist circular aperture of the light
housing is projected by a lens system to give a disc of light with a hard edge to it.
Alternatively, patterns cut from metal can be projected by inserting them near the
circular aperture.
iii)
Soft Source
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Fill Light : Controls the lighting contrast by filling in shadows. It can also provide catch
lights in the eyes. Normally it is a soft source.
Back light : Separates the body from the background, gives roundness to the subject
and reveals texture. Normally it is hard source.
Background Light : Separates the person from the background, reveals background
interest and shape. Normally it is a hard source.
In three point lighting the ratio of 3/2/1 (Back/Key/Fill) for mono and 3/2/2 for colour
provides good portrait lighting.
Position of Artist
At least 4', preferably 6' away from back ground to avoid artist's shadow on the
background and to ensure that the back light angle will not be too steep. To ensure
control of background lighting, whenever possible use barn doors to keep key light off
background.
Similarly avoid background light catching artist.
In colour, plain
background are often used care must be taken to ensure that on the monochrome
picture there is a difference in tonal value between the face and the background.
Lighting Balance
The Key or Mood of the picture is determined by the ratio of the relative intensities of
Key Filter, and the tonal distribution in the picture.
Low Key
Medium Key
High Key
The intensity of the backlight should be approx. the same as the key light but will also
depend on the subject.
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If there is a choice in the direction of the sun (Key) take the shortest route inside the
set to a wall, and if possible throw the shadow of window bars onto a door it usually
is in shot.
A patch of light on the floor inside the set, backlight from outside using a soft source
at steep elevation adds realism.
When a set does not have a window, a window pattern can be projected onto a wall
to produce a suitable window effect.
Roof and Ceiling Pieces - if they make lighting impossible, check if they can be
removed at the planning state. Light any ceiling pieces from outside, use a soft
source at ground level. If the ceiling has plaster moulding or ornamentation, a hard
source may be used.
The outside of the window should be dark, except for a possible dim skyline if the
room is well above adjacent streets, or lit by an outside practical lamp i.e. street
lighting.
The wall with the window in it should be lit at night to be brighter than for the day
condition. Subjectively the walls appear brighter at night than at day time.
Practical lamp should be placed such that they are in shot i.e. a standard lamp by
a settee, table lamp by a wall. Where possible make the light from this practical
source.
Often a completely different feel to the set can be obtained by reversing the
direction of lighting in the set compared to that used for day.
General for night effects it is not a good plan to just simply dim the set lighting
when changing from day to night. This is because the excessive change in
colour temperature of the light source and the apparent increase in saturation of
surfaces at low luminance.
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TV Lighting
The exact lighting treatment will depend on the situation but as a general rule, moonlight
effects are normally achieved by back lighting to give a more softer, romantic mood than
would be achieved than a frontal key.
In colour, to obtain a night effect, blue cinemoid is used over the luminaries. This gives a
stylized effect. An alternative is to use much more localized lighting than for day light
and light only the artists and odd part of the set.
Key light
The frontal key light may not suit both the demonstrator and his subjects. Its angle might
not provide optimum modeling for items on the table. Subjects may shadow each other.
The day light may also over illuminate the front of the table. The solution to these
problems is to use barn door on the main key, restricting it to the demonstrator, and
introduce additional localized lamps to the front and side of the table-top to light the
display more effectively.
Where an overload mirror is being used to provide a camera with top shots, we may also
be able to utilize it to redirect a spot light downwards, projecting appropriate modeling
light into items on the table.
Backlight
Backlight is always liable to cast the demonstrators shadow forward across the central
working area of the table, causing obscuring or distracting shadows over the subject he
is discussing. We may be able to avoid this by using a lower angle backlight, that is
barn doored to illuminate only the demonstrators head and shoulders. Shadows from a
low-intensity backlight may become sufficiently diluted by key lights to be quite
unobtrusive. Another approach is to use a soft backlight in order to avoid these shadows
altogether, but it can give less effective lighting, and its spill light is not so readily
controlled.
Reflections
Sometimes backlight bouncing forwards the camera, or multiple reflections of studio
lights, can prove troublesome. The only practical remedies, apart from removing or
covering the offending surface, are to try repositioning. Occasionally it may be possible
to switch off a lamp from an isolated shot, to prevent reflection.
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