Colonial Policy With Reference To The Philippines

Colonial Policy with Reference to the Philippines
Author(s): Bernard Moses

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, Vol. 1, First Annual
Meeting (1904), pp. 88-116
Published by: American Political Science Association
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88
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
of business
Whichin turngive an impetusto manyotherforms,
benefitto
activity. In this way war miaybe an immediate,
But
hostilities.
nationswhichavoid beingdrawndirectlyinto'
and in the long runthe,destructive
suchgains are temporary,
whichis,theeconomicmeaningof warmustinjure
*consumption
then,
fabricof all Christendom.On thegroutnd,
theindustrial
as,
of
should
be dishumanity,
war
of materialwelfare,as well
couraged,and everystep whichmakes it less,easy to'wage is
to thatextentan added deterrent.If the Hague,Conference,
olfall nations,
meetingin thefulllightof thecommoninterests
any one of whichat any timemay be eitherbelligerentoir
which
'agreement
neutral,can see its way to' aniinternational
shall put the ban oifmunicipallaw o'nthe sale to'belligerents
of the more dangerousformso'fcontraband,a, long aldvance
olfthepeaceo'ftheworld.
wiillbe takentowardsthepreservation
COLONIAL POLICY WITH REFERENCE
PHILIPPINES.
BERNARD
TO THE
MOSES.
The'character
of Spain's pollicy
withreference
to,the Philippinesas well as. withreference
to,herothercoloinieswas to a
verygreatextentdetermined
by her long crusadeagainstthe
Moors. This strugglewvaspartoifthe war olfthe Christians
againstthe Mohammedans. The otherplartoifit was carried
on bytheotherEuropelannationsin Palestine. In theEast the
Crusadescame to an end by reasolnof the waniniginterestof
France,Italy,and Germany. These natioins
miight
cease from
the conflictwhenevertheywere wearyof it withoutloss o,f
or diminutioln
territory
olfnationalhonor. But the welsterni
winigof the Mohammedanforce,was withinthe bordersof
Spain. Therefolre,
althoughthe sitrugglewas ended in the
East, Spain was obligeldtoicarryit on single-hand,ed
in the
West. Foir two,hundredyears after the last half-hearted
crusadersof Francehad retired,Spain,cointiniued
the war with
unabateldzeal, not merelyto defendWesternEurope from
theMohammedanconqueror,butto preserveherhonor,to,de-

AMERICAN
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89
and to perpetuto maintainhelrreligio1n,,

fendher territolry,
ate hernationalexistence.
Thus Spain was keptin thewar againstthe Moors. Seven
peoplefixedthe escenturiesof conflictwitha non-Christian
and made heirdevotedto the
sentialfeaturesof her character,
of thechurch. Theymadeherintolerant;
formsand doctrines
of beliefhad forcenturiesbeenthe real ground
fQrdifference
of her hostilityto the Moors. The Spanish character,like
not
the characterof everyothernation,is the resultof forcels,
have
Spaniards
The
will.
national
the
of
controll
underthe
conservative
not consciouslyand willfullymade themselves,
and intoilerant.The nation ha,s acquired .its characteras
othernationshave acquiredtheirs,by the forceof theirinheritanceand environment.
The year whichclolsedthe Moorishwars,was the year of
the discoveryof America. The experienceof the nationhad
olfthe
givenit thespiritof a crusader,but withtheoverthrow
in the Peninsula,the Spaniardsneededa new fielld
unbelievers
by the
in whichto exercisetheirspirit. This was furnished
oifAmericaand the Philippines:;
then uncivilizedinhabitants
thatSpanishcolonizationpartookof the
and thusit happeined
to,the royal agents
characterof a crusade. No instructions,
in theNew Worldor in the Philippineswereoftenerrepeated
to keepespeciallypromitheseagents,
thanthosewhichenjtoined
to the convercontribute
nentall thosemeasuresthatwould
of
sion of the Indians,anudto theirgrowthin a knoiwledge
Christianity.
In keepingwith this general purpose,severe restrictions
to thecolonies,in orderthatunmigration
wereimposedupofn
to'exertan evil
worthypersions
mightnothavean opportunity
influenceon the nativeinhabitants.All pers,onsnewlyconto theCatholicfaith
vertedfro-m
JudaismoirMohammedanism
to emigrate. The same prohibitionapplied
were fo-ibidden
of personswhothad been
to the childrenand grandchildren
also to,the descendants
and
Inquisition,
the
of
ban
underthe
of personswho had been burnedat the stake or condemned
forheresy. By thismeansit was designedto keeptheIndians
of hereticsand providefortheirconfreefromthe influence

90
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versionto the orthodoxfaith. And to makethisprohibition

effectiveheavy penalitieswere imposedupon persons who
should in any way contributeto the violationof these restrictions.
Now thatSpain has,fallenfromthe relatively
highposition
whichshe on'ceoccupiedand her colonieshave eitheir
become
independent
states,
lor'beenbroughtundertheauthority
of other
nations,it is almostinevitablethat her achievemnents
should
be underestimated;
for failurein politicsand war leads the
world generallyto thinklightlyof all the oltherproiducts
of
a natioln'sactivity. The political and nilitary decline of
Spain are likelyto give ris.eto new and lower estimatesof
in behalfof civilization,and it is quite
Spain's achievements
thatthese estimateswill be erroneous;thatSpa-inin
possiblef
herweaknesswill notreceivejust creditforhergreatachievementsin thedaysof herpower.
It ha.sin fact,alreadybecomefashionableto speak lightly
olfSpain's workin exploringand colonizingAmericaand the
islandsof the Pacific. But this flippantjudgm'entis' not the
final word respectingSpain's colonial policy. But we can
hardlyexpect'thattheAmericanwill rendera just revisio'no'f
thisjudgment;forhe is the historicalantagonisto'fthe Spaniard, and he ha;s always founnd
it difficult
to,appre'ciatethe
achievemients
of the Spaniards; partlybecause 'o'f political
rivalry,and partlybecause o'f the wide divergence'of their
aims and 'theunlikeness'of
theirnationalpo'ints,
of view. Th'e
Spaniardis conservative,
whilethe Americanis. radical. The
Spaniardis polite',and attachesgreatimpoirtance
to' formsof
speechand ceremoniesin social intercourse.The Americanis
in spelech,
unconventional
and regardsthe ceremonious
politeness olfthe Spaniardas themanifestation
olfa certainhuman
weakness. The Spaniardis skillfulin formulating
rulesand
methods. The Americanis promptin action. The Spaniard's
power a!nd facilityin formulatinglaws is, manifestin his
colonial legislation,which.is moirecolmipletely
unifiedan'd
th-anthat'of any othernation. The Counciloof
systemnatized
the Indies that made the laws for the Splanishcoloniesprovideda comprehensive
code whichwas appliedto everypart

AMERICAN
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of Spain's vast possessionsbeyondthe sea. The Supreme

Court thatwas establishedin the PhilippineIslands,had the
sameformof organizationas thatestablishedin BuenosAyres
-orGuatamala. They were all createdundera commonlaw.
And the municipalgovernment
thatwas set up in Chile was
formedunderthe same law that determined
the organization
of the municipalgovernments
in Mexico,and the Philippines.
The wholerealmof Spain's colonialdominionwas subjectto
a singlebody of laws whichsecuredfor all partssimilarinand thesam!epracticalmethods. It maybe thatthe
stitutions
to theircolonialadSpaniiardsbroughtless practicalwis-domn
ministration
thanthe English; but as generalstatements
their
laws weremorecompletethanthe English laws.
The moiststrikingdifference
betweenthe colonial policies
of Spain and England relateto the controlexercisedby the
two nationsover their respectivecolonistsand the colonial
trade. All the po'rtsof England were open.to,emigrationto
the coloniesor trade with'them,and the English authorities
paid littleo)rno,attentionto,the characteror standingof the
personwho proposedto,emigrate. Spain, on the otherhand,
duringthe greaterpart o'fher colonialperiod allowed ships
for her coloniesto' depart fromonly one port,at firstthe
port of Seville, laterthe porto'fCadiz; and th,emostrigorous scrutinywas, exercisedrespectingthe emigrants. The
BritishcolonisthavingreachedAmerica,was freeto'visit or
reside anywherein any of the colonies; while the Spanish
colonistwiasrequiredto'announcehis destination
beforesailing, and was rejquired,
moreover,to rema,inafterhis arrival
within'the district,or jurisdictioln,
indicated. Betweenthe
two policiestherewas the contrastof thelargestlibertyin the
case of Englanfd
and themostrigo,rous,
restriction
and minute
supervisionon the part of Spain.
In elstimiatilng
the resultsof Spain's influence
in the Philippine Islands,we have to,take into accountnot only the persistentlybenevollent
intentionsof the King, but also the uncontrolledmalevolence
o'fsubo'rdinate
officers
and irresponsible
p'rivatepersons. The King mighitdesign the we'll-being
of
the islanders,but if his agents,had other designs,he was

92
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powerlessto carryout his intentions;forit mustbe remembered that duringthe greaterplartolfthe Spanish colonial
period,thecrown,had onlythe mostinfrequent,
and oftenindirect,communication,
withthe Philippines. Until the early
partof thenineteenth
century
the PhilippineIsilandsweretinder the viceroyof Mexico; and the coninection
betweenthese
of
the
two parts.
vice-kingdom
was maintainedby a line of
shipsbetweenAcapulcoand Manila and the scheduleof sailings 'was one ship a year ea,chway; i,nfact,the trip froim
or fourAcapulcoto Manila and returnlastedusuallythirteen
teen months. There was no competition,
for no,oitherpart
of Span,ishAmericamigtht
send vessels to, or receivegoods
from,the PhilippineIslands.
Underthisconditionof affairsthe local officers,
and private
of the King with immerchantsmightabuse the coinfidence
punity;and thattheyoften.did thisis,evidentfromsuch appeals to the King as that made by Domingo'de Sala,zar,the
firstbishop of th'e Phillippines. Having learned 'of abuses by
thatbetheSpaniards,thebishopwas movedby thehardships,

fell the people, anid in,formedthe King, in o'rder that these
abuses mightbe removed. The p'eople,he offirmed',

oughtto
atin
oirder
that
become
be feastedand favoired,
theymight
tached 'to o'ur fai'thand understandthe m'ercyof Go'd in
bringingthemto a knowledgeolfit. In I 583 whenthebishop
themannerin
therewereclearlytwo'opinionsrespecting
wroste
w'hichthe Filipino'sshould be treated,just as, thereappear
to be two opinions,now. Th'e fact that such petitionsand
protestsweremade and presentedto'the King showsthatth,e
protesting
partyrepresented
a; state of public consciencenot
thenusual amongthe natilons'dealing
withthe in'feirior
races.
There is no' doubtt'hatmanym'enfound'th'eirway to the
Spanish colonieswhose purposewas ratherto spoil than to
thatmany
coinvert
theheathen. Thereis;no'doubt,moreover,
men have made theirway to' the Philippines.
sincetheycame
underAmericanauthority
who have more interestin miaking
great im'mediategains thian,
in proltecting
'the lives of the
themsecurein thepossessiono'ftheir
Filipinosor in rendering
and 'theiroppo'rtunities.But it is not safe in either
property

AMERICAN
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thatthepersonswho would spoil the weak repcase to affirmi

resentthe real designsolfthe nationto whlichtheybelong.
WhetherSpain's coiloinial
expeditionsand settlements
wereattended by more or less unprincipledmen than the similar
undertakings
oifothernationsis a subjectthatat this point
need not be minutely
investigated. A moreprofitable
inquiry
exertedby the Spaniards for
concernsthe specificinfluences
of civilizatioln
the prromotion
among the Filipinos; and probably no influences
proceedingfromthe Spatiards were more
important
or morefar-reaching
in theircivilizingeffecton the
Filipinosthanthose whichresultedin makingthema Christo what extent
tian people. It miaybe difficuilt
to determinef
theirconversionmodifiedtheirfundamental
race ideas, or to
coincide
findout how far theirthoughtsabout Christianity
withthethoughtsof WesternChristianson the same subject.
But whatevermayibe the truthabout this,matter,the
Filipinols,
underSpanishinflurenice,
becamieformallyChristians,
and the Church,in the course -ofthe centuriesit has dominated
th-em,
has impressedupon,theiriminds
a largenumberof pracof theseideasthe Filipinos
tical ideas. Throughthe influence
have,to a certainextent,beenturnedaway fromthe oriental
to see thingsas Spaniardssee them.
pointof view and fmtade
They have been broughtwithrespectto manyparticularsto
occupytheSpaniard'spo'intolfview. As theSpaniard,through
long contactwith the Moors and the infusioln
oifa certain
amount'ofJewishand Moo'rishblood,has,becomesomething
of an 'oriental;so the Filipino,throlugh
long contactwiththe
Spaniardsand the infusionof a certainamountof European
olfa European.
blood,has becolme
siomething
On theirarrivalin the Philippinesthe Spaniardsfoundthe
people still undera tribal organizationthat apparentlyconof o'rderand pleace;for,
tributedverylittleto 'thepreservation
in the languageof a contempoirary
accoluntfromthe last half
of the sixteenthcentury," these people declare war among
at the slightestprovocation,oirwith none whatthemiselves
ever. All thosewho,have not made a treatyof peace with
themor formiedwith themthe b1loodcompact,are considered als enemies. Privateeringand robberyhave a natural

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attractionfor them. Wheneverthe occasion presentsitself,

theyrob one another,even if theybe neighborsor relatives."
(P. I., V. III-, p. 55)of the Spaniardsin the sixteenthcenUnder 'theinfluence
turya suddenchangewas made in the social conditionolfthe
islands. TIhe Filipinoswere led to acknowledgea superior
politicalauthority,tribal allegiance'disappeared,and in the
towns,as theygraduallygrewup, therewas formeda nucleus
o;fa moreor less cultivatedsocietythatin the courseof time
acquired a certainEuropean character. The schools that
were establishedmade a few olfthe youngFilipinosfamiliar
withsubjectsordinarilypresentedin a Europeancurriculum.
Whenin thecourseo'fyearsyoungmiendesiredmoireadvanced
wentto Spain, and a.t the end of
theynatura.lly
instruction,
Europeans.
to theislandsthorough-going
theirstudiesreturned
They returnedmoreover,with an ambitionto make the institutionsof theirnativecountrymoirelike those of Europe.
in the civil serviceand in
They becamelawyersand officers
in spreadingamongthe
bothcapacitiestheywereinstrumental
whichthepublica.don
of
law,
European
a
people knowledge
ministration
was founded,and whichhad been adoptedto fix
the relations.of privatepersonstotone another. The civil
law having been made the basis of the legal systemof the
islands,all personsin seekingto acquirea knowledgeof this
thesocial conditionsin
led to'conssider
werenecessarily
systemr
Europe in whichthis law aroise. The law and the administhus the road by whichthe cultitrativesystemconsti'tuted
minds
the
people were drawnback to,the anamong
vated
cientsourcefromwhichEuropleannationshave derivedmuch
o'fbringcultureand legal wisdom. The importance
of ttheir
ing an orientalpeople underEuropean law cannotbe easily
overestimated.It is a purelypracticalprocess,and in the
case of the Filipino'sit was an essentialstep in the development olfa civilizedsociety. The UniteldStates in entering
Islands enjoyedthe verygreat
up'onits task in the Philippiine
advantage of Spain's preliminarywork to this end. The
of barbarismhad been set
and institutions
ancienttraditio'ns
aside; thepopularmindhad conceivedtheidea oiforderunder
law; and the senseof politicalunityhad been developed.

AMERICAN
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An importantstep,oftenan-exceedinglydifficult
step, in
preparingfoirthe rise,olfa rude peiopleto a higherstage of
cultivationis the destruction
of ancientsoicialformsand prejudices. Withoutthis preliminarywork the recoinstructive
processis impossible. If you would rebuilda cityand make
it more beautiful,you must firstclear away the ruins and
uglybuildingsthatcumbertheground. If you wouldrebuild
societyand give it betterinstitutions
you mustfirstclearthe
ground of such organizationsand ideas as are incompatible
withtheexecutioln
olfthenew design. In case old institutions
have becomerigidby long continuance
and are maintainedby
the changes requiredto
an uncompromising
conservatism,
introducea new and bettersoicialexistencebecome difficult
if not impossible. Caste as it appears in India furnishesa
pertinentillustration.It has become rigid by continuance
througha long period; it is upheldby a conservatism
thatis
intensified
by religiousfanaticism;and it is entirelyincompatiblewith'theintellectual
receptivity
and freeintercourse
of
progressivesociety. It presentsan unwaveringresistenceto
England's attemptsto amelioratethe conditionof the Indian
people by the introduction
of the ideas and nelwinstitutions
thatwouldcontribute
to the freedom,
enlightenment,
and general well-beingof the people.
Obstacleslikethosepresented
bythesystem.
of Castein India
in the,PhilippineIslands. The onlystrong
arenotencountered
tie of social unionis thesentiment
of loyaltyto a familyor to
a personalsuperior. In thematterof social organizationthe
peopleare apparentlyrea,dyfor any new thing. The church
has made its levelinginfluence-Lfelt;
and not,the least of the
servicesit has renderedis that it sweptaway manyold p,rejudices and traditionsand habits,and leftan unencumbered
fieldon whichnew governmental
organizationsmightbe establishedand more enlightenedcommunities
developed. In
thus clearingthe ground for a new social structureand in
leading the peopleto acceptthe practicesof the churchvery
importantwork was done towa.rdspreparingthe Filipinos
to take advantage of the opportunities
presentedto them
undera liberalgovernment
and througha generalsystemof
publicinstruction.

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The rule of the Spaniards has, moreover,left a miarked

effecton the personalcharacterand bearingof the cultivated
part of the Filipinopeople. The Spaniardsare sticklersfor
formand ceremony
in speechand conduct,and thisqualitythey
have communicated
to the Filipinos. It is of course,easier
fora barbarouspeopleto acquirethe forns thanthe spiritof
civilizedlife. Thro,ughobservingthe foirmshowever,there
comes gradually an understandingof the spirit. As, the
Spaniardslaid great stresson formial
conduct,theywere excellentmastersin the firststagesof the disciplinethatmakes
for civilization. Throughthemthe Filipinos have attained
a noteworthy
distinctioln
amoingthe peoplesof the Far East
for theirgood mannersand generallydignifiedbearing. As
instructors
and modelsin thisdepartment
t(heAmericans,
would
have been greatlyinferiorto,the Spaniards. The Aml'rican
olfa superiorcivilizagoes to theislanidsas the representative
tion,buithis personalsuperiority
dotesnot appearin his manners. In thisrespecttheFilipinooutrankshim. The American, however,justifieshis presenceas a leaderand a teacher
in the islandsby the fact that his missionbegifs wherethe
missionof the Spaniardsended. The Spaniardstaughtthe
Filipinosthe formsof enlightened
soiiety; the Americansare
to acquire its) openexpectedto give theman opportunity
minded,liberal,'and humanespirit.
That the cultivatedFilipinosunderthe Spaniardsacquired
somewhatof the spiritof civilizedsocietyas wellas the folrmni,
is indicatedby the positionof woman in the islands. Nowherein all the Orientis,thepositionof womanbetterthanin
the Philippines. Amoingthe,non-ChristianMalays,she is
degradedby polygamyanidslavery. In China thosewho are
treatedas thosewho,are
'especiallyfavoredare as irratiolnally
foundat theotherextremeof the social sicale. In the Philippines woman is neithera useless ornamentntora beast of
burden,but a rationalbeing standingby her husbandanid
her part in the strugglefor existence. Even
contributing
whenthe strugglehas ceased to be hard,she does not appear
to 'be disposed to' renounceall effortanidall responsibility.
fo'rher own education,butas
She is willingto makesacrifices,

AMERICAN
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with her
have not been commensurate
yet her oppoirtunities
ambition. Under the new regimemany wh'o -expectto be
and give promiseof
the normalschools,,
teachersare attending
and
being able to,rendervaluablo assistan'cein maiintaining
of the publicschools. The ordinary
developingthe efficiency
Filipino womanhas a likingfortrade. She appearsto have
less vanityand miorebusilness
sagacitythanher husband. In
her bea'ringis such
the more fortunatesocial circumstances
and a widerexperiencethan
as to suggestbetteroppoirtunities,
she has actuallyhad. Like the women'of SouthernEurope,
the womeno,fthe Philippinesare attachedto,the church,and
have been broughtinto a polsitionquite
its influence
throiugh
fromthe traditional'positioln
of the olriental
different
women.
But in orderthatan exaggerated'impression
-ofthe extent
of the Spaniard's Europeanizinginfluencemay not be conveyed,it is necessaryto recallthe fa!ctth1at
this,influence
was
limitedby the Spanish policyof communicating
as much as
withtheFilipinosin one'or anotherolfthelir
posisible
own dialects; forwhereverthe nativelanguagewas used therew,as,a
that the Spaniards would descendto the
'strongprobability
Filipino's,plane of thoughtinstead:of .liftinghim to, ith'e
Europe-an's
conceptioni
and pointof view. 'TheFilipinoswho
wereto any cons;ider;able
exten,t
Europeanizedwerethosewho
becamefamiliarwiththeSpan,ishlanguage,and thushad access
to European ideas. 'The Filipino'swho'nerver
knew Spanish
remained,exceptin rare cases, withoutmuch knowlddgeof
Europleor sympathy
withEuropeanizingreifoirmi.
Thereifore,
in discouragingthe Filipinosfromilearnin'gSpianish,as was
doneun)der
extensively
theold regime,theSpaniardspo'sitively
limited'theinfluencewhichmightotherwisehave proice'eded
fromtheirpresience.So effectual
was thisd'iscouragemnent,
oir
so fewopportunities
foirlearningthe languagewere offered,
that,afteran occupationof threehundredand fifty
yea:rs,less
tihantenpercent.oftheinhabiitants
wereable tiospleakSpanish.
It is this:limitednumberthatwe have in mindwhenwe speak
of the'civilizing
influence
of the Spianiardsointhe Filipinols.
The influence
of the Spaniardswas furtherlimfited
by the
fact that they never thoroughlymasteredthe country. In

98
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the
manyparts,insteadof buildingroadsthatwouldpenetrate
interiorand open the lurkingplaces of the brigands,they
were satisfiedto remainon the defensive. Failing to make
the ruder inhabitantsof
their forcerecognizedeverywhere,
the unexploredand unconqueredregionsacquired a certain
contemptfor the civilizedman, regardinghim as a weakling
of imitation;foirthe firststep
unworthy
and as consequently
accepttheideas of civilization
barbarialn
the
make
necessaryto
is to let him know that the civilizedman is his superiorin
physicalforce. To smitethebarbarianwitha helavyhand is
sometimesthe surest way to liberalizehis mind. This the
Spaniardsdid notalways,do whenit oughtto have beendone,
of nominal
tihereremained,aftercenturies'
and conisequently
nor the
the
Spaniards
neither
where
regions
control,vast
and where
were respected,
civilizationwhichtheyrepresented
therewas no.dispositionto accepttheirideas.
of the Spaniardsfrom
the frequentdeparture
Furthermore,
in 'dealingwiththe
Europe
oif
the economicpractices modern
Filipinos delayed the acceptanceof those ideas whichconstitutethebasis of modernsociety. In the islandsmuchwas
doneunderthelSpaniardsby forcedlaborat a timewhenpracticallyall laborersin Europe were freeand receivedwages.
Consideringtherelationsof thetwo,peoplesto one another,it
was inevitablethat the Filipino should regardthe Spaniards
as his teachers,but what he gained from'the object lesson
in this case was knowledgeolfa stateoifthingsthatwas not
oriencharacteristically
European,butrathercharacteristically
tal. But in the courseolftimea new age dawneld. The crusading spiritbecameantiquated;feudalismsurvivedonly as
a relicof a recedingpast,t'heunionof ecclesiasticaland political functionsin a single body was repudiated;and it was
clearlyseenthatSpain, whichhad stood forthesethings,had
finished'hermission.
and a ruler
In the factthatSplain'smissionas a coloinizer
of inferiorraces is ended,and thatthe tasks she had undertaken have fallentoi othernations,we observe one of the
of civilization. In the
familiarincidentsin the development
progressit is not unusualforone person
courseof intellectual

AMERICAN
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99
to take up and carryforwardto a higherformor to a more

oira,theoryof a predecessor. In
completestage an invention
the historyotfmaterialachievements,
nothingis morecommon
than to findone companyof men takingup and fitishingan
undertakingbegunby others. Anidas we grasp withinour
view the social progressof the woirld,inothingis more coinsistentwithreasonand historicalfactthanthe idea,thatgreat
nationalundertakings
and submaybe oiriginated
byonenatioin
be taken up and carriedto a higherstage of adseque:ntly
vancementby anothernation; or, in otherwoirds,that one
natioinmakes oinecontribution
to,civilizationwhile another
nationmakesquite a different
contribution.
And thus,althoughwe recognizethe zeal and heroismdisplayed by the Spaniards in discoveryand exploration,and
keep in mindtheirhigh putrpose
toibringto,the heathenan
uncorrupted
faith,it may be reasonablyexpectedthat,with
less of the crusade!r's
spirit,but withmiolre
practicalsense,the
newernationwill carrySpain's unfinis'hed
work in the Far
East to a conclusionwhichthe stereotyped
conservatism
of
theoldernationmade it impossibleforherto reach.
But it is frequently
affirmed
thatthe peopleof the United
States are new to questionsrelatingto the governmnent
olf
dependencies. T,hetruthis, however,thatmorethana centuryago theyhad verypositiveideas as to,how certaincolonies
should be governed. This was, in fact,the firstsubjecton
whichtheyheld a commonopinion. A littlelateir,afterthe
severalstateshad cededto the federalgovernment
theirwestern lands, theyhad an opportunity
to put their ideas into
practice.
In the continentalterritories
of the United States it was
expectedthatthe aborliginal
inhabitants
would disappearand
no accountwas takenof themn
in forming
the organiclaws of
theTerritories. But in PoirtoRico andthePhilippinesit could
notbe presumed
thattheywoulddis'appear,
anidtheycouldnot
be ignoired. In thecontinental
Territories
thegovernment
was
for the descendents
formnied
of Europelans;in the Philippinies
it was madeprimarily
foirFilipinos,butat thesametimeit had
to be so orderedas not to do violenceto,the intelrests
of the

IOO
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
in such
moreo'ver,
otherinhabitants.It had ttolbe oirdered,
prinformthat it would not do violencetotthelfundamental
cipleson whichthis republicwas established. The two,most
peopled
Europeanrule over dependencies
excellentmoldels;,of
principally
by races in a lowerstage of civilizationwe'refurof England and Holland.
nishedby the colonialpossessions,
But therewere variousireasonswhyneitherthe English nor
the Dutch policy could be exactly followed. The Filipliniols
are Christians,,
an,da smallpart,but a dominantpart,oifthem,
the influence
havebeentota certainextentEuropeanizedundier
of the Spania;rds. As a necessaryreisultof theirconversion
theyhad
and theirassociationwith,Europelans,
to Christianity
certain aspirationsthat distinguishedthem froimthe nonof EuroChristianbranchesof theirrace. A certaininfus,ion
olftheEuropeanemphasizedtheresults,
pean blood,moire-over,
izing reform. The peopleof the Philippineswere,therefore,
and
in a polsitionwherea decentrelgardfor theirambition,
otherthan
made it advisableto' carryout siomre
aohievemrents
the Dutch adminthe repressivepolicythathad characterized
oif
i'strationof Java. The cointrastbetweenthe conditions,
India and the PhilippineIslands,India's,vast population,her
nativeprinces,heirindigenouscivilization,
richand polwerful
and social instituwithits wealthof literatureand traiditions
in the Philippines
tolimitatestrictly
tions,miadeit undes,irable
the policythathas beenfoundnecessaryiniIndia. The prolblen,presentedby theconditionsin,theiPhilippineswas simpler
that had tolbe
than the Indian problem,and the difficulties
ensource. The difficulties
overcomne
aros,efroma different
counteredby the English in India arose'in large part from
and rigi,dity
olfthenativeIndian,soiciety.The
thecomplexity
difficulties
encounteredby the Amiericansini the Philippines
arose largelyfromthechaoticconditionolfFilipino'society,the
of a high grade and the lack
absence of soicialorganizations,
and re'quired
of traditionsolforder. The caselsweiredifferent
differentm:ethsolds
olf treatmient. There were better reasons
a systhan)forboirrowing
foirbuildingon Spanish,folundationis
Inidia.
temfromeitherJavaor
of the Philippine
Under the actual polliticlal
organizatioin

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I0I
Islands the government

of the United States is the source
of power exercisedby the celntral,
oir insular,government.
Immediately
afterthe Americanarmylandedthe militaryauthoritiers
took possessionof the civil officeswithintheirlines,
collectedthejinternalrevenuetaxes and customs'duties,and
executedsuch laws relatingto civil affairsas were valid at
theclotseo,fSpanishrule. As commander-in-chief
o,fthearmy
thePresidenttolokstep,s,
to enlargetbhe
scopeof the civiloffices
and to -bringthe islands undercivil authorityas fast as the
inhabitants
couldbe pacified. To thisend,and actingstillas
head oifthe armywithoutspecial-congressional
lauthorization,
he appointedthe United StatelsPhilippineCommission,in
March,I900, " tolcontinueand pierfect
theworkof organizing
and establis;hling
civil go'vernmelnt
alreadycommencedby the
militaryauthorities." Afterthefirsto,fSeptember,I900, this
commissionhaidauthorityto exercise,subject to,the President's approval,legislativeplowerin thetPhilippineIslands.
This powerpiriorto this date had been held by the military
governor. It included "the making oif rules, and ordertshaving the effectof law, foirthe raising of revenue
the appropriation
by taxes, customsduties,and impo,sts,;
and
expenditure
of public fundsolfthe islands; the establishment
of an educationalsystemthroughoutthe islands; tiheestablishmentof a systemto securean efficient
civil service; the
organizationand establishment
olfcourts;the,organizationand
establishment
of municipalan'd departmentalgovernments,
antdall othermattersoifa civil naturefor whichthe military
governorwas formerly
to'provide'byrules oiroircompetent
ders of a legislative character."
Tihenext step in carryingout the policy olfthe United States
withrespectto the PhilippineIslands,was that in whichthe
President directed affairs,not as the commiander-in-chieof

oif
the army, but as authoiraized
by definitecongressional action.
The action'takenby Congressin thismatteir

was essentially
the
same action as thiatwhich had beeentaken in the case of
Louisiana. By a law approvedin October,I803, it was pros
vided that,untilCongreissshouldhave made provisionfor a
all the military,clivil,and judicial
temporarygovernment,

102
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
of
of the government
powers then exercisedby the officers
Louisiana should be vested in such person or personsand
should be exercisedin such manneras the Presidentof the
United States might direct. The language of this act of
years later,
1803 was repeatedin a law passed ninety-eight
approvedMarch 2, i9OI, giving the Presidentcongressional
and for
of civil government
authority" forthe establishment
of the Philippine
the inhabitants
maintainingand proitecting
and
Islands in the freeenjoymentof theirliberty,prosperity
to,thearmyapreligion." This was the Splooneramendment
By it Congress,ratifiedthe estabpropriationbill for i902.
but at the same timeimposedcertainrestriclishedauthority,
to grantingfranchises.
withreference
tions,particularly
was introduced
government
insular
The next phatseo,fthe
July 4, I90I, throughwhich the
by the change effecteld
executiveauthoritypreviouslyexertedby the militarygovto a civil governor.
ernorin the Philippineswas transferred
were created: the
A littlelater four executivedepartments
departmentsof the interior,of commerceand police, of finance
and justice; and of publicinstruction.The presidentof the

commissionhavingbecomethe civil governor,the fourother
originalmembersolfthe commissionwereappointed,withthe
to be theheads of the fourexecutivedeparttitleof secretary,
ments. The governorand the four secretariescontinuedto
act as membersof the commission,whichwas at this time
enlargedby the additionof threeFilipinos,and one of the
secretarieswas appointedvice golvernor.The vice governor
may act as civil governor whenever the civil governor is inabsence
capacitatedby illness,oir certifiesthathis temporary
from the seat of governmentwill make it necessary for the
vice governor to' perform the duties,of the civil governor.
are groupedthe various.bureaus

Underthe severalsecretaries
is carriedon.
thro,ughwhichthe work oifthe departments,
reportsto the head
The iheadof each bureauin a department
he
belongs.
to
which
the
of
department
a civilgovernorand
thusembraceis
The presentgovernment
foursecretarieswho, withthe threeFilipino'menbersof the
thecentrallegislature. To theseoffices
constitute
commission,

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
103
may be addeidthe officeolf the Attoirney-general

and the
systemof thecourtsemnbracing
theSupremeCourt,thevarious
courts of firstinstance,and the local courts such as t;hemuni-
cipal courtsand the courtsolfthe justicesof the peace.

In mostcases.the!SupremeCourto,fthePhilippines,
has final
authority,but there are cases,that may be carried to the
SupremeCourtof the United States. These are all actions,
cases, causes, and proceedingsin whichthe constitution
or
any stattute,
treaty,
title,rightor privilegeolftheUnitedStates
is involved,oircauses,in whichthe value in 'controversy
exceeds twenty-five
thousanddolla.rs,,
or in which the title oir
possessionoifreal esta,te,
exceedingin value thesumolftwentyfivethousanddollarsis involvedor'broughtintoquestion.
In establishinglocal governments,,
the boundariesof the
or townships,
ancientpueblos,,
wererecognizedas determining
of the new municipalities,.Thheancientnames
the territories
and thepublicproperty
of theold plueblois
wereretained,
passed
to the new organization. In the municipalities,
or townships,
the firststeps were takentowardsthe establishment
oiflocal
The president,the vice-president,
self-government.
and the
membersof the municipalcouncilare elected. But in view
of the 'limitedknowledge and experience of the bulk of the
it was!foundto be expedierit
inhabitants,
to confinethe privilege of voting,in the beginning,to a comiparatively
few persons. It was confined
to thosewho had 'heldsomeone of the
principalmunicipalofficesprioirto the Amnerican
occupation,
thosewho had property
valued at fivehundredpesos, or who
paid taxes to the amountof thirtypesos,and thosewho could
read,write,and speak Englishor Spanish. It mighthappen
thatmanyof thosewhohad property
worthfivehundredpesos
or who had previouslybeen municipalofficers,
could neither
read norwriteSpanishoirEnglish. But it was heldthattheir
to accumulateproperty,
-ability
or theirpreviousexperiencein
local government
wouldmake it 'safeto conferuponthem,the
privilege of voting for municipal officers. By granting this
privilege to, the limitednumber olfpersons who,had the quali-
ficationsrequired,an opportunity
was givento the peopleto
of thekno?wledge
acquirethe firstelementsi
necessaryto enable

I04
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
them to govern themiselves.This provis,ionwa's in marked

contrastwith'thelaw establishedin Poirtot
Rico and Hawaii,
whichconferred
thehighestprivilegesof citizenship
alikeupon
thefitand theunfit.By thisactionrespeitingPorto,Rico,and
Hawaii the authoritiesthrewaway whateverinfluencethey
mighthave exertedby holdingout this;privilegeas an inducementto the peopleto make themselvesworthyto participate
in the local government. By thus bringing into the govern-
menta vast masssof uncontrollable

ignorance,thenew administrationsin those islands began in confusionan'd with the
prospectoifachievemnents
tihatwouldnot constitute
a favorable
recommendation
of republicanism.If moireFilipino'sacquire
and holdproperty
or acquirea knowledgeolfEnglishor Spanish, this will inidicatea certainsocial improvement
that,in
accordan'cewith the law regulatingthe suffrage,will be followed by an extensiono,fpoliticalright'sto' otherpersons;
butif no such improrvement
shall be observablethe welfareof
the local communities
will not be endangeredby thepresence
and authoritative
interference
of ignorantand shiftlessFilipinosin publicaffairs.
Like many'ofthe presenttownshipsolfNeiwEngland,the
co'ntainmoirethanone village,
pueblo'sin,the Philippinesoiften
hassa certainterritory
but each oifthesevillages,or barrio,s,,
to it,and the sum'o'fall the
whichis recognizedas pertaining
tractsof territory
pertainingto' th'eseveralbarrioscoincides
o'r
is
the
same
oifthe pueblo'o'r townwith,
as, the territory
ship. Each barrio is in the imm;ediate
cihargeof a member
and'not thebarrio'is the
of theto'wncouncil,buttihe!
township'
is the lowestdistinctgovprimarypoliticalunit. Tiheto,wn'
ernmnental
group'; for the barrio'is simplya fractionof the
pueblo,or toiwn.
an'dthecentral
the muunicipal
Midwaybetween.
government
oifthe
of the archipelago'stands'th'egovernment
government
several provinces. When the provinces,o'ne aftfr another
it 'becamenecessarytolhaveat
wereturnedfromwar to penalce,
uniderwhich'theymightbe oirhand a foir of go'venment
ganized. This formi'was furnished
by the generalprovincial
act adopted in February,I9OI. In accordance
government

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I05
consistsof fiveofficers.
withthisact theprovincialgovernment
These are a governor,a supervisor,a treasurer,an attorney,
and thetreasand a secretary. The governor,thesupervisor,
The attorboard.
the
provincial
urerof theprovincemakeup
ney and the secretaryare not membersof the board, but
wilththe affairs
performtheirproperfunctionsin coinnection
in the firstinof the provincialgovernment.The governtor
stance,thatis to say on theorganizationof theprovincialgovernment,
was appointedbythecommission;laterhe was elected
by a provincialassembly,or electoralcollege,composedof the
membersof the town councilsof the organizedmunicipalities
of theprovince. It is expectedthatordinarilythe provincial
governorwill be a Filipino,althoughat the organizationof
theseveralprovincesa numberof theappointedgovernorswere
Americans,and someAmericanswereelectedby theprovincial
still,
of appointment,
assembliesat the expirationof thetermn
undera normalconditionofaffairs,it maybe expectedthatthe
governorsof provinceswill be Filipinois. The supervisoris
requiredto be a civil engineer,foirupon him devolvesthe
businessof buildingroads and bridgesand the otherpublic
worksof the province. But the supervisorand the treasurer
are in theclassifiedcivilservice,and it is expectedthatforthe
presentuntil properlyqualifiedengineersappear among the
Filipinostheywillusuallybe Americans.
law had been formedembracAfterthe generalproivincial
therereing the generaloutlinesof a provincialgovernment,
mainedthe task of applyingit to the sleveralprovinces,with
circumas mnight
suchmodifications
be neededin the differenat
stances. This task ma;denecessarya journeyto each of the
provinces, for the purpose of findingout by inquiry and dis'-
of thepeoplein a publicassembly
cussionwithrepresentativels
oifthe general law were neededto adapt
what modifications
it to the provincein question. Inquiry was also made as
and
to whatsalariesoughtto be paid to theprovincialofficers,
whatlimitsolughtto be fixedfortheotherprovincialexpenses.
aboutthesematters
The provincialassemblythatwas co'nsulted
was composedof delegates fromthe several towns of the
province. The delegateswere usually the presidentsoifthe

io6
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
townsand the membersof the towncouncils. They werethe

most cultivatedpart of theirrespectivecommunities.
Of the fiveprovincial officersonly the governor is elected;
the othersare appointed. The governoris electedby an assmbly composedof the membersof the town councilsolfthe
province. By providingthattheofficial
head of the province
shall be electedby a systemof indirectelectionrestingon the
limitedsuffrage
established
in themunicipalcode,it is thought
in public
thatthepeoplewillbe secureda certainparticipation
affairs,and thatthe stabilityand wise conductof the governmentwill notbe endangeredby thetoo immediateinterference
of the untrainedpart of the population. Placed in intimate
connectionwiththe centralgovernment
by the fact thatthe
bul,kof its officers
are appointed,the provincialorganization
is in a positionto serveas an efficient
administrative
agentof
the centralauthority,as well as to fulfillits functionsas a
purelylocal government.
It maybe seenfromthestatements
alreadymiadethat,under
thepresentgo-vernmental
thereare twogroupsof
organization,
electedofficers.The firstgroupembracesthe municipalofficers,who are chosenat large by the qualifiedelectorsof the
embraces
municipality.The second group of electedofficers
the governorsof the several provinces,who are electedby
provincialassembliescomposedof the membersof the town
'councilsof the varioustownsin the severalprolvinces.The
secondelectionthusdependson thefirst,and thefirstis made
listof voterswho mustei'ther
to
by a restricted
have property
thevalue of fivehundredpesos or pay at least thirtypesos of
regularly
establishedtaxes,or be able to read,write,and speak
Spanish or English, or have held a municipalofficeunder
are established'bylaw to
Spanish rule. These qualifications
be the qualifications
of the electionswho shall choose the
of the proposedPhilippineassemblythat is to be
memnbers
convenedand organizedtwo years afterthe completionand
taken.
publicationof the censusrecently
A government
forthe PhilippineIslands has thu'sbeen established,and all but a few stragglershave returnedto the
of the reoccupationsof peace. The stragglersare proiducts

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I07
bellionagainstSpain and theUnitedStates,who fancythatin

war theylearnedthe trickof livingwithoutworkat the expense of theirneighboirs.They are brigands,and, in terms
applied to our evil-doers,would be describedas a cross beand a footpad. In view of thelawlessness
tweena sneak-thief
it maybe safely
thatappearsto be increasingin thiscountry,
affirmed
thatbrigandageis less ominousin thePhilippinesthan
in the United States. The Philippinebrigandsare the halfcivilizedelement'sof the population. ThIeyhave no strong
traditionsof social order. They have had no experienceto
teach them!respect foir law. They have lived unidera
systemthat was monarchialfrom t-opto bottom. Whatever obedience they have renderedhas, beenrrenderedto
the commandof a personalsuperior. The new regimesubruler. The changeis a littletoo
stituteslaw forithepersioinal
for the Filipino
suddenforthe ordinaryFilipino,particularly
with an extravagantidea olfliberty. He has none of that
trainingwhichenablesthe Anglo-Saxonto feelloyaltyto the
impersonalstate,and renderobedienceto i'tsimpersonaldethatunderthese circumcrees. It i's onlynatural,therefore,
of the population
stancesthe ignorantand vicious fragments
of barbarismratherthan
shouldmanifestthe characteristics
those of civilization. But thereis no such excuse for the
Americanbrigands,those wlhoare breakingdown our jails,
theauthority
theirfellows..We
of courts,and toirturing
defying
cannotevenchargetheseacts of lawlesisness
to recentimmigrationfromthe lowerranksof Europeannations,forthe mo'bs
of jail-breakers,
are
lynchers,
and the bands of highwaymen
predominantly
of Americanstock. They are born and bred
underthefreeinstitutions
of thelandtheyare disgracing.
The Filipino'brigandmayhavebee encouragedbytheutterancesin thiscountry
thathelpedto keepthebelatedinsurrecto's
on 'himhas probablybeenve'ryslight;
going,but'thisinfluence
forhe is nota politician,
butsimplya plain robber,and has no
aspirationshigherthan successfulplundering. Filipino brigandage does not,however,presentany seriousdangereither
to thelivesor property
of Americans.
Even Filipinobrigandagehas had itsuses. It has furnished

io8
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
to testthereliability
thePhilippineGovernment
an opportunity
of its constaibulary
or local mililtia. This arm olfthe governmentis composedof enlistedFilipinosunderAmericanofficers.
It embracesbetweenfivethousandand six thousandmen,who
are distributedthroughoutthe provinces. The presenceof
somelawless stragglersin the coun'try
gave thleconstabulary
whichmade strict
thingto do immediately
on its organizatilon,
disciplinenecessaryand posisible. Five thousandarmedidlers
the islands,withoutany serious.occupascatteredthroughout
tion, mightveryreadilyhave becomedemoralized. But by
havingoccupation,theofficers
have beenlable to hold themto
strictdiscipline,and thus selta high standardfor the whole
force. This standardonce fixedbecomesa partof the tradiand may withoiut
great difficulty
be
tion of the constabulary,
maintained.
At firstdoubts were entertainedby certain persons as
to the advisabilityof arming so many natives,,but their
conduct has been generallysuch as to leave no apparent
ground for these doubts. They have been loyal to their
and to the government.They have been!efficientofficers
as efficient
as the Amerifortheparticulartask in hand quti,te
can soldiers. The Americansoldier is, to a certainextent
in thathe does notknowthe
handicappeda.sa brigand-hunter,
tricksand habitsof th'eFilipino thief. The attemptswhich
the Americansare makingto eliminatebrigandageis a departurefromthe Spanish regime. The Spaniardswinkedat
mianythings,and among othersthe presenceof bands of
thievesin certaincentersof lawlessness. From thesecenters
whole districts'becameinfected. The proces,scarriedon by
theconstabulary
is a cleaning-up,
process,and promisesto leave
the islands,for 'thefirsttime in theirhistory,freefromthe
ban'ds;of thievesthathave alwaysbeenmoreo'rless,of a hindranceto prosperity.
Like Mexico,and otheir
formercoloniesof Spain,the Philippines had not adopted the land-taxas a means of raising
of the
revenue. This.was consistent
withthe otherfeatu'res
systemof taxationprevailingin the islands,in thatit favored
the richan'd burdenedthe poor. Speakinggenerally,under

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
109
the old systemof taxation,whateverarticleswere owned or

exclusivelyusedby therichhad a lightertax thanthoiseowned
or exclusivelyused by thepoor. Champagne,to,take a single
illustration,
bore a lightertax thanlcheap wine. In Mexico
fora longperiodthegovernment
an oligarchy,
was practically
composedin large partof lanidowners,
who,eitherdetermined
influence
to prevent
whiatthe taxes sholuldbe oirhad sufficient
of a tax on land. In the Philippines,alson,a
the !imposition
limitedclass of relativelyrich men had txerte!don the governmentwhateverinfluence
had beenexertedby thepeopleor
and it s,eemed
bythosenotactuallyin official
po'sition!s,
to them
wise, or at least advantageous,to use wha?tever
power they
had to cautseany tax levied to be placed where it would
burdenthemleast. On one occasion,at a publicmeetingin
one of theprovinces,
advicewas siought
as to thebestmethods
of increasingthe revenue,anidthe deliberateplan proploised
by
some of the speakerswas thatthe governmen't
shouldlevy a
tax on theproletariat. The Filipino'shad learnedtheirlesson
fromtheold regime.
In vivew
of thi;sstate,olfthings,it becamieevidentin thebeginningthatit would be necessaryto,make a completereformationof the systemof taxation,and thatthis,refo,rmation
would have to concernitselfboth w,iththe internalrevenue
taxes and the customs,duties. In making the chang,esrequired,it was proposedthaitthenew systemshouldat leastnot
bear more heavilyointhe pooirthan on the rich. The principleadoptedappearsto us,to carrywilthit iits,
own'advocacy,
butit was not so clearto,thosewho 'had inheritedtheirideas
of financial
policyfromSpain.
The excuse or justification
for the new tarifflaw was the
need of an adequate revenue for the maintenanceof the gov-
ernment. The cedula tax.,oir grad'uate4ld

poll-tax,had been
abolished,no land-4axha, been impolsed,and the internal
revenuetax broughtonly limi'tedreturns. As,a colnsequence
of years of rebellion,the trade and the industries,
of the
smaller towns in so far as the smaller towns ever had
any industries,were eitherdiso'rganizedor destroyed. The
contributions
made forthe supportoifthe rebellion,whether

IIO
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
a large numberof the

free or foirced,had impolverished
inhabitantsof the provinces,and the only effectivesource
of an adequate revenue,at the beginningof the Ameriwas thecustomsduties. The duties,therefore,
can occupation,
whichwereestablishedby tiheniewtarifflaw wereestablished
was only inprimarilyfor revenue. The ildeaof protectilon
in fatt,veryfewindustries
cidentally
considered. Thereweare,
to protectthit had niotadequateprotectionin the conditions
underwhichtheyexisted. In makingthetarifflaw, then,only
in minid. In thefirstplaice,
a fewobjectsw'erekept'distinctly
revenue. In thesecond
it walsdesignedto yielda respectaible
to the
thatit shbuldnot be 'burdenisome
place,it was prioposed
In
to,
the
consumers.
of
articles
the
price
tradeor undulyraisle
thethirdplace, it was plannedto,be easy of execution,so,that
be miadeuniderit withthe least possibleexcollectionsmighlt
pensieand withthe le'astpossibleliabilityto fraud. The ends
aimed at by the makerts.
of the law have been fairlywell attained. It has yieldeda respectablerevernue.That the law
not be burdensometo' trade or inicreaseundulyconmigh1t
sun;er'sprices.,it was designedtoimake the average rate on
real
per cent.of theeir
abouttwenty-one
impoirts
o0rtwenty-two
-thisrate,exdiuty,
a spiecific
value. Sinicethedutyis primarily
will naturallyvaryas
in termsof an ad valoremdulty,
presisied
low
grade in th'eirclass.
high
or
are
of
the goods imported
Whenever the speiific duty is the same on cheaper and dearer
goods,the,dearergooldshave an obviousadvantagein iMpoTrtarecognizable,

tion. Bu5tin all caseswhe'reclassesare distinctly
each class has itisdistinctspecificduty. The dutywas made
maybe more'eiasilylevied
becausesucha duity
spelcific,
primarily
and collectd than an ad vazloremduty,and it is exemptfrom
oirovervaluation.
theliabilityto,fraudthroughundervaluation
olfa 'systern
involving
Recognizingthenecessaryinaccura;cy
onlyspecificduties,provisionis madein manyinstancesforreof poissible
cases
sortingto an ad valorer dutyas a corrective,
of injustice.
In certaincaisc
s wherethe rateisunderIthenew law are the
who'have
sameor less 'thanun'derthe old law, s)omeimporters
withbotihlaws findthenew law is moresevere
had experielnce

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
III
thantheold,on,accountoifitsmorerigorousexecution. From
theirpointof view a law imposinga higherrate of dutiesis
more convenientin practicethana law imposinga low rate,
provided the law impolsing the higher duties can be made easy
by giftsand bribes. Bettera high tariffwithgratificacionees

thana low tariff
thatis carriedout withrigidand unsympathe-
tic honesty.
Not itheleastimportant
matterof poilicyconnectedwiththe
affairsof businessthathas engagedtheattention
of thePhilippine government
is the forestof the islanids,and regulations
fortheircareand economicuse.
In olrder
thatthemagnificent
fo'rests,
oifthleislands.mightnot
be suddenlyand irretrievably
and thatat the same
destroyed,
timetheymightbe rendered
serviceable,
theywerecommitted
to
theadministration
and supervision.
oifa bureauof foirestry.
The
landsof theforestbellongin verylargepartto,thegovernment,
and for this,reasointheircontrolis in thelhands,of an authority
thlatmay(dealwitihthem,freelywithoutbecotming
entangledin
themeshes,
olfindividualrights.
In the policyadoptedwith reference
tot the fo,refsCts,
two or
threepointsare conspiwcuous.
The firstof tihesie
is, that foirests are not sold to the individual persons oircoirpotrationswho
have only the singleinterestof denudingthe landsion which

theystand. The secondoifthesepointsis, thatthegovernment
in retalining
'theland necelssarily
retain's
thepotwer
to'determine
whattreesmaybe felledand whatmiust
be leftstandingwithout
injury. The thirdpoint is, that the person whio'receives a per-
mitto cut designatedtreesmustpay to'the'government

a cer-
tain amoutnt
per cubic fo'otof theitreesfelled,this,amount vary-
ing accordingto'the qualityof th'etimberin question. This
mean's
thatth'ePhilippine Governmlenit
'sells'thetimberstanding,
at a pricefixedacco'rding
to.its quality,and retainstheownershi,poifthe lanidand controlsan'd cares fo'rall subsequent
growths. By thismethodit is expectedthatithedevastation
of
the forestswill be averteld. At the,same tine dealer'sin timbeirwillbe ableito'secureat reasonablerateis
thetreets
be'stsuited
to theirpunrpoises,'butundeirthe direction'of the properauthori-
tiesas to'whatimmaiture
treies
mustbe leftstanding.

II2
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
If one wereto attemnipt

to makea comprehensive
statemntof
the economicstatusoifthe PhilippineIslands,it would notbe
difficult
to forma fairlyjust estimiate
of the severalmaterial
elemrnts. But a considerable
difficulty
wouldairisein attempting tp estimatethe labor foirceolfthe islands as, a necessary
On thispointthegovernment
factorin thegeneralstatemnent.
has manifested
an uncertainand doubtfulpolicy. It is uncertainbecaulseas yetno one knowswhatis to be theresultolfthe
awakeningof the Filipinoisout of theirmediaevalism.The
builkoifthepopulationis compoised
of personswho eithercultior are attachedto,other
theirsmallholldings
vateindependently
persons in a tradlitional relation not greatly unlike that of
feudaldependents. The partof thepopulationthatis neither

in tihepositionolfinddivildual
nor attachedto any
cuitiviators
housiehoild
or estateis smnall,
and consequently
the numberof
laborersactuallyavailable for a new undertaking
is limited.
in a cerPersionswhohavebeenaccustomedto gaintheirlivinig
tain way cannotbe expectedto abandfon
theirancienthabits,
traditionaldependenceit maybe, immediately
on the Apthe!ir
pearanceof a personoircomplany
askingfortheirserivces. In
view of ithi-s
fact,it is probablethatthosewho presentthemselvesat thefirstcall underthenew dman;,dare onlya partof
the 'supplyof labor which the communityin question may furnish whenit shall have adjusteditseifto,the new conditions.
It w-illtherefore
be impossible
to knowthelaborcapabilitiesoif
the Philippine Islands until they shall have acquired more olf
thecharacteristics
oiftheindustirial
of Europeand
communities
America. But ithereis la strongprobability
thatthe Filipino
laborfoirce
will increaseas thesenseoifindividualindependence
increases-andmore men break away fromtheirpositionsof
semi-depeidente
on theiremployers. Butthismovement
olfthe
Filipino towardsthe polsitionolfthe Americanlaborerwill
probablybe slow, anidin the mean tiTnethereoughtto be a
demaniid
formoorel
labolrers
than are at presentavailable. To
this pointit is safe and easy going. Whiatlies beyondis a
roughroad oifdliverse
opinions.
As it regardsthecontinental
of the UniitedStates,
territory
it is notdifficult
to framea moreor lesisconviinicing
argumentin

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
II3
supportof thepolicyinvolvedin thelaw excludingChineseon

richmoreslowly
thegroundthattheinconvenience
of getting.
is not to be compared with the inconvenienceof having another
race problemon our hands. But whetite inquiryrellatess

to
trhePhilippineI sltands
theconclusio thiatapplies:h-eredoes not
necessarilyapplythere. Here it wouildbe briniging
together
two alien races,the twbomostpositiveanidstrongestracesin
th,eworld,that it woul'dbe 'betterto keep apairt. There it
would b, bringingtogether,not two' races,but twoikindred
pieoples,
olfwho'seamalgamation
nnature
seemsto approve. But
whetherthey enter into, close assIociationor retnaindistinictiis
ncota matterof greatmomient. he undisputedfactis, that

in the PhilippineIslands,to
thleire
is room for more alaborers
redeemthe countryfromi
olfthe*neglectit suffered
thierestluts
in war, and to,make availableits vasltulndeelopedresources.
If thoret
wereonly limitedresiources,
itheweakermightgotto
of a
the wall, but the resourcesare,adequlateto the suppoirt
olf
populationotfsixty millions. TIhe addition,therefore, a
to tihewall,
fejwhundrodtth'ousaand
Chinesewoulddrivenohboldy
but 'bymakingthe islan4ds
morepro,duictive,
would ameliorate
thle condition of the whiolleincreased population.
If un!der
tutelagean4d
thefoirce
olfexamrple
theFilipino'shows
a willingand skillfulworker,and the relsouwrcls
himrsellf
olfthe
island's are so completelyused as to,detmandno moTrelaborers,
the dooTr
the Chineseafterfive
maybe as,easilyclio'sed
again'sit
or ten yearsas now. The painfulfactniowis, t!hatlaboiris
neededanidis notto be had.
on thiscontinent,
we harwe
estab,lished
Hithlertol,
governments
in whichthiolse
made
the
laws.
have
the
whio
had
sameideas,instinctsand traditio'n!s
as theboidyo'fthe peoplefoirwhomthe
laws were miade. Onilymembners
of our race have been involved. In thenew underPtaking
we ihavesougoht
to,bringinto
memberisoiftwo distinctraces; and thoise

political co-operatilon
personswho have exp&Aedsuch itnimdiateresultsas might

appearin dealingwitha brancho!f Europeanstockhave failed
to take into accountthe mutuallyrepielling
foirceoifdiverse
ratcialinheritances.Theyhave faiiledto estimateproperlythe
the sub'o'rdinate
difficulty
race is destinedto,encounterin com-

PROCEEDINGS
II4
prehendingthe idea
anid social
OF THE
principlesof the dominantrace,
in ehangingitspointof
i,twillexperience!
and also thedifficulty
somewhatthe
and
annulling
view withrespectto government
so}cial
force of its ancient
traditions.
policycarriedolut
An important
featureolfthegovernmental
embracesthe systemof public
is thatwthich
in the Philippiines
instruction.The systemis organizedas 'thebureauof educationunderthe SecretaryolfPublic Instruction. The imrmediolfthisbureauis placedin the
of the affairs,
ate administration
wihowas originallyassisted
handsof a generalsuperintendent,
ents
bytendivisionsuperintendents.The divisionsutiperinten
residein the severaldivisions. Uniderthe supervisiono(fthe
exercses
each division,
superintendent
generalsuperintendent,
With
the
stchiools
olf
his
division.
immediatecontroloverthe.
and the expansionof the
increasein the numberoifteacheirs
could
field,the division supeirintendents
not
properlyperform
enacted
the woirkexpectedof them. Then by an amendment
division
was insuperintendents
July24, I9OI, the numberof
ten to eighteen. Underthisorganizationnearly
creasedfrolm
teachersfromAmericawere appointedand asone thtou-sand
to positionsin different
plartsof the archipelago. In
signetd
needed
thisworkof placingtheteacherswheretherweremo-st
assistanceto the
renderedvailutable
thedivisions.uperintendents
generalsuperintendent.They made themselvesfamiliarwith
investithe conditionsof theirsureiraldivisionsby systematic
and were autho(rized
to select
gation and porsonalinspection,
the teachersalreadyappointed,subjec to the approval
frnom
to,them
suchteachersas seemned
of thegeneralsuperintenident,
best fittedto establishand conductschools,in 'the different
thework
divislions. In thecourseoftimie
partsof theirsevetral
becametoo greatto be
requiredof thedivisionsuperintendents
bythemwithoutassistance. The n!umsuccessfully
performed
wialsgreatlyincreased,and the schools were
ber of tealchers
evidentthat
scatteredovera widerterritoiry.It betamefinally
theconditionsin
amountof info'rmatioi
concerning
a sufficient
the different
parts,of the islandshad been gatheredto permit
and finalorganization. Accordingly
the makingoifa definite
withtheviewof effectto theCotntnissoion
a billwas presented

AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I I5
ing the changes,desired. This,bill becamea law October8,

I902.
This law repealeldcertainfeaturels
of the previously
existingschool law, and dividedthe archipelagointo,thirtysix school divilsiuons.
The severaldivisions,except in a. few
cases, were m.alde
to,coincidewiththe prolvincels.In each of
thesedivisions,exceptthosecorresponding
to the provincesof
Benguet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Nueva Vizcaya, and Paragua, a re-
gularlyappointeddivisionsupeirintendent
was providedfor.
In each of thefourprovinices
exceptedit was providedthatthe
provincialgoveirnor
shouldact, with'outadditionalcompensation,as division.
superintendent.Th'isiarrangement
is justified
by the fact that in Beinguet,Leplanto-Bontoc,
and Nueva
Vizcaya the majorityoifthe inhabitants
are Igorrotes,living
in a semi-savagestate)whileitheprovin.ce
of Paragua emtbraces
a largearea of the,welstern
islanidsand containsonlya limited
ain;dscatteredpopulation. Assistancein carryingointheoffice
work of the divisionis providedfor by autthorizing
the appointment
olfonleclerk for elachdivisionsup,erfintendent.
In
additionto theteacherss
for
the
municipalities
appointed
"bythe
divisionsuperintendent,
whose,salaries,are)piaidby the munithe generalsuperintendent
cipialities,
is authorizedto keep in
the serviceof the insulargolvernmnent
a forceof one thousand
trainedteacheirsfor the primairy
schoollsand stuchadditional
trainedteacheirs
as maybe necessaryfoirtheprovincialschools
of secondaryinstruction.
In providingthisorganizationanidemphasizing
theworkto
be donethroughit thereis clearlya departure!
from,
thepolicy
pursuedby someof theEuropeannations. The Javaneseare
madeto understanid
thatthejyare notexpectedto have a, large
part in the cultiviation
of the)people dominatingthem. Few
have beenprovidedfortherm,
opportunities
to acquirethetrainingnecessary
to,einable,
toioccupymolre,
thebem
thana verylimited
numberolftheeconomicpositionsin thedependency;
and thus,
insteaed
of beingplreparejd
to'constitute,
a completesocial body,
they are relegated by thelireducational limitations to' a few
oftheloweroccupations. Theyremaina separateclas!s,a mere

of a society. Un,derthe Americanpolicy'withrefra;gm,ent
spectto the Philippines,
it is piroiposed
thatthe Filipinosshall

I I6
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
o,friceo,rthebearersof burdens,but
notbe merelycultivators
foreducation
withall the facilities,
thattheyshallbe furnished
of whichtheycan.make advantageoususe; and it is expected
will renderthemconratherthan,tignoranice
that intelligenice
and strengthen
their
tentedin theirpresentpoliticalrelatioln!s
authorities.
allegianceto the constituted
COLONIAL AUTONOMY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE T'O THE GOVERNMENT OF THE
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
PAUL S. REINSCH.
the acquisitionolftihe
The historicalconditionssurrounding
were of such
PhilippineIslands by the Americangovernment
and peculiarlegislaa naturealsto give ri,seto,a verydefinite
of othernationshas usutivepolicy. The colonialexplansion
and
enterprises,
or otherelconomic
ally followedup commiercial
thereforehas generallybeen dominatedonly in a secondary
In theimperialexpansion
mannerbypoliticalconsilderations,.
to a larger
oifFrance,i,tis tirue,politicalmotivespredominated
be preparedto,finda certain
extent,and we shall therefore
anidFrenchcolonialmlethods.It
betweenAmerican,
similarity
was a politicalmotive,-thedesireto weakenthe prestigeof
to make an attack
Spain,-that led the Americangovernment
upon Spanish dominionin tihePhilippineIslands, at a time
whentheAmericannationhad as yetnoieconomicinterestsin
the archipelago,the foreigncommerceof whichwas in the
fora
handsof Chineseand Europeans. It was also primarily
as it
retaineid,
thattheislanldsweireultimately
politicalpurposie
oif
theUnitedStatesa polsition
was feltthattheywouldasisurel
in the settlement
Orientaland Pacificquesof thhe
leadersihip
tions. Anothermotivewas the desireto exclude any other
wishto take advantageO!fa renunciation
po,werwhichmlight
on the part ;of the UniteidStates. When the islands had
diswas sonmewhat
thus been acquired,the publicconsicience
as a stubbornand far-spreadnativeoppositurbed,es,pecially
tionhad to be put downby forceo)farms. It was therefore


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Colonial Policy with Reference to the Philippines

Author(s): Bernard Moses

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and to perpetuto maintainhelrreligio1n,,

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versionto the orthodoxfaith. And to makethisprohibition

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of Spain's vast possessionsbeyondthe sea. The Supreme

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firstbishop of th'e Phillippines. Having learned 'of abuses by

thatbetheSpaniards,thebishopwas movedby thehardships,

abuses mightbe removed. The p'eople,he offirmed',

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thatthepersonswho would spoil the weak repcase to affirmi

and the Church,in the course -ofthe centuriesit has dominated

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attractionfor them. Wheneverthe occasion presentsitself,

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The rule of the Spaniards has, moreover,left a miarked

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to take up and carryforwardto a higherformor to a more

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Islands the government

withrespectto the PhilippineIslands,was that in whichthe

President directed affairs,not as the commiander-in-chieof

The action'takenby Congressin thismatteir

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departmentsof the interior,of commerceand police, of finance

and justice; and of publicinstruction.The presidentof the

are groupedthe various.bureaus

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may be addeidthe officeolf the Attoirney-general

courts of firstinstance,and the local courts such as t;hemuni-

cipal courtsand the courtsolfthe justicesof the peace.

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them to govern themiselves.This provis,ionwa's in marked

in the local government. By thus bringing into the govern-

menta vast masssof uncontrollable

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townsand the membersof the towncouncils. They werethe

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bellionagainstSpain and theUnitedStates,who fancythatin

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the old systemof taxation,whateverarticleswere owned or

ernment. The cedula tax.,oir grad'uate4ld

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a large numberof the

goods,the,dearergooldshave an obviousadvantagein iMpoTrtarecognizable,

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by giftsand bribes. Bettera high tariffwithgratificacionees

have only the singleinterestof denudingthe landsion which

mitto cut designatedtreesmustpay to'the'government

ing accordingto'the qualityof th'etimberin question. This

to theirpunrpoises,'butundeirthe direction'of the properauthori-

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If one wereto attemnipt