WEEK 1

Brutland Report (1987): meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
SD:
social, ecological and economic factors
. Living and nonliving resources. Long term and short
term consequences. The SD policy involves the maintenance of environmental processes and the
sustainable use of resources. Maintenance of genetic diversity.
Triple bottom line: the economic system draws on material and energy resources from the
environment and on intellectual capital from society. The economy can generate a diversity of
goods and services for the benefit of the society, however, it has an impact on the environment.
The environment, economy and society are all interconnected.
Environmental Indicators: resource depletion, global warming potential, ozone layer depletion,
photochemical smog, human and eco toxicity
Social Indicators: stakeholder inclusion, international standards of conduct regarding business
dealings, child labour, income distribution, satisfaction of social needs including work
Economic Indicators: Gross domestic product (GDP), capital expenditure, environmental
liabilities, ethical investments
World Commission on Environment Development, 2002 Targets: reduce poverty, accelerate shift
towards sustainable consumption and production, increase global share of renewable energy
sources, improve economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy
services, develop and disseminate energy efficiency and energy conservation, reduce current loss
of biological diversity, develop water saving technology
Nanotechnology: creating smaller and cheaper devices, using less materials, consuming less
energy, single molecule transistors, enzyme powered bio-molecular reactor, minute blood borne
drug carriers, nanoscale robots, solar nano-technologies
Modern Biotechnology: recombinant DNA, agriculture and medicine (speed up plant breeding,
crop varieties with greater drought resistance, more nutritional value, less environmental stress),
pest resistance
Negative impacts of technological advances: usage of CFC, ozone depletion, increased skin cancer,
explosion of nuclear power plants in ukraine, japan, etc. Anthropogenic global warming,
affordability of nanomaterials, GMO can disrupt ecosystems and cause risk to human health.
Precautionary Principle: where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental
damage, lack of full scientific certainty should be used as a reason for postponing measures to
prevent environmental degradation. Cost benefit analysis and discretionary judgement are
allowed.

How to handle negative impacts: avoid transferring genes from foods known to be allergenic.
Check the structure of the new proteins against the structure of known allergens. Measure the
stability of the new protein in stomach and intestinal fluids. Determine how much of the new
protein will be present in the food consumed by humans.
Intra-generational equity: represents the current generation. To achieve material equity and
social justice within and between countries. Helping poor nations and assuring the poor getting
fair share of resources. Environmental degradation lead to unsafe water, poor sanitation, etc. The
poorest parts of the world will suffer from global climate change. Vicious circle: link between
poverty and environment. Indoor pollution from cooking and heating (burning wood), human
health can suffer. Improving efficiency of cook stoves/solar cook stoves
UNDP and EU Poverty and environment initiative: strengthen participation of the poor in local
plans and policies, transferring ownership of natural assets to the poor and well as resource
transfers, assisting the poor to overcome the high initial costs for sanitation.
Intergenerational Equity: allow future generations to meet their own needs. Can be measured by
the constant capital rule (the value of capital stock must not be allowed to decline for indefinite
future). Weak sustainability: assumes forms of capital can be substitutable with each other.
Strong sustainability is when equivalent stock of natural capital is preserved for future
generations.
1) Principle of not closing down options for future generations by making irreversible
changes, including elimination of species or using up resources
2) Principle of maximising future choices by making a considered judgement as to what are
the most central, significant or important things to preserve and protect the biodiversity,
cultural values, energy, etc.
How to approach SD?
reduce excessive levels of production and consumption
more efficient use of resources
reduce global pollution, protect biodiversity and alleviate poverty
doing business with cleaner and more eco-efficient production process
increase product reuse and recycling
increase public participation in decision making to create policies important to SD.
-

begin and maintain a transition from petrochemical to biochemical feedstocks

develop water saving strategies
transition from fossil fuels to more sustainable energy
develop near zero waste development strategies

WEEK 2
Process Synthesis: define problem, specify feedstock, product specification, synthesis alternative,
processes to convert feedstock to product, evaluate alternative processes (technical, economic,
safety, environmental, sustainable), choose best alternative.
Problem Definition Process design study phase, feed phase, detailed design phase
Problem Statement: primitive problem expresses the current situation and provides an
opportunity to satisfy a societal need. Need to address the source of raw materials, cost of
materials, selling price of product, plant scale and location.
Process Creation: assemble a database of information - thermophysical properties, lab
experiments, economic data on equipment and chemical costs. Synthesize flowsheets involving
the reaction and separation.
Criteria for Evaluation: reliability, capital costs, operating cost, safety, environmental,
sustainability, technical feasibility, operability
Process Synthesis Steps: develop a process which converts the raw materials to products by
eliminating differences in molecular type, composition, temp, pressure and phase
- eliminate differences in molecular type
- distribute chemicals by matching sources and sinks
- eliminate differences in composition and temp
- integrate tasks by combining operations
Reactor to separation and recycle system to heat exchanger network to utility system.
Fuels: heating and cooling duties, electricity, nitrogen for purging, compressed air, water for
cleaning, fire fighting. Utility waste can be minimised by reducing the consumption of utilities on
process plants. Improving the design of the utility systems themselves like heat exchangers and
cooling tanks, use them in a more efficient way.
Environmental impacts associated with utilities: generation, distribution, consumption, upstream
extraction, purification and supply of resources such as fuel and water. Operating costs are
sometimes dominated by the cost of utilities.
Fuel generation: electricity generation from coal fired power stations and transmission. Crude oil
extraction, transport and refining in the production of fuel oil. Natural gas extraction, purification,
mining, cleaning and transporting the coal.
Fuel types: natural gas, LPG and Condensate, crude oil, coal, biofuels. Mainly used for high
temperature heating of process fluids, steam and electricity generation. Need to consider supply
issues in terms of availability, quality and cost, CO2 and other emissions with fuel combustion,
resource depletion issues for fossil fuels

Fuel combustion: furnaces, incinerators, gas turbines, diesel engines, flare stacks, transport
vehicle engines to produce electric power, energy, etc.
Emissions include: SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, unburned hydrocarbons, particulates, ash
Heat of Combustion:
- total heating value is the heat evolved in the complete combustion of the fuel under
constant pressure at 25 degrees when all water initially present in the fuel and in the
combustion products is condensed to the liquid state
- net or lower heating value is similar except that the final state of the water after
combustion is taken as water vapour at 25 degrees.
Combustion under excess air: to ensure complete combustion. It is important to prevent the
production of CO - toxic. Amount of excess air depends on the burner and furnace design
(number of boiler passes, surface area, material of construction). Typically 25% for coal
combustion and 10-15% for gas combustion.
Fuel ratio: the ratio of its percentage fixed carbon to that of volatile matter, Low fuel ratio =
decrease in fuel value.
Environmental impacts of flue gases: acidification, global warming, nitrification, photochemical
smog, resource depletion, human health effects. Can be reduced by: minimising utility
consumption, switching to a cleaner fuel, using fuel of higher calorific value, improved burner
design, treating the fuel before combustion to minimise impurities, treating stack gases after
combustion to remove certain pollutants.
Reducing NOx emissions can be done by: lowering the temp of fuel combustion, using fuels which
are lower in nitrogen, using less excess air, catalytically reducing NOx produced to nitrogen and
water.
Dew point: temperature at which the onset of condensation occurs during cooling of the flue gas.
Condensate can be corrosive to the equipment and piping due to low pH, but also due to nitric
and sulphuric acids resulting from NOx and SOx in the flue gas.
WEEK 2 TUTE
1. What is the definition of Sustainable Development (as per the World Commission on
Environment and Developments Brundtland Report)? Explain the concept of intergenerational
equity in this definition.
Sustainable development is defined as meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
This is a description of intergenerational equity in that it considers people in the future, in
particular avoiding closing down of future options for development to people in the future and
maximising future choices available to those in the future.

2. Explain the difference between strong and weak sustainability and how they apply to
different forms of capital.
Weak sustainability seeks to maintain constant capital between various forms of capital (human,
financial, social, environmental) but it assumes they are substitutable for each other. Strong
sustainability seeks to maintain constant natural capital for future generations (does not assume
substitution is possible)
3. What is the triple bottom line and how does it refer to the measurement and reporting of the
three key aspects of sustainable development? What are some typical indicators used for each of
the three key aspects?
The triple bottom line is the targeting, monitoring and measurement of indicators in all three key
areas of SD: environmental, social, economical. Typical indicators include:
environmental - global warming potential. ozone depletion, resource depletion,
photochemical smog.
economic: gross domestic product, value added, ethical investments, capital expenditure
social: income distribution, international work practices/standards, stakeholder inclusion
in development
4. What practical steps can we take to approach sustainable development? Think of an example
industry and explain how such steps may be applied to that sector. (for e.g. a soft drink
manufacturer may reduce material requirements by reducing the mass of glass in its drink
bottles).
Practical steps include: reducing resource needs, reducing energy intensity, reducing toxic
dispersion, enhancing material recyclability, maximising use of renewable resources, extending
product durability, increasing service intensity.
5. What is the Precautionary Principle? How might it be applied to the use of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs) in the food supply?
Precautionary principle says that where there are threats of serious or irreversible
environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for
postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation. it is a statement of risk
management pertaining to new developments. For GMOs, it may be applied through careful
avoidance of transfer of genes from known allergenic species, careful control of the spread of
GMO crops into non-GMO crop areas, and significant testing of the eco-and human toxicity of the
GMO crop before its release to market.

WEEK 3
Energy dissipated to surroundings: there might be no sinks for this energy, too expensive to
convert into another form of energy, not practical to heat exchange (due to pressure, toxicity,
corrosive)
Economical and environmental way to waste energy:
- air cooling: no waste of materials, electricity usage is similar to reticulated water cooling,
less labour, cheaper heat exchangers, noisy
- water cooling: closed loop water cooling, reticulated cooling with pond/river/sea,
reticulated cooling with cooling tower.
Power = (Q*delta P)/n
Refrigeration: used in distillation for ethylene manufacturing, LNG. Evaporator to compressor to
condenser to expansion valve.
Process heating:
- fired heat (flue gas): natural gas can be oxygen enriched to make it hotter, coal/biomass
flue gas, gas turbine exhaust, molten salts, concentrated solar thermal. Above 400 degrees
- Hot oil heated by flue gas. 90-400 degrees
- Steam is used 90-250 degrees
Steam generation:
- fire tube: hot gases flow through tubes surrounded by a pool of boiling water which is
vaporised. Steam pressure is restricted to 20 bar. Normally used for small steam
generation rates and low pressure
- Water tube: water is circulated by natural convection between a water drum and steam
drum connected by tubes. The boiling water rises and saturated water descends). Hot
gases flow through an external chamber.
- Superheater: superheat saturated steam. Usually integral with a boiler.
- Economisers: heat excahngers that are used to heat water to boiling point temperature
corresponding to the steam generation pressure.
Quantities of dissolved solids need to be reduced to a very low level or else they will accumulate
in the system and destroy equipment.
Feed water - feed water treatment - holding tank - boiler feed pump - deaerater (steam pushes air
out) - chemical dosing (protect materials from corrosion) - boiler feedwater pump - three heat
exchangers (economiser, boiler, superheater) - blowdown/purge (to remove solids) - steam use condensate goes back to holding tank
Steam uses: heating, driving turbines, diluent, cleaning plant and equipment.

Condensate recovery: high quality hot water which is valuable in energy content. Recovery is
important to minimise the quantity of fresh demineralised water. Maximise the energy efficiency
by burning less fuel.
Steam traps must be places in discharge lines from heat exchange spaces to recover condensate
efficiency.
Improving process heating: heat generation, heat transfer, waste heat recovery, sensors and
controls.
Heat Containment Opportunities: use of optimum and adequate insulation for heating equipment
walls, control furnace openings, seals around doors.
Methods of generating electricity: most electric generation is driven by heat engines. Combustion
of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines. Some from nuclear fission.
Rankine Cycle: boiler feed pump - Steam generator - HP turbine - reheater - LP turbine condenser - condensate pump - fed back into pump
Brayton Cycle: combustion chamber - turbine - exhaust - compressor
Environmental Impact of Power Stations: emissions, depletion of fuel and water resources,
aqueous emissions or impact from treatment of these emissions, thermal energy released
Advantages of cogeneration: efficiency of the cogeneration cycle is much higher, reduce fuel
input, reduce emissions, reduce loss of thermal energy
Disadvantages: close proximity to where people live, noisy, have to have proper maintenance
Other utilities: compressed air (instruments, agitators, tools), inert gas (purging flammable gas,
vacuum (used in filtration, heat sensitive materials)
Gasification (uses excess fuel instead of air) : done with coal, oil, petro coke, sewage sludge,
plastic tyres. produces syngas and can then be used to make ammonia, methanol, methane,
hydrocarbons, power, fuel gas
Environmental impacts: CO2 is concentrated and in pressurised form, can be captured. No SOx
emissions, H2S can be captured. Particulate emissions are within limits. Heavy organics are also
within limits. Mercury can be captured. 25% less water usage.

WEEK 4
Onion diagram - main reactor - separation - heat recovery and cooling - final effluent treatment
Checklist for reaction systems:
- Chemical reactions occurring - basic chemistry, reversible/irreversible,
exothermic/endothermic, catalysts, temp, pressure, concentration, side reactions,
conversion
- Reactor - phases, batch/continuous, heating/cooling, CSTR, reactor configuration.
Examples - furnace, packed bed reactor, electrolytic cell, stirred tank, platinum gauze
reactors. Chemistry of the process - different reaction pathways, new solvents, improved
catalysts, alternative chemical products which are less toxic.
- Environmental Effectiveness - ratio of kg waste to kg of desired product (E-factor). Q is
the environmental impact. EQ.
- Atom utilisation - measure of how effectively chemical atoms participate in a reaction to
achieve the desired product.Divide the molecular weight of the desired product by the
total products molecular weight
- Conversion and Selectivity - moles of desired product produced/moles of reactant
consumed
- Co-product and by-product utilisation - could be useful or a waste, could be turned into a
useful product.
- Impurities in feed - can be unreacted and find their way into the products, can react with
the reactants to produce new waste, can poison the catalyst
- Mixing of reactants - homogeneity of process conditions, even distribution is wanted, can
use a CSTR.
- Minimising secondary reactions - we want good selectivity and minimise wastes.Can be
done by product removal, cooling in waste heat boilers
- Recycle of unreacted feed from reactor effluent stream - economic benefit and improved
process efficiency, waste reduction
- Reversible reactions - conversion is limited by equilibrium, may need aditional stages
- Catalyst and catalyst life - help reduce temp and pressure, reduce in energy consumption.
However, catalysts can degrade, so feed has to be ridden of impurities
- Agent materials - used to enable reactions to proceed efficiently, but can be toxic or cause
waste. eg. solvents, reaction enablers, reaction stoppers

Separation Processes - based on phases, components from gas streams, components from liquid
streams. Selection of separation processes depends on raw materials, the compounds that need
to be separated.
Absorption - separation of solute from gaseous mixtures of non-condensable by transfer into a
liquid solvent. eg. absorption of co2 by sodium hydroxide/potassium carbonate solution. Wastes
can be from the energy consumed, electricity, steam, cooling water, gas transport, liquid

pumping, regeneration of solvent, effluent gas contamination by unabsorbed species, build up on

contaminants, solvent entrainment in gas
Adsorption - process in which atoms or molecules move from a bulk phase onto a solid or liquid
surface. Need a high surface-area solid such as activated charcoal
Solid-liquid separation - settling, filtration, centrifugation, drying. Supernate is the remaining
fluid
Filtration - separation of solids from fluids.
Drying - apply energy to the moisture molecules or changing the environment so that the
molecule has sufficient latent energy to leave the product. No physical or chemical changes occur
Evaporation - large volume of liquid is removed.
Liquid-liquid extraction - two phases are chemically quite different that leads to a separation of
components according to physical and chemical properties.
Distillation - process in which liquid or vapour mixture f two or more substances is separated
into its component fractions of desired purity by the application and removal of heat. Based on
the fact that the vapour of a boiling mixture will be richer in the components that have lower
boiling points. Therefore when this vapour is cooled and condensed, the condensate will contain
the more volatile components.
Sources of waste in distillation - accumulation of non-volatiles, non-condensables, fouling,
abnormal operation, leakage, separation inefficiencies, utilities wastes, energy consumption,
electricity

WEEK 5
Wastes can result from abnormal operation, start-up and shutdown, maintenance, cleaning and
purging, defects, process product changes
Plant operation: process pressure, temperature and operating values.
Time taken for a process to reach steady state: resonance time, process conditions, nature of
process, complexity, control system. Could be hindered by heat loss, variations in feed
composition, concentration variation
Plant Shutdown: drainage of equipment, pressure venting from reactors, pipeline purging of
liquids that solidify on cooling, purging of gas lines with inert gas, appropriate process control
system.
Abnormal Operation: failure of relief valve, membrane rupture, failure of a utility, variation of
reactor feed composition, valve failure, failure of instrument or process control system, human
error, mechanical failure
Plant maintenance: equipment might need to be removed or inspection is needed. Draining
process of process fluids might create wastes, process abnormalities.
Process cleaning: wastes from cleaning, acid or alkali used. Wastes can be reduced by
understanding the fouling mechanism, develop a cleaning method to reduce wastes or dangerous
chemical use, process abnormalities, may require plant shut down.
Fouling: physical build up of material that would slow down the efficiency of the process.
Transport and storage: leakages can occur.
Periodic removal of sludge can be a large source of waste. Emissions to air of volatile organic
compounds (storage tank filling condition, change in temp/pressure)
Reducing wastes during operation: waste exchange and integrated manufacturing processes,
good planning, knowledge of current technologies, opportunities for waste minimisation.
Storm water risks: solid entrainment, ground water contamination with dissolved soluble salts,
proper analysis and provision is required.

Driving forces for cleaner production: regulatory rules, customer perception, community
perception, economic benefits
Obstacles: resistance to change, lack of technology, excessive capital costs, insufficient return on
investment
Measuring Profitability:
- ROI = annual profit/capital investment
- net cash generated over project life cycle

rate of return
payback time

Profitability issues:
- time value of money: present value of a hund becoming available in future. Future value of
a fund available at present. Depends on interest rate
- cash flow: inflows and outflows at different periods over the life of a project
- depreciation: not a cash flow itself. Internal allowance to provide for future investment in
response to the erosion in the value of assets.
- economic benefits vs. increased capital investments: risks associated with the project
whether business or technology related. Discount rate applied to cash flows, time
required to shutdown the plant for modifications, commissioning and startup. Time
required to develop and prove technology. Costs of purchasing technology, engineering
for a movable target.
- Types of projects and related factors: new power station, new plant to product new clean
product, new plant using cleaner technology, modification to an existing plant to provide
a waste heat boiler to recover waste heat.
- capital requirements: land, fixed capital into plant and buildings, working capital
- capital sources: equity (shareholder subscriptions and retained earnings), debt (loans)

- capital dependence: I = kQb

I = capital investment, K = factor, Q = plant capacity, b =
exponent
Plant costs:
- location
- time - inflation affects labour, materials and equipment costs.
- plant costs - purchased equipment costs, installation, foundations and structures, piping,
electrical, instrumentation, overheads for design, construction and project management
- capacity utilisation
- production costs
Net Present Value (NPV): relies on the required rate of return.

WEEK 6
Greenhouse gases: chemical compounds that enhance the greenhouse effect. They allow sunlight
to enter the atmosphere freely. As the sunlight hits the earths surface, it is reflected back into
space as infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation therefore trapping
heat in the atmosphere. Examples: water, co2, methane, nitrous oxide n2o, HFCs, PFCs, SF6.
Trend of rising temperatures, rising sea levels, increased acidification of oceans, localised
changes in precipitation that causes droughts, floods, storms. Significant social and political
pressures to reduce these GHG emissions. Leads of initiatives like mandatory reporting of GHG
emissions and carbon pricing.
Sources and sinks of greenhouse gases: regulated by the carbon cycle. Anthropogenic (human
caused) sources of carbon like burning fossil fuels, land use changes, industrial processes, fugitive
emissions. Natural sinks are where this carbon is locked up in a stable form such as biomass
through photosynthesis, in ocean sediment, in solution in the oceans, etc
Anthropogenic sources of GHGs:
combustion of fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, oil, etc. Converts the carbon stored in the
ground into co2 emissions to the atmosphere. Also produces smaller amounts of methane
and n2o.
fugitive emissions of co2 and methane from coal mining, oil and gas exploration, natural
gas distribution, transport of captured or manufactured co2. Direct releases or leaks of
co2/ch4 from previous inventories stored in the ground or from human-made piping or
containment systems.
land use changes. Breakdown of dead vegetation to co2/ch4 and also the breakdown of
nitrogen based fertilisers to n2o.
industrial processes that produce GHG as a byproduct. Processes such as clinker (cement)
production, aluminium smelting, hydrogen production from natural gas, nitric acid
production.
Leakage of synthetic GHGs into the atmosphere: SF6 was used as insulating gas in the
electricity sector which had a very high global warming potential
Waste sector: breakdown of solid wastes in landfills to produce methane and co2
GHG reduction: agreements and mechanisms:
Australias Clean Energy Act (2011) also known as the carbon tax. An emissions trading
scheme with a 3 year fixed price period. Requires larger emitters to pay a price for their
emissions.
Renewable Energy Target that provides support for renewable energy to displace fossil
fuel electricity generation
Emitters need to measure and report their GHG emissions in order to verify compliance
and support carbon pricing. If there were no measurements, it would be impossible to
control the situation. Sometimes referred to as greenhouse gas accounting.
Kyoto Protocol in 1997 sets targets for countries to reduce their GHG emissions.

Greenhouse gas inventory: full account of the emissions produced by an organisation for a given
period of time. A number of standards have been put in place to assist in preparing inventories:
Greenhouse Gas Protocol, produced by the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) is a tool that organisations
can use to understand and quantify GHG emissions.
International Standard (ISO 14064-1) Specification with guidance at the organisation
level for quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and removals
In australia, the national greenhouse and energy reporting measurement must be used by
emitters
Key concepts of GHG inventories:
sources are divided into specific categories: combustion emission from petrol for
transport, fugitive emissions from natural gas exploration, emissions from companys
landfill
all greenhouse gas types clearly stated
organisational boundary: if the facility is owned/operated by joint ventures, the
organisation may have part-shares of emissions.
operational boundary: which emissions are included and which are not. For example,
emissions directly produced by a boiler on a companys site are included but what about
the emissions from aircraft associated with business travel?
Scope 1: direction emissions from a facility
Scope 2: emissions produced off-site for the supply of electricity, heating or cooling. These
are indirect emissions.
Scope 3: all other indirect emissions such as air/car travel that are necessary for facility
operation but occurring elsewhere
Global warming potential: in order to allow comparison of emissions, GWP is used. Defined as the
cumulative radiative forcing of both direct and indirect effects integrated over a period of time
from the emission of a unit mass of gas relative to some reference gas.
Quantified measure of the globally averaged radiative warming impacts of a particular
greenhouse gas that is relative to the radiative forcing impact of one tonne of CO2.
Advantage: the calculation is simple as it only needs one piece of activity data. Cheap.
Disadvantage: for variable fuels such as coal, with a possible range of carbon contents, the
emissions can vary.
Methods : more accurate way of measuring emissions by sampling and analysis of fuels for their
carbon content. Benefits include the increased accuracy from fuels with variable energy contents
and carbon contents. As fuels must be analysed, this process if more expensive than looking up
EC and EF factors.
Method 4: involves direct measurement of GHG emissions at the point of emission. Looks at
products of combustion rather than the reactants. Involves the use of periodic or continuous

sampling and analysis for concentration of CO2/ch4 in the flue gases. Benefits include the fact
that they can capture variable amounts of emissions, automated equipment can be used for this
process. Downside is that it can be expensive, often less accurate.
WEEK 6 TUTE
Question 1:
A brewery generates a lot of CO
2
in the fermentation process. This is currently discharged to
atmosphere. It uses some CO2
(which it purchases) for the packaging process and for injection
into the beer to give it "fizz". It also buys hop extract for adding taste to the beer.
It is proposed to capture the CO2
generated in the fermentation process, purify and store under
pressure. This CO2
will be used in the process instead of using purchased CO2
. It is also proposed

design and install a process using supercritical CO2

to produce its own hop extract from raw
natural hops.
Based on the following parameters, determine (a) the payback period and (b) the net positive
value of the proposed project over 8 years, given that the required rate of return is 5% per
annum.
Cost of equipment and installation = $2.5 million
Annual cost of capital borrowed = 16% of fixed capital cost per annum.
Cost of CO2
: $200 per tonne

CO2
purchase saved per batch = 2.3 tonnes
CO2
not discharged to atmosphere per batch = 5.7 tonnes
Cost savings on hop extract per batch = $1800
7 x 100t batches per week, 48 week per year.
Question 2:
Compare the net positive values of the following projects and recommend one for action.
Required rate of return: 15%

Question 3:
A recirculated cooling water system requires make-up of fresh water equivalent to 5% of the
circulating water. Based on the following cost and performance data, estimate of the cost of
cooling water per m3
of recirculated cooling water.

Question 4:
A shell and tube heat exchanger, constructed with carbon steel shell and tubes and with a heat
transfer area 20m2
, cost $16,000 in Australia in 1991. Estimate the

installed
cost of a similar type
of heat exchanger with 304 stainless steel shell and tubes and heat transfer area 20m2
in
Australia in 2005. Assume a Lang factor of 4.
A pressure vessel made of carbon steel and having a volume of 0.3m3
cost $120,000 in Australia
in 1991. Estimate the
installed
cost of a pressure vessel made of 316 stainless steel and having a
volume of 0.5m3
in Australia in 2005. Assume a Lang factor of 3.8.
Data: Refer to the cost information given in the tables and graphs in the Lecture.

Question 5:
A formaldehyde from methanol plant using the metal oxide catalyst process and producing 120
tonnes/day of 37% formaldehyde solution cost $70 million in the USA in 2001. Estimate the cost
of a plant using the same process and producing 180 tonnes/day of of 37% formaldehyde
solution in 2008. Explain how you would estimate the cost of such a plant in Malaysia in 2010.

WEEK 7
Possible environmental effects of the product: taking up landfill space, production might pollute
the air, not biodegradable, using up non-renewable resources, not recyclable, causes acid rain.
LCA: compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts
of a product throughout its life cycle.
Quantitative assessment of the environmental impact of a product over its entire life cycle.
Accounts for inputs (raw material consumption, energy, utilities, transport) and outputs
(emissions to air, land and water)
LCA stages: extraction of raw materials, product manufacture, product use, recycling and reuse,
disposal.
Uses of an LCA: to compare and determine which product or process is more environmentally
friendly. To identify the weak environmental links of an overall product or process. To improve
those segments of the life cycle to make it more environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Life cycle concepts: cradle to grave (entire life cycle), cradle to gate (raw material extraction to
product leaving the factory gate), cradle to cradle (includes recycling stage), gate to gate (single
manufacturing at a particular site), well to wheels (a fuel from its original raw material to its final
production of power output at the wheels of a vehicle)
LCA Methodology:
Goal and Scope definition: scope, purpose, system boundaries and functional unit is all
defined.
Inventory Analysis: all material and energy resources consumed are quantified as well as
the wastes emitted
Impact assessment/Classification: inventory data is grouped according to categories of
specific environmental effects or impacts. The data is weighted to provide a numerical
score.
Interpretation: improvement in the processing or product use is identified.
WEEK 7 TUTE
1. What are the six types of greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto protocol? For each type of
gas, list possible sources.
The six Kyoto gases are:
CO2 - produced from many sources such as fossil fuel combustion, industrial emissions,
breakdown of wastes, water treatment, release of CO2 from forestry activities
Methane - produced from fossil fuel combustion, fugitive emission from natural gas
exploration/processing, breakdown of wastes
Nitrous oxide - produced from fossil fuel combustion, fertiliser production, fertiliser use
Perfluorocarbons - leaks of synthetic gas
Hydrofluorocarbons - leaks of synthetic gas
SF6 - leaks from electrical equipment such as transformers and switchgears

2. Name three key

sinks
for greenhouse gases (especially CO
2
). Describe how these sinks work to
sequester elemental carbon and reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.
the oceans which absorb carbon from atmospheric CO2 into marine life and sequester is
into the deep ocean
forests and other long term vegetation growth which absorb carbon from atmospheric
CO2 and store it in solid form in living plant biomass
carbon stored into soils and under the earth by buried vegetation, which in turn absorbed
carbon from CO2 when it was growing
3. ZZZ Ltd. is a multinational corporation with operations around the world. In Australia it owns a
facility that manufactures consumer goods. A different company, AAA Ltd., has been contracted to
operate the business on ZZZs behalf. Which organisation is responsible for reporting the
greenhouse gas emissions for the Australian---based facility, and why?
In australia, the company with operational control is responsible for GHG reporting. AAA is the
operating company and therefore must report the GHG emissions. Ownership is not relevant.
They may make commercial arrangements with ZZZ to ensure they are compensated for this
responsibility.
4. Name three key national or international standards or approaches for greenhouse gas
measurement and reporting.
NGERS (Australia)
GHG Protocol (International)
ISO 14064-1 (International)
5. State whether the following GHG emissions sources are
Scope 1
,
Scope 2
or
Scope 3
emissions:
a. Aviation emissions from business travel for a manufacturing business;
b. Boiler emissions from an off---site steam supplier to a manufacturing business;
c. Fugitive emissions from an oil---refinery natural gas---fired heaters;
d. Emissions from a power station, from the perspective of the operator of that power station
a = scope 3
b = scope 2
c = scope 1
d = scope 1
6. An oil refinery uses fuel oil to supply heat to its boilers. As this facility must pay for its GHG
emissions under a local carbon---pricing scheme (cost $23/tonne CO
2
---e) they wish to compare
the reported emissions of CO2
using Method 1 (default) and Method 2 (sampling and analysis)
approaches to see which will minimise their liability under the carbon price. Note that emissions
of methane and nitrous oxide will only be reported using Method 1 and therefore are not under
consideration here.
Fuel is sampled and analysed every month for the calendar year 2012. Table 1 shows the results
of the fuel analysis as well as the volumes of fuel combusted for each month are also provided.

Fuel oil density is a constant 880 kg / m

3
. Calculate their CO
2
emissions using Method 1 and
Method 2 and estimate the carbon price difference between the two methods. (i.e. which is
cheaper, and by how much?).

Only CO2 emissions are relevant as CH4 and N2O are both calculated using Method 1 and will
yield identical carbon prices.
Method 1:
Looking up values for fuel oil in NGER table: EF(CO2) = 72.9kh CO2 eq/GJ
EC = 39.7GJ/kL
Fuel oil quantity for 2012 = 54,201 m3
= 54201 kL
Emissions (CO2) = 54201 x 39.7 x 72.9 / 1000 = 156,865 tonnes CO2e.
Method 2:
As the Car and EC values vary each month, emissions of CO2 need to be separately calculated
each month and then added up. This provides maximum accuracy from the supplied data. The
example below is for January 2012, then results given for all 12 months:
Q = 5644 m3
= 5644 kL.
Car = 0.9056. EC = 40.2 GJ/m
3
Oxidation factor = 0.99 (for liquid fuels) (from lecture slide 36)
EF (mass basis) = 0.9056 x 0.99 x 3.664 = 3.285 t CO2e / t fuel
EF (energy basis) = EF (Mass basis) (40.2/880) = 71.91 kg CO2 / GJ
Therefore E(CO2) = 5644 x 40.2x71.91 /1000 = 16315 tonnes CO2---e.
(note: you can go directly from EF (Mass basis) to total emissions without converting to EF
(energy basis) first, as the EC factor cancels out. This approach gives:
E(CO2) = EF(Mass basis) x Q (kL) xDensity (t/m3)= 3.285 x 5644 x 0.880 = 16315 tonnes CO2---e.
Emissions of CO2 for all 12 months are:
Total CO2 emissions for 2012 = 155,426 tonnes CO2---e.

Difference between Method 1 and Method 2 emissions = ---1439 tonnes CO2---e (i.e. Method 2
figure is lower).
Carbon price difference = $23/t CO2---e x ---1439 = ---$33,095. So emissions using Method 2
costs $33,095 less than Method 1.
7. Look up the default EF and EC values for brown coal (lignite) and various black coals (e.g.
bituminous coal). Although the emissions factors for brown coal are quite similar to those for
black coal, facilities of a given capacity that use brown coal typically produce much higher GHG
emissions than those using black coal. Why?
EC of brown coal is similar to that of black coal for given amount of heat (GJ). However, brown
coal is typically high in moisture. Therefore, much of the heat from brown coal must be used to
dry the coal, unlike for black coal. Hence, less heat is available for generating steam or for other
process utilities. This means much more brown coal must be burnt which means that emissions
are higher.
8. For the facility in question 6, the management have requested a review of options to reduce the
greenhouse gas emissions from the facility. List at least three options to reduce emissions from
the facility and briefly state why each option will be effective.
switch to a lower carbon fuel such as natural gas
increase the boiler efficiency so less fuel is required per tonne of steam generated
increase the utility efficiency of the facility so that it requires less steam to meet its
current needs (ensure all steam traps are operating correctly, install insulation, etc)

WEEK 8
Cleaner Production: the continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental
strategy to processes and products to reduce risks to humans and the environment. For
production processes cleaner production includes conserving raw materials and energy,
eliminating toxic raw materials and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes
before they leave the process. For products the strategy focuses on reducing impacts along the
entire life cycle of the product, from raw material extraction to ultimate disposal of the product.
Key aspects of sustainability:
Integration: cleaner production initiatives must be integrated with business objectives,
technical, safety and operational considerations of processes and plants, over complete
spectrum of industry activity from planning, design, construction, through to operation
and management.
Prevention: cleaner production emphasizes the elimination or reduction of waste at the
source.
Product life-cycle: cleaner production is applied to the entire life cycle of a product from
extraction of basic raw materials through material processing stages, product assembly,
packaging and distribution, use and final disposal.
Global Applicability: although there are differences in priorities and approaches, there is
international acceptance of the need for cleaner production.
Waste Management Hierarchy: source reduction, recycling and reuse, waste treatment, secure
disposal.
Waste can occur within the process systems: reactions, separation, heat exchange, materials
transport, feedstock impurities, waste generated in reactors and separation equipment, energy
used in the process, additives, packaging. Can also occur in the utility systems: fuel combustion,
heating and cooling, electricity generation. Waste is generated from the process used, the
equipment used in the process, or from the piping and the physical plant as a whole.
Impacts of wastes: global (global warming, ozone layer depletion), regional (acid rain,
nitrification), local (human toxicity, contamination of land)
Driving forces for cleaner production:
Regulatory: international agreements, licence to operate, customer perception
Community Perception
Economic: potential cost savings through the reduced consumption of raw materials and
energy, future cost of remediation or waste treatment, potential liability arising from
damage to environment, actual costs in generating and treating wastes
Resistances to introducing cleaner production: resistance to change, lack of skilled personnel to
identify opportunities and develop solutions, lack of appropriate technology, time and cost of
developing the technology, capital costs, insufficient return, associated technical risks

Cleaner production strives to:

reduction in quantity of waste
reduction in toxicity of waste
reduction in consumption of raw materials, energy and utilities
address all facets of chemical engineering such as R&D, design and operation
benefit the health and safety of workers
extend to products as well as the processes
extend to all industrial and commercial scale activities
Challenges of cleaner production:
develop improved means of assessing or quantitatively measuring the cleanliness of
processes or products
develop cleaner processes in terms of design by using different or purer raw materials or
by substituting non-toxic materials such as catalysts.
integrate technical, safety, environmental, economic objectives in process and product
design. Ensure that there are economic benefits
specify appropriate system boundaries for analysis
manage existing plants and systems for cleaner performance and ensure continuous
improvement
use better techniques for design and revamping process plants

Need for sustainable engineering: due to human exposure to toxic substances in food, soil, water,
increased demand for energy for transport, manufacturing, heating and cooling, increased
demand for water for home, agriculture and industry, resource depletion, rising demand for land
usage.
Industrial Ecology: use of natural ecosystems as models for industrial activity.
Processes/Industries are viewed as interacting systems rather than isolated linear flow systems.
Industrial Symbiosis is an interactive network between two or more industrial facilities or
companies in which the wastes or byproducts of one become the raw materials for another.
Industrial symbiosis is a subset of industrial ecology with a particular focus on material and
energy exchange. Eg. recycling, water cascading, water substitution, steam/heat cogeneration.
Industrial ecology: understanding the impacts of industrial systems on the environment. Purpose
of IE is to have better use of materials and energy in industrial systems and to improve
efficiencies of industrial systems to better approach natural ecosystems.
Tools of IE:
Life Cycle Assessment - method of evaluating the environmental consequences of a
product or process from cradle or grave.
Design for Environment
Industrial Symbiosis

Kalundborg Industrial Park as an example: the power station removes fly ash from the smoke to
reduce the emissions to the atmosphere. thus producing about 30000 tonnes of fly ash per year.
The ash is used in the cement industry as a cement-blending agent. Nickel and vanadium are
reclaimed from this ash.
Enzyme production at the Novozymes enzymes factory is based on fermentation of potato flour
and cornstarch. The fermentation process generates solid biomass and liquid biomass that
contains nitrogen, phosphorus and lime as byproducts. After inactivation, this biomass can be
used as fertiliser in the fields.
The insulin production at the Novo Nordisk pharma factory produces yeast as a residual product
which is converted into a yeast slurry that is used as feed for pigs. Sugar water and lactic acid
bacteria are added to this yeast to make it more attractive to the pigs.
Results of the symbiosis: significant reductions of energy and utilities consumptions,
environmental improvements, conversion of traditional waste products, gradual development of
a systematic environmental way of thinking, creation of a positive image of Kalundborg as a clean
industrial city, non renewable water use has significantly reduced.
Characteristics of symbiosis system:
Participating industries must fit together but be different. The individual industry agreements are
based on commercially sound principles, environmental improvements, resource conservation
and economic incentives go hand in hand. The development of symbiosis has been on a voluntary
basis but in close cooperation with the authorities. Mutual management understanding and
cooperative commitment is essential. Effective operative communication between participants is
required. Significant side benefits are achieved in other areas such as safety and training.
Industrial Metabolism: by tracing material and energy flows and performing mass balances, we
can identify inefficient products and processes, determine the steps to reduce industrial waste
and pollution. No waste should leave the industrial system or negatively impact natural systems.
A change from linear (open) processes to cyclical (closed) processes so that the waste from one
industry is used as n input for another.
TYPE 1: linear process, Materials and energy leave as products or byproducts/wastes. Dependent
on a large amount of raw materials.
TYPE 2: some wastes are recycled or reused
TYPE 3: dynamic equilibrium of ecological systems, highly integrated, closed system. Only solar
energy would come from outside, while all byproducts would be constantly reused and recycled
within. Represents a sustainable state and IE.
Challenges and risks in IE: industries which are mutually exclusive cant work together. Industrial
systems may only be mildly transformed. Industrial ecology may reduce the ability of firms to
meet customer demand by restricting production or overproducing. IE may introduce risks to
operation of individual plants if key facilities in the IE system are unreliable. The cooperation

required in IE may be difficult to achieve in a business context as managers are more familiar
with competition than cooperation.
Complications of IE: companies that are using each others residual products as inputs face the
risk of losing a critical supply or market if a plant closes down or changes its product mix.
Proprietary information could become available to competitors. Uneven quality of byproduct
materials could cause damage to equipment or the quality of products. Exchange of byproducts
could lock in continued reliance on toxic materials. Possible innovations in regulation to enable
EIP development may not be allowed by regulatory agencies.
Scale of systems:
Microscale: individual process or section of a process plant
Mesoscale: petrochemical complex or a petroleum refinery operating on a large site.
Macroscale: flow of industrial materials between diverse industry sectors such as power
generation, chemical manufacture, mineral processing, paper manufacture
WEEK 8 TUTE
1. What are the different stages of LCA and what is done at every stage?
Goal and scope definition (scope and purpose is defined, system boundaries, functional unit),
Inventory analysis (all material and energy resources consumed are quantified, all wastes
emitted are also quantified), impact assessment (inventory data are grouped according to
categories of specific environmental effects or impacts, they are then weighted to provide a
numerical score), interpretation (improvement in the processing or product use are identified).
2. What are the different environmental impact categories within inventory analysis of LCA and
identify their burdens in each category?
Includes all relevant stages in the life of a product: raw materials/energy needs, manufacturing,
transportation, storage, distribution, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and waste management.
The burden of the sub system on the environment = burden from activity*mass or energy flow of
that sub system.
3. Identify the equivalent factors for the categories below:
a) Global warming potential
b) Acidification
c) Eutrophication
d) Ozone depletion
e) Photochemical ozone formation
4. What are the advantages of performing LCA?

5. What are the drawbacks of LCA study?

6. When is the first time LCA was started and what was it for?

7. In 1969, the LCA study was performed by a famous soft drink company. Which is the company
and what was it for?
8. What are the different types of software which can be used in LCA study?
9. Draw a simplified LCA diagram of a coffee-machine.

WEEK 9
Biofuels are derived from biological feedstock. Can be used for transportation, power generation,
heating.
Principle objectives of using biofuels: reduce GHG emissions from transport, enhance the security
of supply, increase employment, especially in rural areas.
First generation feedstocks: food crops such as corn, rapeseed oil, sugar beet, sugar cane, palm
oil. Produced from conventional food crops. The starches and sugars produce bioethanol while
the oils and fats produce biodiesel.
Advantages: familiar feedstocks, well-established production methods, scalable processes, fuels
compatible with fossil fuels and there is commercial production and use in many countries.
Disadvantages: competition with food crops, high cost feedstocks can lead to high production
costs, modest reductions in fossil fuel use and GHG emissions due to land use change, production
of byproducts.
Second generation feedstocks: energy crops such as miscanthus, poplar, willow and wastes such
as food waste, manure, straw, waste wood. Produced from nonfood sources. The waste biomass is
generally preferred as there is no additional stresses on the environment. Produced in two main
routes:
Thermochemical - carried out at high temperatures and sometimes high pressures.
Analogous to chemical/fossil fuel processing
Biochemical - includes processes used in first generation biofuels such as chemical and
biological conversion but also includes anaerobic digestion to produce biogas.
Advantages: similar processes to petroleum/chemical/bio industries. There is no competition
with food. There is a reduction in the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of or treated.
Disadvantages: unfamiliar feedstock and uncertain fluctuating availability. High capital and
energy costs. Processing is not optimised for new feedstocks. Competition for land and water for
some energy crops. For anaerobic digestion, only a fraction of the waste produced can be used.
For non-liquid fuels, compatibility with existing transport vehicles is a significant problem.
Third generation feedstock is microalgae. The algae is cultivated in purpose built systems such as
fermenters, photo-reactors or ponds or is harvested from oceans. It has a similar processing
route to the second gen biofuels.
Advantages: microalgae has a high oil content. Can be cultivated in a range of systems, including
contaminated water, wide spectrum of processing routes and biofuel products.
Disadvantages: not commercially available yet, high initial costs to establish algae production
systems. High water content required. If cultivated artificially, it could require large areas and the
growth rate is limited by the rate of insolation. If exploited from oceans, it could impact on
marine life and ecosystems.
Sustainability assessment: biofuels reduce GHG emissions as the CO2 is considered carbon
neutral with biomass. Could be an attractive option due to the security of supply and may
stimulate rural development. The only disadvantages are the additional land requirements and

competition with food production systems. The land usage change could increase GHG emissions
and there is a high capital and operating cost. Could also be some social issues such as health and
safety, land rights, child labour.
Sustainability issues:
1. Environmental - global warming potential, land availability and land use change,
biodiversity, water consumption, other environmental impacts
2. Economic - feedstock costs, investment costs, biofuel price, local income generation
3. Social - human health, human and labour rights, land ownerships, impact on food security,
community development, impact on indigenous people
Economic sustainability of biofuels:
costs of feedstock, cultivation, preparation, delivery
capital costs for biofuel manufacturing plants to convert feedstock into biofuels
other costs such as labour, utilities, maintenance, insurance
The capital costs are uncertain due to many factors. The thermochemical plants appear to be the
most economically sustainable option. Integration of biofuel facility into existing refinery or
chemical plant can be the most cost effective option. Competition from fossil fuels is very
significant - rising crude oil prices can make biofuels a more economically attractive option.
Social sustainability of biofuels: increase rural development, improve welfare, infrastructure,
reduce poverty, etc. Biomass production has a range of social impacts including human health,
human rights and labour rights, land ownership, community development, impact on indigenous
peoples. The areas of high biomass production are often areas of low wealth/earnings.
Recycling - major need as landfilling represents loss of land that can be used for other purposes
and waste of resources. Recycling can lengthen the lifespan of existing landfills, reduces resource
consumption and need for new landfill sites.
Recycling materials in a chemical reaction - the unconverted reactants are returned to the reactor
which would reduce raw material usage and waste emissions to the environment.
Implications of recycling process streams: the recycled material must often be pumped or
compressed to reactor feed pressure. Material losses may be incurred through imperfect
separations and from purge streams.
Economics of recycling streams: Advantages include a reduction in raw materials consumption
and reduction in waste treatment or disposal. Disadvantages include possible additional
separation processes and the compressing/pumping of recycled materials.
Economics of recycling depends on the value of the material recovered, cost of recovering and
reprocessing, cost of disposing the untreated recyclable material.
Closed loop - when a used product is recycled into a similar product such as glass, metal and
plastic.
Open loop - material from one production sequence is recovered, reprocessed and fed into a
different and often unrelated production sequence to make a saleable product.

Origin of waste:
producer waste - generated through production process, relatively clean, free of
contamination and known composition
post-consumer waste - generated by households, commercial establishments and
institutions. Mainly solid, its composition can vary depending on its source and can
change over time. Often contaminated/mixed.
Waste reduction hierarchy: reduction, reuse, recycle, recovery
Benefits of plastic use: lighter weight than competing materials, reducing fuel consumption
during transportation. Extreme durability, resistance to chemicals, water and impact. Good safety
and hygiene properties for food packaging, excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties,
relatively inexpensive to produce.
Why bother recycling? plastics have a short life span, with early disposal from the consumer
often within weeks of manufacture. Most plastics are disposed of at landfill sites, chemical
stability of plastics has contributed to finding more landfill sites
WEEK 9 TUTE
1. Define industrial ecology using reference to how it handles material and energy flows.
Industrial ecology takes advantage of the cyclic flows of materials and energy through the design,
redesign and management of eco-efficiency industrial systems.
2. Explain how industrial symbiosis can work to reduce the overall material and energy
requirements for a network of industrial systems.
By utilising wastes from one plant/system as feedstocks for another plant/system. Industrial
symbiosis reduces the need for materials or energy from elsewhere.
3. Draw a diagram of the Kalundborg Industrial Park. Show the flows of key energy and material
streams between different industries in the Park. What are the central players in the Park and
how might they represent a risk to the operation of the Park?

The central players are the power station and the oil refinery because these two facilities supply
or receive the bulk of the material/energy flows from other parts for the park.
They represent a risk because if either the refinery or the power station stop working, then other
parts of the system need to either stop operating or fall back in alternative supplies of energy and
materials. This increases the operating risks of other plants.
4. What are the characteristics of an industrial symbiosis system?
A symbiosis system:
the participating industries must fit together but be different.
the individual industry agreements are based on commercially sound principles
environmental improvements, resource conservation and economic incentives go hand in
hand
the development of the symbiosis has been on a voluntary basis but in close cooperation
with the authorities
short physical distances between participating plants are an advantage
short mental distances are equally as important
mutual management understanding and cooperative commitment is essential
effective operative communication between participants is required
significant side benefits are achieved in other areas such as safety and training
5. Explain Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 systems in the context of Industrial Ecology. Which type is
Kalundborg Industrial Park?

Type 1: represent a linear once through flow of materials and energy, relying on unlimited
supply of materials and energy and producing unlimited wastes.
Type 2:introduces some cyclic flows of materials and energy through industrial symbiosis. This
reduces the call on raw materials/energy and reduces wastes.
Type 3: ideal situation which is only seen in natural ecosystems. All material flows are cyclic with
no raw material requirement and no wastes. Only energy is required from outside the system
(which would be sunlight in the case of natural ecosystems)
6. Name 3 key challenges to Industrial Ecology.
industries that are mutually exclusive cant work together on IE
industrial systems may only be mildly transformed. further transformation within
individual plants is still possible
industrial ecology may reduce the ability of firms to meet consumer demand by
restricting production or overproducing
IE may introduce risks to operation of individual plants if key facilities in the IE system
are unreliable
the cooperation required in IE may be difficult to achieve in the business context as
managers are more familiar with competition rather than cooperation

WEEK 10
High demand for electricity impacts:
Environmental: greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, heavy metal air emissions,
resource extraction impacts, waste production
Social: political instability around access to resources and financing conflict, energy
poverty for low income countries
Economic: rising prices for energy as fuels become scarcer, resource depletion affecting
economic equity for future generations, opportunity costs - spending money on energy
that could be spent on other productive activities
Options to reduce the problems created by the rising electricity demand: use less electricity,
constrain lifestyle and industrial growth in developing countries, generate more electricity from
renewable sources, generate energy from existing energy sources more efficiently by using less
fuel or produce more electricity from the current fuel usage.
Fuel Cell: an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy in a fuel directly into DC
electricity. Waste heat is a byproduct which is usually much less than from a heat engine. Consists
of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte allows the reduction and oxidation
reactions that occur. The fuel reacts at the anode and produces a source of electrons. The ionised
fuel moves across the electrolyte to the cathode while the electrons travel via an electric circuit to
the cathode. Oxygen combines with the ionised fuel at the cathode.
The voltage of a single fuel cell is limited by the standard electrode potentials of each half
reaction. To achieve a higher voltage, the fuel cells are combined in series to achieve higher
power outputs. Known as a fuel cell stack.
The enthalpy change can only be partly transformed into electrical energy. The maximum
possible electrical energy obtained is given by the change in Gibbs free energy of formation.
Thermodynamic efficiency = deltaG/deltaH = 1-TdeltaS/deltaH
The efficiency of the fuel cell decreased as temperature rises
Benefits of a fuel cell: no moving parts, no mechanical wear and tear, very quiet and no
lubrication required, heat is not required, though it is a byproduct, unlike heat engines, the
efficiency of energy conversion is not limited by the carnot efficiency, fuel cells are more efficient
at lower temperatures
Advantages and applications of fuel cells:
efficiency advantage - higher conversion of chemical to electrical energy
the electrochemical nature of the reaction and necessity for very clean fuel means that the
fuel cell has low emissions. They also produce less life cycle CO2 emissions even if the
hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels. Emissions advantage
stationary applications - small scale domestic energy supply, larger units can be used for
combined heat and power, large systems for industrial cogeneration

 mobile applications - potential to replace batteries in electrical vehicles, increasing

driving range and allowing more rapid fuelling compared to recharging batteries
portable applications - can replaces rechargeable batteries or diesel generators for
remote sites, building sites and similar duties.

Fuel cells for distributed power generation: fuel cells can be used for generating electricity near
or at the location of the end user rather than in large centralised power stations. Might be more
sustainable than conventional power plants. Concentrates on Combined Heat and Power (CHP).
Need to consider the environmental, economic and social dimensions of sustainability.
Environmental Considerations: assume that the fuel cells will use hydrogen from natural gas.
Emissions of CO2 and CH4. Need to compare fuel cells with the conventional energy systems. An
LCA can be used to get GWP from both systems. Functional unit would be 1kWh of electricity
generated.
Economic and social considerations: current fuel cells are expensive. This high cost is due to low
production volumes and the lifetime of operation is also unclear. The public are more likely to
accept a home power plant. The costs make it prohibitive which contributes to the reliance of
society on centralised electricity generation.
Municipal Solid Waste Management:
Increasing amount of MSW means that a larger amount of space is required for storage and
disposal. Landfill generates CO2 emissions and methane emissions. Chemicals might leach into
groundwater and the soil. Unnecessary waste of potentially valuable resources that could
otherwise be recycled or recovered to produce energy. In australia, environmental laws have
made it very hard to dispose of things like batteries, waste oil, non-biodegradable plastic bags,
tyres, etc.
Solid waste management hierarchy: reduction, re-use, material recovery, energy recovery, final
disposal.
Energy from waste plant sustainability considerations: waste handling, reception and
pretreatment, incinerator, boiler, energy recovery and generation plant, air pollution, ash
treatment, socioeconomic considerations. Need to consider the waste composition and energy
content as well as the incineration technology and energy recovery system.
Types of Incinerators:
mass burn plants - two or three combustion units, accepts waste of little preprocessing,
generates heat and electricity
Modular plants - small capacity burning, produces steam as the only form of energy
output. Lower capital costs, good for small communities
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) plant - generate electricity, highest capital cost,

 Pyrolysis and gasification - heating without and less oxygen. Materials and energy
recovery

Design of incinerators:
moving grate or mechanical stoker - the moving grate pushes the waste into the
incinerator and deposits the ash to the bottom of the incinerator. Most dominant design
for use in mass-burn plants
fluidized bed - furnace contains a bed of sand on an air distribution system, air keeps the
sand and waste mixing to increase combustion efficiency. Suitable for RDF.
Rotary kiln - waste is rotated in a cylindrical furnace, air supply through perforation for
complete combustion. Not widely used as it is the most turbulent system.
Air pollution and control:
Primary measure - reduced by controlling the combustion conditions in the furnace and
reboiler eg. supply of primary and secondary air to control CO, NOx. Can also be done by
controlling the temperature and residence times in the combustion chamber, boiler and
flue treatment units to prevent nox and dioxins.
Secondary measure - cleaning up the air pollution from incineration. Scrubbers for the
removal of acid gases, cyclones or electrostatic precipitators for fly ash removal, activated
carbon for removal of heavy metals, selective catalytic reduction with ammonia for NOx.
Ash treatment - fly ash is in the flue gas, prone to leaching and therefore need secure landfills.
The bottom ash can be used for road construction.
Legislation - integrated pollution prevention control directive, environmental impact assessment
directive, landfill directive, ambient air framework directive
Socioeconomic impact - internal costs are the direct cost of running the incineration. External
costs include the environmental damage. Generally, incineration is better than landfills for
environmental and society
WEEK 10 TUTE
1. Explain the difference between 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels.
Difference is based on the feedstock used. 1st gen uses food feedstocks, 2nd gen uses waste
biofeedstocks or non-food crop feedstocks and 3rd gen uses microalgae feedstocks.
2. Name three key products that can be produced from bio-feedstocks.
Bioethanol, biodiesel, syngas, synoil, biogas.
3. Why is land-use change a critical component of the life cycle GHG emissions from certain
biofuels?
Land use change includes factors such as CO2 and methane being released from natural forests or
grasslands which are removed and can dominate the life cycle GHG emissions for biofuels.
4. 1st and 2nd generation biofuels have a key disadvantage in that they compete with food crops.

Explain the social and economic impacts of this competition.

Competition with food crops can result in a reduction in the supply of food to market, resulting in
higher food prices. It also reduces food supply to animal producers, raising meat and dairy prices.
This can have significant social impacts in poorer areas where food costs dominate a familys
budget.
5. Life cycle GHG emissions from corn-derived ethanol can be worse than those from fossil
derived petrol, despite being produced from a biological feedstock with no net CO2 emissions
from combustion of the fuel. How is this possible?
Corn bioethanol can have high life cycle GHG emissions due to the large amount of fertiliser
required. Fertiliser production produces CO2 and CH4 emissions from combustion to drive
processes to produce the fertiliser. The breakdown of these fertilisers also produces a lot of N2O
which further increases GHG emissions from corn.
6. Biofuels also have some key social impacts. Name three of these and explain how they may
be of interest to policy makers (i.e. governments).
Social impacts: increased rural development for the cultivation and processing of biofeedstocks.
Impact on food security and affordability. Impact on indigenous peoples who may be displaced by
biofeedstock production. Impacts on land ownership and human rights. Impacts on labour rights,
particularly in developing countries.

WEEK 11 = REVISION TOPICS

Intro to sustainability concepts, sustainable development
Cleaner Production
PFD development - flowsheeting, fuels, steam/heating, cooling utilities, electricity
Waste identification and minimisation - reactors, separation processes, startup shutdown,
maintenance, abnormal operation
Economics - capital and operating costs, externalities, environmental cost factors
Life cycle assessment
Industrial ecology and industrial symbiosis (plus case study)
Materials recycling
Greenhouse gas measurement and reporting
Case Study 1 - sustainability assessment of biofuels
Case study 2 - sustainability of energy from waste
Case study 3 - fuel cells in distributed generation
WEEK 11 TUTE
1. Draw a flow diagram of a typical EfW facility and describe each part.

MSW discharge - MSW is delivered by road/rail/other means

MSW storage
Incinerator - location within the plant where combustion occurs
Boiler - heat exchanger between the hot flue gas and water to make steam
Turbine - converts steam enthalpy into mechanical work
Generator - converts mechanical energy to electrical work
Water loop - cools the steam condenser to provide waste heat rejection point to increase the
electricity generation efficiency. Also acts as a way to take waste heat to an end user eg a town
Bottom ash - heavy ash yield from the combustion. Contains non-combustibles, unburnt carbon

Activated carbon - secondary pollution control of dioxins and heavy metals

Fabric filter - secondary pollution control of fly ash
2. Why is a combined heat and power plant so much more efficient than an electricity-only plant?
Why do you think CHP plants are still comparatively uncommon, despite this efficiency
advantage?
CHP plants enable the waste heat as well as the electricity to be more effectively used. More of the
fuels energy content is actually being used up and ends up serving people. In electricity-only
plants, the waste heat is thrown away. CHP plants are comparatively uncommon as they are more
expensive.They also require the generation to occur close to the end users. People would not
want this close to their homes which is why CHP is uncommon.
3. List the main incineration technologies and describe the suitability of each depending on the
waste to be treated.
mass burn plants - two or three combustion units, accepts waste of little preprocessing,
generates heat and electricity
Modular plants - small capacity burning, produces steam as the only form of energy
output. Lower capital costs, good for small communities
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) plant - generate electricity, highest capital cost,
Pyrolysis and gasification - heating without and less oxygen. Materials and energy
recovery
4. List the air pollutants generated by incineration of MSW. Describe how each of these pollutants
is formed in the plant.
Dust, SOx, NOx, CO, organic vapours (VOCs), heavy metals, CO2, water vapour. Combustion forms
CO2, CO, SOx and water vapour. The acids, HF and HCl are formed between water and F/Cl at high
temperatures. The heavy metals present in the fuel are liberated by burning. Dioxins/furans are
formed by reactions with chlorine in the fuel
5. What methods are available for primary and secondary treatment of the air pollutants in
the previous question?
Primary treatment - control of incinerator conditions - excess air, mass rate of fuel, temperature
control, residence time. Secondary treatment involves activated carbon, fabric or other filters,
scrubbing of NOx, acid gas scrubbing.
6. Emissions from dioxins are one of the main objections of the public to incineration and EfW
plants. However, dioxins are also emitted from open fires, such as home fireplaces. It is known
that the human health effects of fireplaces are greater than that from incinerators. Why do you
think people accept this health risk and yet they object to incinerators?
People are more likely to not object to data when it makes them feel good. Fireplaces bring about
positive human emotions and are a pre-industrial piece of technology. New heavy industry
technology often arouses suspicion, even if their effects on pollution are lower.

7. Show that burning 28.6 tonnes/hour of waste with a LHV of 9800 kJ/kg will release 77.9
MW of heat.
28.6 t/h/3600*1000 = 7.944 kg.s.
Energy = EC*mass rate = 9800*7.944 = 77855kJ/s= 77.9MW.
8. If the EfW plant is generating 20 MW of electricity and 15% of that is used to run the plant,
calculate the net export of electricity from the site.
85% of generated electricity is sent out. 0.85*20 = 17 MW sent out
9. Explain in basic terms how a fuel cell works. What distinguishes fuel cells from heat engines as
a means of producing electricity?
Fuel cells divide the electrochemical half-reactions of a fuel and oxygen so they occur at the
anode and cathode respectively. This is possible because the electrolyte only allows the flow of
ions and not the direct contact of fuel and oxygen. Fuel cells provide electricity directly through
the electrochemical reaction, rather than requiring a two step process of producing heat through
combustion followed by a heat engine to convert that heat into work.
10. How does operating temperature influence the efficiency of a fuel cell? Given that some fuel
cells require elevated temperatures to enable the initiation of the electrode reactions, how does
this influence the selection of the fuel cell type?
The fuel efficiency drops as temperature rises. Higher temperatures however are needed to
enable the half reactions to get started at the anode and the cathode. So there is a compensating
trade off. Catalysts can reduce the operating temperatures required to get the reactions to occur
but these generally cost a lot more as they are made from precious materials such as platinum.
11. Why do distributed electricity generation systems (such as fuel cells) reduce transmission
and distribution losses?
Producing electricity close to the point of use means that there is a shorter distance for the
electricity to travel. This means less resistance losses and also fewer losses from multiple voltage
transformations.
12. Over the life cycle of a PEFC, where do the majority of greenhouse gas emissions occur?
What might be done to render these greenhouse gas emissions as close to zero?
Most life cycle GHGs are from the CO2 made in the fuel cells reformer - reforming fuel to make
H2 with CO2 as a byproduct. You could reduce these byproducts by using methane from a
biogenic source such as landfill gas or something derived from biomass. Biogenic fuel sources are
taken to have zero effective GHG emissions because the CO2 from their use is simply returning
the CO2 back into the atmosphere from where it was taken when the biomass was formed.
Another method is to produce H2 directly through the electrolysis of water, using a renewable
source of energy such as wind or solar. In this case, you could directly store the electricity in a
battery rather than making H2 and then using a fuel cell to convert it back into electricity.

13. Heat is a coproduct of fuel cell operation. If a heat user is not located nearby, how would the
impact the efficiency of the fuel cell?
If no heat user is available nearby, the heat will have to be thrown away. This will therefore not
be a CHP operation and the efficiency will only include the electrical energy. This efficiency will
therefore be much lower. CHP is critically dependent on the heat users being located close to the
fuel cell.
14. Electricity and heat are not considered equivalent in terms of allocating the impacts of the
fuel cell between the two products. Why not?
There are many limitations with converting heat into work and we know that the potential to do
work for a unit of heat is limited by the carnot efficiency. Eg. 1 unit of heat at 80 C with a sink
temp of 15C can only be converted to work at an efficiency of 18.4% in a perfect reversible
system. Therefore 1 unit of work is only worth 0.184 units of work. 1 unit of electricity however
can be theoretically converted fully into other forms of work.
Allocation of a fuel cells impacts needs to fairly attribute the impact to the useful energy which
means converting the heat to work potential first.