Beruflich Dokumente
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Review Questions
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Name the two basic mold types that distinguish casting processes.
Answer. The two types are: (1) expendable molds and (2) permanent molds.
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
Why should turbulent flow of molten metal into the mold be avoided?
Answer. Turbulence causes several problems: (1) accelerates formation of oxides in the solidified
metal, and (2) mold erosion or gradual wearing away of the mold due to impact of molten metal.
10.10
What is the continuity law as it applies to the flow of molten metal in casting?
Answer. The continuity law, or continuity equation, indicates that the volumetric flow rate is
constant throughout the liquid flow.
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10.11
What are some of the factors affecting the fluidity of a molten metal during pouring into a mold
cavity?
Answer. Factors include: (1) pouring temperature, (2) metal alloy composition, (3) viscosity of
liquid metal, and (4) heat transfer to the surroundings.
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
Sand casting is which of the following types? (a) expendable mold, or (b) permanent mold.
Answer. (a)
10.2
The upper half of a sand casting mold is called which of the following? (a) cope, or (b) drag.
Answer. (a)
10.3
In casting, a flask is which one of the following? (a) beverage bottle for foundrymen, (b) box
which holds the cope and drag, (c) container for holding liquid metal, or (d) metal which extrudes
between the mold halves.
Answer. (b)
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10.4
In foundry work, a runner is which one of the following? (a) channel in the mold leading from the
downsprue to the main mold cavity, (b) foundryman who moves the molten metal to the mold, or
(c) vertical channel into which molten metal is poured into the mold.
Answer. (a)
10.5
Total solidification time is defined as which one of the following? (a) time between pouring and
complete solidification, (b) time between pouring and cooling to room temperature, (c) time
between solidification and cooling to room temperature, or (d) time to give up the heat of fusion.
Answer. (a)
10.6
During solidification of an alloy when a mixture of solid and liquid metals are present, the
solid-liquid mixture is referred to as whic h one of the following? (a) eutectic composition, (b) ingot
segregation, (c) liquidus, (d) mushy zone, or (e) solidus.
Answer. (d)
10.7
Chvorinov's Rule states that total solidification time is proportional to which one of the following
quantities? (a) (A/V)n, (b) Hf, (c) Tm, (d) V, (e) V/A, or (f) (V/A)2; where A = surface area of
casting, Hf = heat of fusion, Tm = melting temperature, and V = volume of casting.
Answer. (f)
10.8
A riser in casting is described by which of the following (may be more than one answer)? (a) an
insert in the casting that inhibits buoyancy of the core, (b) gating system in which the sprue feeds
directly into the cavity, (c) metal that is not part of the casting, (d) source of molten metal to feed
the casting and compensate for shrinkage during solidification, and (e) waste metal that is usually
recycled.
Answer. (c), (d), and (e).
10.9
In a sand casting mold, the V/A ratio of the riser should be which one of the following relative to
the V/A ratio of the casting itself? (a) equal, (b) greater, or (c) smaller.
Answer. (b)
10.10
A riser that is completely enclosed within the sand mold and connected to the main cavity by a
channel to feed the molten metal is called which of the following (may be more than one)? (a)
blind riser, (b) open riser, (c) side riser, and (d) top riser.
Answer. (a) and (c).
Problems
Heating and Pouring
10.1 A disk 40 cm in diameter and 5 cm thick is to be casted of pure aluminum in an open mold
operation. The melting temperature of aluminum = 660C and the pouring temperature will be
800C. Assume that the amount of aluminum heated will be 5% more than needed to fill the mold
cavity. Compute the amount of heat that must be added to the metal to heat it to the pouring
temperature, starting from a room temperature of 25C. The heat of fusion of aluminum = 389.3
J/g. Other properties can be obtained from Tables 4.1 and 4.2 in this text. Assume the specific heat
has the same value for solid and molten aluminum.
Solution: Volume V = D2h/4= (40)2(5)/4 = 6283.2 cm3
Volume of aluminum to be heated = 6283.2(1.05) = 6597.3 cm3
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From Table 4.1 and 4.2, density = 2.70 g/cm3 and specific heat C = 0.21 Cal/g-C = 0.88 J/g-C
Heat required = 2.70(6597.3){0.88(660-25) + 389.3 + 0.88(800-660)}
= 17,812.71{558.8 + 389.3 + 123.2} = 19,082,756 J
10.2 A sufficient amount of pure copper is to be heated for casting a large plate in an open mold. The
plate has dimensions: L = 20 in, W = 10 in, and D = 3 in. Compute the amount of heat that must be
added to the metal to heat it to a temperature of 2150 F for pouring. Assume that the amount of
metal heated will be 10% more than needed to fill the mold cavity. Properties of the metal are:
density = 0.324 lbm/in 3, melting point = 1981 F, specific heat of the metal = 0.093 Btu/lbm-F in the
solid state and 0.090 Btu/lbm-F in the liquid state; and heat of fusion = 80 Btu/lbm.
Solution: Volume V = (20 x 10 x 3)(1 + 10%) = 600(1.1) = 660.0 in 3
Assuming To = 75 F and using Eq. (12.1),
H = 0.324 x 660{0.093(1981 - 75) + 80 + 0.090(2150 - 1981)} = 213.84{177.26 + 80 + 15.21}
H = 58,265 Btu
10.3 The downsprue leading into the runner of a certain mold has a length = 175 mm. The
cross-sectional area at the base of the sprue is 400 mm2. The mold cavity has a volume = 0.001 m3.
Determine: (a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base of the downsprue, (b) the
volume rate of flow, and (c) the time required to fill the mold cavity.
Solution: (a) Velocity v = (2 x 9815 x 175) 0.5 = (3,435,096)0.5 = 1853 mm/s
(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA = 1853 x 400 = 741,200 mm3/s
(c) Time to fill cavity MFT = V/Q = 1,000,000/741,200 = 1.35 s
10.4 A mold has a downsprue of length = 6.0 in. The cross-sectional area at the bottom of the sprue is
0.5 in 2. The sprue leads into a horizontal runner which feeds the mold cavity, whose volume = 75
in3. Determine: (a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base of the downsprue, (b)
the volume rate of flow, and (c) the time required to fill the mold cavity.
Solution: (a) Velocity v = (2 x 32.2 x 12 x 6.0) 0.5 = (4636.8) 0.5 = 68.1 in/sec
(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA = 68.1 x 0.5 = 34.05 in3/sec
(c) Time to fill cavity MFT = V/Q = 75.0/34.05 = 2.2 sec.
10.5 The flow rate of liquid metal into the downsprue of a mold = 1 liter/sec. The cross-sectional area at
the top of the sprue = 800 mm2 and its length = 175 mm. What area should be used at the base of
the sprue to avoid aspiration of the molten metal?
Solution: Flow rate Q = 1.0 l/s = 1,000,000 mm3/s
Velocity v = (2 x 9815 x 175) 0.5 = 1854 mm/s
Area at base A = 1,000,000/1854 = 540 mm2
10.6 The volume rate of flow of molten metal into the downsprue from the pouring cup is 50 in 3/sec. At
the top where the pouring cup leads into the downsprue, the cross-sectional area = 1.0 in 2.
Determine what the area should be at the bottom of the sprue if its length = 8.0 in. It is desired to
maintain a constant flow rate, top and bottom, in order to avoid aspiration of the liquid metal.
Solution: Velocity at base v = (2gh) 0.5 = (2 x 32.2 x 12 x 8) 0.5 = 78.6 in/sec
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = (50 in/sec)/(78.6 in/sec) = 0.636 in2
10.7 Molten metal can be poured into the pouring cup of a sand mold at a steady rate of 1000 cm3/s. The
molten metal overflows the pouring cup and flows into the downsprue. The cross-section of the
sprue is round, with a diameter at the top = 3.4 cm. If the sprue is 25 cm long, determine the proper
diameter at its base so as to maintain the same volume flow rate.
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Solution: Velocity at base v = (2gh) 0.5 = (2 x 981 x 25) 0.5 = 221.5 cm/s
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = (1000 cm/s)/(221.5 cm/s) = 4.51 cm2
Area of sprue A = D2/4; rearranging, D2 = 4A/ = 4(4.51)/ = 5.74 cm2
D = 2.39 cm
10.8 During pouring into a sand mold, the molten metal can be poured into the downsprue at a constant
flow rate during the time it takes to fill the mold. At the end of pouring the sprue is filled and there is
negligible metal in the pouring cup. The downsprue is 6.0 in long. Its cross-sectional area at the top
= 0.8 in 2 and at the base = 0.6 in 2. The cross-sectional area of the runner leading from the sprue
also = 0.6 in 2, and it is 8.0 in long before leading into the mold cavity, whose volume = 65 in 3. The
volume of the riser located along the runner near the mold cavity = 25 in 3. It takes a total of 3.0 sec
to fill the entire mold (including cavity, riser, runner, and sprue. This is more than the theoretical time
required, indicating a loss of velocity due to friction in the sprue and runner. Find: (a) the theoretical
velocity and flow rate at the base of the downsprue; (b) the total volume of the mold; (c) the actual
velocity and flow rate at the base of the sprue; and (d) the loss of head in the gating system due to
friction.
Solution: (a) Velocity v = (2 x 32.2 x 12 x 6.0) 0.5 = 68.1 in/sec
Flow rate Q = 68.1 x 0.60 = 40.8 in3/sec
(b) Total V = 65.0 + 25.0 + 0.5(0.8 + 0.6)(6.0) + 0.6(8.0) = 99.0 in3
(c) Actual flow rate Q = 99.0/3 = 33.0 in3/sec
Actual velocity v = 33.0/0.6 = 55.0 in/sec
(d) v = (2 x 32.2 x 12 x h) 0.5 = 27.8 h0.5 = 55.0 in/sec.
h0.5 = 55.0/27.8 = 1.978
h = 1.9782 = 3.914 in
Head loss = 6.0 - 3.914 = 2.086 in
Shrinkage
10.9
A mold cavity has the shape of a cube, 100 mm on a side. Determine the dimensions and volume
of the final cube after cooling to room temperature if the cast metal is copper. Assume that the
mold is full at the start of solidification and that shrinkage occurs uniformly in all directions.
Solution: For copper, solidification shrinkage is 4.9%, solid contraction during cooling is 7.5%.
Volume of cavity V = (100) 3 = 1,000,000 mm3
Volume of casting V = 1,000,000(1-0.049)(1-0.075) = 1,000,000(.951)(.025) = 879,675 mm3
Dimension on each side of cube = (879,675) 0.333 = 95.82 mm
10.10 The cavity of a casting mold has dimensions: L = 250 mm, W = 125 mm and H = 20 mm.
Determine the dimensions of the final casting after cooling to room temperature if the cast metal is
aluminum. Assume that the mold is full at the start of solidification and that shrinkage occurs
uniformly in all directions.
Solution: For aluminum, solidification shrinkage = 6.6%, solid contraction during cooling = 5.6%.
Total volumetric contraction = (1-0.066)(1-0.056) = 0.8817
Linear contraction = (0.8817) 0.333 = 0.9589
Final casting dimensions: L = 250(0.9589) = 239.725 cm
W = 125(0.9589) = 119.863 cm
H = 20(0.9589) = 19.178 cm
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10.11 Determine the scale of a "shrink rule" that is to be used by pattern-makers for low carbon steel.
Express your answer in terms of decimal fraction inches of elongation per foot of length compared
to a standard rule.
Solution: Low carbon steel: solidification shrinkage = 2.75%, solid contraction = 7.2%.
Total volumetric contraction = (1-0.0275)(1-0.072) = 0.9025
Linear contraction = (0.9025) 0.333 = 0.9664
Shrink rule elongation = (0.9664) -1 = 1.0348
Elongation of a 12 inch rule = 12(1.0348 - 1.0) = 0.418 in/ft
10.12 Determine the scale of a "shrink rule" that is to be used by pattern-makers for brass which is 70%
copper and 30% zinc. Express your answer in terms of millimeters of elongation per meter of
length compared to a standard rule.
Solution: For brass, solidification shrinkage is 4.5%, solid contraction during cooling is 8.0%.
Total volumetric contraction = (1-0.045)(1-0.080) = 0.8786
Linear contraction = (0.8786) 0.333 = 0.9578
Shrink rule elongation = (0.9578) -1 = 1.0441
Elongation of a 1 meter rule = 1000(1.0441 - 1.0) = 44.1 mm/m
10.13 Determine the scale of a "shrink rule" that is to be used by pattern-makers for gray cast iron. The
gray cast iron has a volumetric contraction of -2.5%, which means it expands during solidification.
Express your answer in terms of millimeters of elongation per meter of length compared to a
standard rule.
Solution: For gray CI, solidification shrinkage = -2.5%, solid contraction during cooling = 3.0%.
Total volumetric contraction = (1+0.025)(1-0.030) = 0.99425
Linear contraction = (0.99425) 0.333 = 0.9981
Shrink rule elongation = (0.9981) -1 = 1.00192
Elongation of a 1 meter rule = 1000(1.00192 - 1.0) = 1.92 mm/m
10.14 The final dimensions of a disk-shaped casting of 1.0% carbon steel are: diameter = 12.0 in and
thickness = 0.75 in. Determine the dimensions of the mold cavity to take shrinkage into account.
Assume that shrinkage occurs uniformly in all directions.
Solution: For 1% carbon steel, solidification shrinkage is 4.0%, solid contraction during cooling is
7.2%.
Total volumetric contraction = (1-0.040)(1-0.072) = 0.8909
Linear contraction = (0.8909) 0.333 = 0.9622
Oversize factor for mold = (0.9622) -1 = 1.03927
Mold cavity dimensions: D = 12.00(1.03927) = 12.471 in and t = 0.750(1.03927) = 0.779 in
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10.20 The total solidification times of three casting shapes are to be compared: (1) a sphere with
diameter = 10 cm, (2) a cylinder with diameter and length both = 10 cm, and (3) a cube with each
side = 10 cm. The same casting alloy is used in the three cases. (a) Determine the relative
solidification times for each geometry. (b) Based on the results of part (a), which geometric
element would make the best riser? (c) If Cm = 3.5 min/cm2 in Chvorinov's Rule, compute the total
solidification time for each casting.
Solution: For ease of computation, make the substitution 10 cm = 1 decimeter (1 dm)
(a) Chvorinovs Rule: TST = Cm(V/A)2
(1) Sphere volume V = D3/6 = (1)3/6 = /6 dm3
Sphere area A = D2 = (1) 2 = dm2
V/A = (/6)/ = 1/6 = 0.1667 dm
Chvorinovs Rule TST = (0.1667) 2Cm = 0.02778C m
(2) Cylinder volume V = D2H/4 = (1)2(1)/4 = /4 = 0.25 dm3
Cylinder area A = 2D2/4 + DL = 2(1) 2/4 + (1)(1) = /2 + = 1.5 dm2
V/A = .25/1.5 = 0.1667 dm
Chvorinovs Rule TST = (0.1667) 2Cm = 0.02778C m
(3) Cube: V = L3 = (1) 3 = 1.0 dm3
Cube area = 6L2 = 6(1)2 = 6.0 dm2
V/A = 1.0/6.0 = 0.1667 dm
Chvorinovs Rule TST = (0.1667) 2Cm = 0.02778C m
(b) All three shapes are equivalent as risers.
(c) If Cm = 3.5 min/cm2 = 350 min/dm2, then TST = 0.02778(350) = 9.723 min. Note, however,
that the volumes of the three geometries are different: (1) sphere V = 0.524 dm3 = 524 cm3,
cylinder V = 0.25 = 0.7854 dm3 = 785.4 cm3, and (3) cube V = 1.0 dm3 = 1000cm3. Accordingly,
we might revise our answer to part (b) and choose the sphere on the basis that it wastes less metal
than the other shapes.
10.21 The total solidification times of three casting shapes are to be compared: (1) a sphere, (2) a
cylinder, in which the L/D ratio = 1.0, and (3) a cube. For all three geometries, the volume V =
1000 cm3. The same casting alloy is used in the three cases. (a) Determine the relative
solidification times for each geometry. (b) Based on the results of part (a), which geometric
element would make the best riser? (c) If Cm = 3.5 min/cm2 in Chvorinov's Rule, compute the total
solidification time for each casting.
Solution: For ease of computation, make the substitution 10 cm = 1 decimeter (1 dm). Thus 1000
cm3 = 1.0 dm3.
(1) Sphere volume V = D3/6 = 1.0 dm3. D3 = 6/ = 1.910 dm3. D = (1.910) 0.333 = 1.241 dm
Sphere area A = D2 = (1.241) 2 = 4.836 dm2
V/A = 1.0/4.836 = 0.2067 dm
Chvorinovs Rule TST = (0.2067) 2Cm = 0.0428C m
(2) Cylinder volume V = D2H/4 = D3/4 = 1.0 dm3. D3 = 4/ = 1.273 dm3
Therefore, D = H = (1.273) 0.333 = 1.084 dm
Cylinder area A = 2D2/4 + DL = 2(1.084) 2/4 + (1.084)(1.084) = 5.536 dm2
V/A = 1.0/5.536 = 0.1806 dm
Chvorinovs Rule TST = (0.1806) 2Cm = 0.0326C m
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D = 47.5 mm
10.24 A cylindrical riser is to be designed for a sand casting mold. The length of the cylinder is to be 1.25
times its diameter. The casting is a square plate, each side = 10 in and thickness = 0.75 inch. If the
metal is cast iron, and Cm = 16.0 min/in2 in Chvorinov's Rule, determine the dimensions of the riser
so that it will take 30% longer for the riser to solidify.
Solution: Casting volume V = tL2 = 0.75(10.0) 2 = 75 in3
Casting area A = 2L2 + 4Lt = 2(10.0) 2 + 4(10.0)(0.75) = 230.0 in 2
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11.2
There are various types of patterns used in sand casting. What is the difference between a split
pattern and a match- plate pattern?
Answer. A split pattern is a pattern that consists of two pieces; a match-plate pattern consists of
the two split patterns attached to opposite sides of a plate.
11.3
What is a chaplet?
Answer. Chaplets are metal supports of various designs used to hold the core in place in the sand
mold.
11.4
What properties determine the quality of a sand mold for sand casting?
Answer. The usual properties are: (1) strength - ability to maintain shape in the face of the flowing
metal, (2) permeability - ability of the mold to allow hot air and gases to escape from the cavity, (3)
thermal stability - ability to resist cracking and buckling when in contact with the molten metal, (4)
collapsibility - ability of the mold to give way during shrinkage of the casting, (5) reusability - can
the sand be reused to make other molds?
11.5
11.6
What is the difference between vacuum permanent-mold casting and vacuum molding?
Answer. Vacuum permanent-mold casting is a form of low- pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw molten metal into the cavity. Vacuum molding is sand casting in which the sand mold
is held together by vacuum pressure rather than a chemical binder.
11.7
What are the most common metals processed using die casting?
Answer. Common die cast metals include: zinc, tin, lead, aluminum, brass, and magnesium.
11.8
Which die casting machines usually have a higher production rate, cold-chamber or hot-chamber,
and why?
Answer. Hot-chamber machines are faster because cold- chamber die casting machines require
molten metal to be ladled into the chamber from an external source.
11.9
11.10 What is the difference between true centrifugal casting and semicentrifugal casting?
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Answer. In true centrifugal casting, a tubular mold is used and a tubular part is produced. In
semicentrifugal casting, the shape is solid; an example is a railway wheel. The mold is rotated so
that centrifugal force is used to distribute the molten metal to the exterior of the mold so that the
density of the final metal is greater at the outer sections.
11.11 What is a cupola?
Answer. A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base.
Cupolas are used for melting cast irons.
11.12 What are some of the operations required of sand castings after removal from the mold?
Answer. These operations include: (1) trimming, in which the sprues, runners, risers, and flash are
removed, (2) core removal, (3) surface cleaning, (4) inspection, (5) repair if needed, (6) heat
treatment, and (7) machining.
11.13 What are some of the general defects encountered in casting processes?
Answer. General defects include: (1) misruns, (2) cold shuts, (3) cold shots, (4) shrinkage cavity,
(5) microporosity, and (6) hot tearing. See Article 11.6.1.
Which one of the following casting processes is most widely used (one answer)? (a) centrifugal
casting, (b) die casting, (c) investment casting, (d) sand casting, or (e) shell casting.
Answer. (d)
11.2
In sand casting, the volumetric size of the pattern is which of the following relative to the cast part?
(a) bigger, (b) same size, or (c) smaller.
Answer. (a)
11.3
Silica sand has which one of the following compositions? (a) Al2O3, (b) SiO, (c) SiO 2, or (d) SiSO 4.
Answer. (c)
11.4
For which of the following reasons is a green mold so- named? (a) green is the color of the mold,
(b) moisture is contained in the mold, (c) mold is cured, or (d) mold is dry.
Answer. (b)
11.5
Given that Wm = weight of the molten metal displaced by a core and Wc = weight of the core, the
buoyancy force is which one of the following? (a) downward force = Wm + Wc, (b) downward
force = Wm - Wc, (c) upward force = Wm + Wc, or (d) upward force = Wm - Wc.
Answer. (d)
11.6
Which of the following casting processes are expendable mold operations (more than one)? (a)
investment casting, (b) low pressure casting, (c) sand casting, (d) shell molding, (e) slush casting,
and (f) vacuum molding.
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Shell molding is which one of the following? (a) casting operation in which the molten metal has
been poured out after a thin shell has been solidified in the mold, (b) casting operation used to make
artificial sea shells, (c) casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand binded by a
thermosetting resin, or (d) sand casting operation in which the pattern is a shell rather than a solid
form.
Answer. (c)
11.8
Investment casting is also known by which one of the following names? (a) fast-payback molding,
(b) full-mold process, (c) lost-foam process, (d) lost pattern process, or (e) lost-wax process.
Answer. (e)
11.9
In plaster mold casting, the mold is made of which one of the following materials? (a) Al2O3, (b)
CaSO 4-H2O, (c) SiC, or (d) SiO 2.
Answer. (b)
11.10 Which of the following qualifies as a precision casting process (more than one)? (a) ingot casting,
(b) investment casting, (c) plaster mold casting, (d) sand casting, and (c) shell molding.
Answer. (b) and (c).
11.11 Which of the following casting processes are permanent mold operations (more than one)? (a)
centrifugal casting, (b) die casting, (c) low pressure casting, (d) shell molding, (e) slush casting, and
(f) vacuum permanent-mold casting.
Answer. (a), (b), (c), (e), and (f).
11.12 Which of the following metals would typically be die casted (more than one)? (a) aluminum, (b)
cast iron, (c) steel, (d) tin, (e) tungsten, and (f) zinc.
Answer. (a), (d), and (f).
11.13 Which of the following are advantages of die casting over sand casting (more than one)? (a) better
surface finish, (b) higher melting temperature metals, (c) higher production rates, (d) larger parts
can be casted, and (e) mold can be reused.
Answer. (a), (c), and (e).
11.14 Cupolas are furnaces used to melt which of the following metals (choose one best answer)? (a)
aluminum, (b) cast iron, (c) steel, or (d) zinc.
Answer. (b)
11.15 A misrun is which one of the following defects in casting? (a) globules of metal becoming
entrapped in the casting, (b) metal is not properly poured into the downsprue, (c) metal solidifies
before filling the cavity, (d) microporosity, and (e) "pipe" formation.
Answer. (c)
11.16 Which one of the following casting metals is most important commercially? (a) aluminum and its
alloys, (b) bronze, (c) cast iron, (d) cast steel, or (e) zinc alloys.
Answer. (c)
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Problems
Buoyancy Force
11.1
An aluminum-copper alloy casting is made in a sand mold using a sand core that weighs 20 kg.
Determine the buoyancy force in Newtons tending to lift the core during pouring.
Solution: Core volume V = 20/1605.4 = 0.01246 m3.
Weight of displaced Al-Cu = 35.17 kg.
Difference = (35.17 - 20) x 9.815 = 149 N.
11.2
A sand core located inside a mold cavity has a volume of 157.0 in 3. It is used in the casting of a
cast iron pump housing. Determine the buoyancy force that will tend to lift the core during pouring.
Solution: From Table 13.1, density of cast iron = 0.26 lb/in3.
Fb = Wm - Wc
Wc = 157(0.058) = 9.106 lb.
Wm = 157(0.26) = 40.82 lb.
Fb = 40.82 - 9.11 = 31.71 lb.
11.3
Caplets are used to support a sand core inside a sand mold cavity. The design of the caplets and
the manner in which they are placed in the mold cavity surface allows each caplet to sustain a
force of 10 lbs. Several caplets are located beneath the core to support it before pouring; and
several other caplets are placed above the core to resist the buoyancy force during pouring. If the
volume of the core = 325 in. 3, and the metal poured is brass, determine the minimum number of
caplets that should be placed: (a) beneath the core, and (b) above the core.
Solution: From Table 13.1, density of brass = 0.313 lb/in3.
(a) Wc = 325(0.058) = 18.85 lb. At least 2 caplets are required beneath to resist the weight of
the core. Probably 3 or 4 caplets would be better to achieve stability.
(b) Wm = 325(.313) = 101.73 lb.
Fb = 101.73 - 18.85 = 82.88 lb. A total of 9 caplets are required above the core to resist the
buoyancy force.
11.4
A sand core used to form the internal surfaces of a steel casting experiences a buoyancy force of
23 kg. The volume of the mold cavity forming the outside surface of the casting = 5000 cm3. What
is the weight of the final casting? Ignore considerations of shrinkage.
Solution: Sand density = 1.6 g/cm3, steel casting density = 7.82 g/cm3
Fb = Wm - Wc = 7.82V - 1.6V = 6.22V = 23 kg = 23,000 g
V = 3698 cm3.
3
Cavity volume V = 5000 cm
Volume of casting V = 5000 - 3698 = 1302 cm3.
Weight of the final casting W = 1302(7.82) = 10,184 g = 10.184 kg
Centrifugal Casting
11.5
A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation will be used to make copper tubing. The lengths will
be 1.5 m with outside diameter = 15.0 cm, and inside diameter = 12.5 cm. If the rotational speed of
the pipe = 1000 rev/min, determine the G-factor.
Solution: From Eq. (11.4), GF = R(N/30)2/g = 7.5((1000)/30) 2/981 = 83.8
11.6
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thickness = 0.50 in. If the rotational speed of the pipe = 500 rev/min, determine the G-factor. Is the
operation likely to be successful?
Solution: Using outside wall of casting, R = 0.5(8)/12 = 0.333 ft.
v = RN/30 = (.333)(500)/30 = 17.45 ft/sec.
GF = v2/Rg = (17.45) 2/(.333 x 32.2) = 28.38
Since the G-factor is less than 60, the rotational speed is not sufficient, and the operation is likely to
be unsuccessful.
11.7
A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make brass bushings with dimensions: L =
10 cm, OD = 15 cm, and ID = 12 cm. (a) Determine the required rotational speed in order to obtain
a G-factor of 70. (b) When operating at this speed, what is the centrifugal force per square meter
(Pa) imposed by the molten metal on the inside wall of the mold?
Solution: (a) Using the outside wall diameter of the casting, which is equal to the inside wall
diameter of the mold, D = 15 cm
N = (30/)(2g x 70/15).5 = 913.7 rev/min.
(b) Use 1.0 cm of mold wall length as basis of area calculations.
Area of this length of mold wall A = DoL = (15 cm)(1 cm) = 15 cm2 = 15(10-4) m2
Volume of cast metal V = (Ro2 - Ri2)(1.0) = ((7.5) 2 - (6) 2)(1.0) = 63.62 cm3
Mass m = (8.62g/cm3)(63.62 cm3) = 548.4 g = 0.5484 kg
v = RN/30
Use mean radius R = (7.5 + 6.0)/2 = 6.75 cm
v = (6.75)(913.7)/30 = 645.86 cm/s = 6.4585 m/s
Centrifugal force per square meter on mold wall = Fc/A where Fc = mv2/R
Fc = (0.5484 kg)(6.4586 m/s)2/(6.75 x 10-2 m) = 338.9 kg-m/s2
Given that 1 N = 9.81 kg-m/s2, Fc = 338.9/9.81 = 34.55 N
Fc/A = (34.55 N)/(15 x 10-4 m2) = 0.7331(10 4) N/m2 = 7331 Pa
11.8
True centrifugal casting operation is performed horizontally to make large diameter copper tube
sections. The tubes have a length = 1.0 m, diameter = 0.25 m, and wall thickness = 15 mm. If the
rotational speed of the pipe = 700 rev/min, (a) determine the G-factor on the molten metal. (b) Is
the rotational speed sufficient to avoid "rain?" (c) What volume of molten metal must be poured
into the mold to make the casting if solidification shrinkage and contraction after solidification are
considered?
Solution: (a) GF = v2/Rg
g = 9.8 m/s2
v = RN/30 = (.125)(700)/30 = 9.163 m/s
GF = (9.163) 2/(.125 x 9.8) = 68.54
(b) G-factor is sufficient for a successful casting operation.
(c) Volume of final product after solidification and cooling is
V = (.252 - (.25-.03) 2) x 1.0/4 = .25(.252 - .222) = 0.011074 m3
From Table 12.1, solidification shrinkage = 4.9% and solid thermal contraction = 7.5% for copper.
Taking these factors into account,
Volume of molten metal V = 0.011074/(1-.049)(1-.075) = 0.01259 m3
11.9
If a true centrifugal casting operation were to be performed in a space station circling the Earth,
how would weightlessness affect the process?
Solution: The mass of molten metal would be unaffected by the absence of gravity, but its weight
would be zero. Thus, in the G-factor equation (GF = v2/Rg), GF would theoretically go to infinity if
g = 0. Thus, it should be possible to force the metal against the walls of the mold in centrifugal
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casting without the nuisance of raining inside the cavity. However, this all assumes that the
metal is inside the mold and rotating with it. In the absence of gravity, there would be a problem in
pouring the molten metal into the mold cavity and getting it to adhere to the mold wall as the mold
begins to rotate. With no gravity the liquid metal would not be forced against the lower surface of
the mold to initiate the centrifugal action.
11.10 A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make aluminum rings with dimensions: L = 5
cm, OD = 65 cm, and ID = 60 cm. (a) Determine the rotational speed that will provide a G-factor
= 60. (b) Suppose that the ring were made out of steel instead of aluminum. If the rotational speed
computed in that problem were used in the steel casting operation, determine the G-factor and (c)
centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) on the mold wall. (d) Would this rotational speed result in a
successful operation?
Solution: (a) Use inside diameter of mold in Eq. (11.5), D = Do = 65 cm. Use g = 981 cm/s2,
N = 30(2g x GF/D).5/ = 30(2 x 981 x 60/65) .5/ = 406.4 rev/min.
(b) Rotational speed would be the same as in part (a) because mass does not enter the computation
of rotational speed. N = 406.4 rev/min
(c) Use 5 cm ring length as basis of area calculations.
Area of this length of mold wall A = DoL = (65 cm)(5 cm) = 1021 cm2 = 0.1021 m2
Volume of cast metal V = (Ro2 - Ri2)(L) = ((65/2) 2 - (60/2) 2)(5.0) = 2454.4 cm3
Density of steel = 7.87 g/cm3
Mass m = (7.87g/cm3)(2454.4 cm3) = 19,315.9 g = 19.316 kg
v = RN/30
Use mean radius R = (65 + 60)/4 = 31.25 cm = 0.3125 m
v = (31.25)(406.4)/30 = 1329.9 cm/s = 13.299 m/s
Centrifugal force per square meter on mold wall = Fc/A where Fc = mv2/R
Fc = (19.316 kg)(13.299 m/s)2/(0.3125 m) = 10,932.1 kg-m/s2
Given that 1 N = 9.81 kg-m/s2, Fc = 10,932.1/9.81 = 1114.4 N
Fc/A = (1114.4 N)/(0.1021 m2) = 10,914.7 N/m2 = 10,914.7 Pa
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Dt = 6.768 in.
Db = 6.448 in.
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reason for the defects. However, it is known that the same components are cast successfully in
other foundries. What other explanation can be given for the defects?
Solution: Misruns and cold shuts result from low fluidity. One possible reason for the defects in
this case is that the thickness of the casting cross-sections is too small. However, given that the
casting of these parts is successfully accomplished at other foundries, two other possible
explanations are: (1) the pouring temperature is too low, and (2) the pouring operation is performed
too slowly.
11.17 A large steel sand casting shows the characteristic signs of penetration defect - a surface
consisting of a mixture of sand and metal. (a) What steps can be taken to correct the defect? (b)
What other possible defects might result from taking each of these steps?
Solution: (a) What are the possible corrective steps? (1) Reduce pouring temperature. (2)
Increase the packing of the mold sand to resist penetration. (3) Treat the mold cavity surface to
make it harder.
(b) What possible defects might result from each of these steps? In the case of step (1), the risk is
for cold shuts and misruns. Steps (2) and (3) would reduce permeability of the sand, thus increasing
the risk of sand blows and pin holes.
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