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NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
Ferrous and non-ferrous alloys form the most important group among all engineering
materials in the world. These alloys have a very wide range of properties and are used in
every walk of our life. The study of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, therefore, is very important.
This chapter is wholly devoted to the study of these materials, their types, compositions,
properties and applications.
FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys can be broadly classified into two groups- Steels and Cast Irons.
Steels are those alloys of iron and carbon which contain upto 2.1 % carbon by weight
whereas Cast Irons are those alloys which contain carbon between 2.1 % and 6.67%. Another
difference between them is that, steels always have carbon in the combined form i.e., combined
.with iron to form phases like a - ferrite, austenite, cementite etc., whereas cast irons generally
have carbon in the free form, i.e, as graphite. But there are a few exceptions in cast irons
where carbon is also found in the combined form, as in the case of white cast iron. Ferrous
alloys in practice are not made up of only iron and carbon but many alloying elements like
silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium and several others are added in order to enhance their
properties.
STEELS
Steels can be classified in several ways. Some of them are according to :
i) Carbon Content:
1) Low-carbon, medium - carbon and high - carbon steels.
2) Hypo-eutectoid
Hyper-eutectoid
steels 0.8 % C)
steels (>0.8 % C)
v) Standard Institutions:
1) AISI - Americal Iron &. Steel Institute
2) BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards.
3) SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers.
4) ASTM - American Society for Testing & Materials.
The above Institutions have classified steels also according to chemical composition.
For convenience, we shall study the different types of steels classified according to
their chemical composition, i.e., Plain carbon steels and Alloy Steels.
-
P~ain carbon steels can be classified once again according to the percentage of carbon .. _
a) Low - carbon steel- up to 0.25% carbon.
b) Medium - carbon steel - 0.25 % to 0.55 % carbon.
c) High - carbon steel- above 0.55% carbon.
Although by definition, plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon, they always come
with traces of sulphur and phosporous and also sometimes small quantities of Silicon & Manganese.
Composition
Microstructure
Properties
- upto 0.25 % C
- Predominantly cc-ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.
- Relatively soft and weak but outstanding ductility and toughness.
They possess very good machinability and weldability
Eg. : Mild Steel.
Advantages
Disadvantages.
Application
Microstructure
Properties
- Stronger than low - carbon steel but less toughner than it.
Advantages
Applications
- Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crant shafts and other machine
parts.
Microstructure
Properties
- Hardest, strongest and least ductile when compared with low and
medium carbon steels.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Applications
2) ALLOY STEELS
Steels which acquire some charecteristic properties due to the addition of alloying
elements, other than carbon, are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to steels
for many purposes.
Some of the reasons are to :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
increase
improve
improve
improve
improve
improve
increase
hardenability
strength at ordinary temperatures.
wear and corrosion resistances.
mechanical properties at either high or low temperature.
toughness without greatly sacrificing strength.
magnetic properties.
red hardness (elevated temperature hardness)
"
iii) Elements whech tend to stabilize austenite: These elements when added lowers the
A3 temperatures and raises the peritectic point, thereby increasing the range in which
austenite is stable.
Eg. : Manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper etc.
iv) Elements which tend to stabilize ferrite: These elements are more soluble in a-iron
than in y-iron. Hence they are ferrite stabilizers.
Eg. : Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, silicon etc.
Some of the elements appear in more than one group and it means that they have more
than one effect.
four classes:
i) Structural steels
ii) Tool and die steels
iii) Magnetic alloys
iv) Stainless and heat - resisting steels
i) Structural Steels:
These are basically low - carbon steels with the carbon percentage between 0.15% to
0.30%. The principal alloying elements that are added are silicon, copper, chromium,
phosphorous and manganese is that order. The combination of copper and phosphorus increases
the resistance to atmospheric corrosion and the other elements improves its strength and
other properties.
Water hardening tool steels: They contain 0.7 to 1.3% carbon. They are used in
making drills, files, chisels, hammers and forging dies.
18-4-1 steel
..
2) CLass
High - Mo steel
Composition
3) CLass
W-MoSteel
Composition
6% Tungsten, 5% Molybdenum
4% Chromium, 2% Vanadium
0.8% Carbon, rest iron.
Hard magnetic materials are those whose hysteris loop gives a large area under the
B-H curve. They make permanent magnetic materials and are used for making magnetic
poles for alternators and motors.
Eg. : High carbon steel, Alnico (AI + Ni + Co + Fe), Cunife (Cu + Ni + Fe)
iv)
steels:
Excellent corrosion resistance, heat resistance and aesthetic properties have inade
stainless steel an outstanding material for both industrial and domestic purposes. Stainless
steels owe their corrosion resistance largely to the presence of chromium in them. Corrosion
resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase
present in their microstructure - martensitic, ferritic or austenitic stainless steels.
Properties
Applications
automotive
exhaust components,
Composition
Properties
Applications
cryogenic
vessels,
- Predominantly martensitic.
Composition
- 11.5%
1.25%
0.75%
0.15%
Properties
Applications
- Cutlery, rifle barrels, jet engine parts, bearings, surgical tools etc.,
- 18% chromium
- 2.25 % Nickel
- 1% Molybdenum
- 1.2% Carbon, rest iron.
The basic numbers for the four-digit series of a few grades of carbon and alloy steels
with approximate percentages of identifying elements are listed below. The last two digits
have been marked 'XX' indicating that carbon percentage in variable.
AISI No.
Type, Composition
10XX
Plain carbon steels made from basic open - hearth and Bessemer
process.
llXX
12XX
Basic open - hearth carbon steels, high sulphur and high phosphorus.
13XX
Manganese - 1.75 %
23XX
Nickel - 3.5
25XX
Nickel- 5.0
31XX
33XX
40XX
43XX
50XX
Chromium 0040
61XX
86XX
92XX
Silicon - 2.00
94BXX
The above classification is for only carbon and alloy steels. As far as tool steels are
concerned. they have been grouped into seven major headings, and each group or subgroup
has been assigned analphabeticalletter
as follows:
GROUP
Water hardening
Shock - resisting
Cold - work
- Oil hardening
High Speed
T
M-
Mould Steels
- Tungsten base
Molybdenum base
- PI to PI9 - low carbon
P20 to P39 - other types
Special purpose
- Low - alloy
F - Carbon - tungsten
BIS CODE
IS 7887 : 1992
IS 3748 : 1990
IS 6528 : 1995 }
Stainless steels
Chrome steel
IS 6527 : 1995
IS 963 : 1958
IS 4522 : 1986
IS 7806 : 1975
IS 210 : 1993
IS 7754 : 1975
IS 9630 : 1980
IS 14329: 1995
Malh~able iron
FeE300P35,
Fe E 555 F"
Fe41OQl,
Fe 400 R,
Fe520L
Fe E 500 S5
Surface finish
- F 1 to F 14
Cryogenic quality - L
CAST IRONS
Cast irons are those alloys of iron and carbon where the carbon content varies between
2.1 % and 6.67%. However, since high carbon content tends to make the cast iron very brittle,
most commercially available types of cast irons are in the range of 2.5% to 4% carbon.
Cast irons are low in ductility and therefore cannot be rolled, drawn or worked easily
at room temperature. Most of the cast irons are not malleable at any temperature. But their
melting temperature are considerably lower than those of steels and therefore can be melt
readily. Fluidity of molten cast iron is very good and therefore can be cast into complicated
shapes which can be later machined to final dimensions. Since casting is the only suitable
process applied to these alloys, they are known as cast irons.
Cast irons are brittle and have lower strength properties than most steels but are much
cheaper than them. In addition, a wide range of properties can be given to cast irons by
proper alloying. good foundry control and appropriate heat treatment. All these advantages
have combined to make cast iron the most popular material for casting and has led to the.
production of large tonnages of cast iron in the industry.
According to the Iron carbon equilibrium diagram (fig 4.1), the phases that are observed
in the microstructure of cast iron at room temperature are a-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C),
.which occur at equilibrium conditions. But cementite being a meta stable compound, under
certain circumstances, decomposes to form a - ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction,
Fe3C
3Fe(a) + C (graphite)
Thus the actual microstructure of cast irons would contain the phases a - ferrite and
free carbon in the form of graphite rather than a - ferrite and cementite. '
Therefore, cast irons can be generally distinguished by the presence of free carbon in
their microstructure. But there are a few exceptions like white cast iron which contain carbon
in the combined form of cementite and pearlite.
5.0.------------------------------------,
4.0
3.0
Carbon % 2.0
1.0
STEELS
1.0
2.0
Silicon %
3.0
4.0
- 2.5% - 4% carbon
1% - 3% silicon, rest iron
Microstructure
Properties
Fracture surface
Applications
Microstructure
Properties
no ductility
and
Fracture surface
Applications
- Liners for cement mixers, ball mill, certain types of drawing dies,
extrusion nozzles etc.,
~<
0'"
t .
,
..
3)
Malleable cast irons are those alloys where almost all the carbon is in the free form in
the shape of irregular particles known as temper carbon. As the name suggests, they are
extremly malleable, and are obtained by heat treatment of white cast iron.
This heat treatment process is known as malleablization and is carried out toconvert
all the combined carbon in white iron to temper carbon and a. - ferrite. Fig 6.6 shows the
cycle of temperature and time for malleablizing white iron, which is self -explanatory.
1000
9500C
900
1\
1/
U
--1\-
--:: --
700
8-
d)
r< 600
500
/
10
1---
6800C
\
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Hours
Fig.,6.6: Malleablization of White Iron
Microstructure
Properties
Applications
good magnetic
- 3% - 4% Carbon,
,
1.6% - 2.8% Silicon, rest iron
Microstructure
Properties
Applications
(i) BRASSES:
Brasses are essentially alloys of copper and zinc. But they may have small amounts of
other elements such as lead, tit).or aluminium added to improve their properties.
Fig 6.7 shows a portion of the copper - zinc phase diagram which is applicable to
commercial alloys. The two important types of commercially used brasses are shown in the
phase diagram - a - Brasses and (a + P) Brasses.
1) Alpha Brasses:
Composition
Microstructure
Properties
Types of a - brasses
- a) Yellow a - brasses
b) Red brasses
1100
1083
Liquid
1000 I-----+--~~~,___-__+---.-
i
+-----1
900
800
700
r-c
600
500
400
0
Cu 100%
10
20
30
Zinc %
50%
)
a) Yeilow a - brasses:
Composition
- Copper + 20 to 36% zinc
Properties
- High ductility, good strength, yellow in colour, susceptile to season
cracking (weakening due to inter-granular corrosion)
Common Type
i) Cartridge brass
ii) Leaded yellow brass
iii) Admiralty brass
i) Cartridge Brass:
Composition
Applications
70% Cu + 30% Zn
Composition
Applications
I
- Cu + 29% Zn + 3% Pb + 1% Sn
- Furniture hardware, radiator fittings, light fixtures etc.,
- 70% Cu + 29% Zn + 1% Sn
Applications
b) Red Brasses:
Composition
Properties
Common Types
Applications
P - brass
Properties
- Suitable for hot working, harder and more brittle at room temperature
than a - brass and therefore difficult to cold - work.
Types
- a) Muntz metal
b) Naval Brass
a) Muntz Metal:
Composition
- 60% Cu + 40% Zn
Applications
b) Naval Brass:
Composition
Applications
II) BRONZES
Bronzes are those copper alloys which contain upto approximately 12% of the principal
alloying element, with the exception of copper - zinc alloys. Bronzes are generally higher
class alloys than brasses. Commercial bronzes are primary alloys of copper and tin, aluminium,
silicon and beryllium. In addition they may also contain phosphorus, lead, zinc or nickel.
Based on the alloying addition bronzes are classified as tin bronzes, silicon bronzes, aluminium
bronzes and beryllium bronzes.
Properties
Applications
b) Bell Metal:
Composition
Applications
- a 55 ton canon in
2) Silicon Bronzes:
Composition
Microstructure
- Single a - phase
Properties
Applications
3) Aluminium Bronzes:
Composition
Microstructure
Properties
Applications
- Corrosion resistant
bushings etc.,
4) Beryllium Bronzes:
Composition
Microstructure
Properties
Applications
when
- Duralium
Composition
- AI + 4% Cu
Microstructure
Properties
- One of the best non-ferrous alloys for age - hardening, high strength,
corrosion resistant etc.,
Applications
electrical
cables,
automobile
Microstructure
Properties
Applications
700
Liquid
600
~
1.65%
500
400
300
200
Al 100%
10
Silicon, %
12
14
16%
- upto 5% magnesium
Properties
Applications
Properties
Applications