Beruflich Dokumente
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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
Universit de Monastir, cole Nationale dIngnieurs de Monastir, Laboratoire LESTE, Avenue Ibn El Jazzar 5019, Monastir, Tunisia
University of Lille North of France, UVHC, LAMIH CNRS UMR 8201, Campus Le Mont Houy, F-59313 Valenciennes Cedex 9, France
h i g h l i g h t s
A Gamma-Stirling engine is investigated to optimize its operation.
A stainless steel of a porosity of 85% was used as material for the regenerator.
Asymmetry of heat transfer inside regenerators consumes a part of produced energy.
Central composite rotatable design was adopted to minimize this phenomenon.
The heating temperature is a most signicant factor in the study.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 24 July 2013
Received in revised form 20 October 2014
Accepted 11 November 2014
Available online 11 December 2014
Keywords:
Stirling engine
Regenerator
Constituting material
Porosity
Optimization
a b s t r a c t
This paper deals with an optimization of the Stirling engine regenerators. Firstly, different materials are
experimented (Stainless Steel, Copper, aluminum and Monel 400). The engine performances and the state
of each material after 15 h of use are considered. The Stainless steel was the material that best satises
these two conditions. Five regenerators in stainless steel with different porosities were manufactured and
experimented (95%, 90%, 85%, 80% and 75%). Porosity that gives the best trade-off between maximizing
the engine brake power, maximizing the heat transfer and minimizing the pressure drops, was retained.
Thus, the regenerator in stainless steel with porosity of 85% was considered as the most suitable matrix
maximizing the Stirling engine performances and minimizing heat and friction losses.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Stirling engine regenerators are very complex to modeling and
to designing. It will require a large number of equations to describe
their thermodynamic operation. Since it is a balancing act of several factors, some researches have proposed the best regenerator
qualities [14] allowing optimal Stirling engine performances. It
must have:
High thermal capacity to minimize temperature variation [5],
high thermal conductivity to minimize temperature gradients
[6],
large surface area to minimize temperature differences between
the regenerator and the working uid [7],
Corresponding author at: University of Lille North of France, UVHC, LAMIH
CNRS UMR 8201, Campus Le Mont Houy, F-59313 Valenciennes Cedex 9, France.
E-mail address: Fethi.Aloui@univ-valenciennes.fr (F. Aloui).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.11.011
0306-2619/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
273
Nomenclature
E
r
T
P
Vol
V
N
Subscript
C
Cold
Carnot
cold side
porosity leads to the friction factor increases and the pressure drop
loss decrease. A selection of a small wire diameter meshes may
reduce the pressure drop for high porosity matrix. The regenerator
effectiveness can be manipulated by varying wire diameter and
wire length, which in turn changes the wetted surface area.
Bangert [14] note that the regenerator effectiveness has been
recognized as an important factor to Stirling engines performances.
The regenerator effectiveness depends on porosity, permeability
and material of the porous matrix. Temperature distribution in
the regenerator can be measured to determine the regenerator
effectiveness. Furthermore, the magnitude of the regenerator effectiveness is also dependent on the operating speed. Abdulrahman
et al. [15] studied experimentally the inuence of the foam structure (including material, porosity and permeability) on the overall
performance of the Stirling engine regenerator. He proved that
when the regenerator porosity increases beyond a critical point
the engine performance decreases, due to increased external conduction and lack of thermal transfer with the working uid. Rebeiro
et al. [16] experimented different regenerator material: cellular
ceramic substrate with regular square channels, steel scourers
and stainless steel wood. They tested the performances of these
regenerators function of mean pressure between 0 and 10 bar. They
showed that the cellular ceramics may offer an alternative to traditional regenerator materials to reduce the overall system costs. They
demonstrated that the pressure drop increase with the porosity
decrease and the ow resistance depends on porosity, regularity
of the porous material and the nature of packing of the solid material. Gheith al. [17] studied different regenerator materials and demonstrated that the Stirling engine regenerator is very sensitive to its
material characteristics. Stirling engine efciency can be calculated
in different way. The must commonly used method is the Carnot one
[1820]. An ideal Stirling cycle, consisting of two isotherms and two
isochors, has thermal efciency determined by the temperature
interval between the heater and the cooler and the compression
degree r = Vheater/VCooler.
T1 T2
T 1 T 1 T 2 =c 1lnr
Hot
hot side
w-input
water input circuit
w-output
water output circuit
i
initial lling pressure
com
compression space
Exp
expansion space
R1, R2, R3, R4 position of thermocouples on regenerator side 1
R5, R6, R7, R8 position of thermocouples on regenerator side 2
2. Experimental facility
2.1. Stirling engine set-up
The double-cylinder, c-type Stirling engine is the ST05G of Viebach society. This engine can provide 500 W of brake power and
can reach a maximum rotation speed of 600 rpm. Its main compartments and metrology are presented in Fig. 1. The engine is
composed of two pistons with a draft shaft of 90, each piston slide
in one separate space. The compression space is cooled by a circuit
of water and the expansion space is heated by an electrical resistance delivering a maximal power of 3.5 KW. Both pistons are
linked by a classical crank-rode system. The regenerator is located
between the cooler and the heater. It is constituted of a porous
medium with a xed porosity. It is an annular spaces crossed twice
by the working uid (Fig. 2).
2.2. Regenerator metrology
Type-K thermocouples with diameter of 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm and
0.0254 mm, were used. These diameters are enough small that
the thermocouples thermal inertia do not mislead measurements
of instantaneous temperatures. Two thermocouples were
implanted respectively upstream the expansion space (Thot) and
in the compression space (Tcold). Other two thermocouples were
used to measure the temperatures of the inlet (Tw-inp) and the outlet cooling water (Tw-out). Eight thermocouples were skinned symmetrically (Fig. 3) up to 1 mm inside the regenerator matrix
without touching the material. They allow measurement of the
working uid temperature passing through the regenerator. Different matrixes with different material were experimented (Fig. 3).
Two pressure transducers were installed in the compression space
and after the expansion space. The st one is located at the end of
the compression cylinder. It is a Druck sensor comprising a membrane. It can measure a pressure up to 20 bars and gives an answer
between 0 volt and 5 V. The second is placed upstream the expansion space. This sensor cannot support temperature higher than
80 C. So it was placed after a cooling tower to decrease the temperature of the working uid. The variation of the Stirling engine
rpm is made through an electrical dissipation system. This system
is constituted of 10 electrical resistances of 55 W, each one placed
in parallel, in order to obtain the variation of electrical dissipation,
and then the Stirling engine rpm.
3. Determination of adequate regenerator material
The Stirling engine was experimented with different regenerators material (Table 1) at the following experimental conditions
(Table 2). The rst matrix is made of Stainless steel, which is the
most commonly used material as Stirling engine regenerators.
274
Water output
Tcold
Pcomp.
Cooler
Tw-inp.
Tw-out.
Regenerator
side 2 :
Series of 4
thermocouples
Water input
TR5
TR6
TR1
TR2
TR7
TR3
TR8
TR4
Regenerator
side 1 :
Series of 4
thermocouples
Pexp.
Thot
Heating
system
Heater
De
Di
A
Coupe AA
Fig. 2. Cut of the regenerator: external diameter: De = 98 103 m, internal
diameter:
Di = 133.5 103 m,
height
H = 50 103 m,
total
volume
V = 3.227 104 m3.
The second matrix is made of copper, which has an important thermal conductivity. The third matrix is constituted of aluminum,
which has a very low density, does not oxidize like copper and/
or like steel, and can be efciently and ecologically recycled. The
last matrix is formed of Monel 400, which is a Nickelcopper alloy
with high strength and excellent oxidation resistance. All experimental measurements are made for a steady operation of the
engine.
Viscous dissipation is the heat internal generation when the
working gas is forced to ow through the porous medium (regenerator). This dissipation generates a pressure drop across the
275
a
4 skinned
thermocouples
4 skinned
thermocouples
Aluminum
Stainless Steel
Copper
Monel 400
Table 3
Pressures drop recorded for studied regenerators for different initial lling pressure
and heating temperatures.
Table 1
Characteristics of the tested porous structures.
Materials with porosity of 90%
Proprieties
Stainless Steel
304L
Copper
Aluminum
Monel
400
7.850
477
8.920
385
2.700
902
8.800
430
26
390
237
22
Th = 400 C
Stainless Steel
Copper
Aluminum
Monel 400
Pi = 5 bar
Stainless Steel
Copper
Aluminum
Monel 400
Table 2
Experimental conditions.
Parameters
Values
Heating temperature
Initial lling pressure
Cooling water ow rate
cannot be recommended to be used as a Stirling engine regenerator. In fact, heated at 500 C, the copper oxidizes quickly (Fig. 5)
because of the working uid (air) contains about 21% of oxygen.
This material oxidation changes quickly the physical characteristics of the copper, and then leads to heat exchanges deterioration.
The aluminum matrix is formed by small diameter laments. These
later heated up to 500 C melt to small masses causing inhomogeneous porosity. The whole matrix is narrowed (Fig. 6).
The use of regenerator in Aluminum is limited by its melting
temperature but it can be recommended for Stirling engine functioning at low heating temperature (>400 C). After 15 h of experiments with a temperature below 500 C the matrices of stainless
steel and Monel 400 undergo no change in the geometry of the
manufactured matrix. The stainless steel and the Monel 400 regenerators, have good thermal efciencies, respectively of 31% and
25.5%. These two materials do not present a problem of oxidation.
Pi = 3 bar
Pi = 5 bar
Pi = 8 bar
0.1082
0.1093
0.1088
0.1040
0.1234
0.1245
0.1236
0.1236
0.132
0.136
0.1305
0.1326
TH = 300 C
TH = 400 C
TH = 500 C
0.1101
0. 1097
0.1151
0.1110
0.1234
0.1245
0.1236
0.1236
0.1423
0.1466
0.1407
0.1447
276
Fig. 4. Stirling engine brake power for all experimented regenerator materials; For Pi (3 bar, 5 bar, 8 bar) and Th xed at 400 C and for Th (300 C, 400 C, 500 C) for Pi xed at
5 bar.
Fig. 5. Photo of the regenerators of copper with different porosity after about 15 h
of test.
Fig. 6. Photo of the regenerators of Monel 400 (a) and of aluminum (b) after 15 h of
test with a heating temperature below 500 C.
277
Mass (kg)
95
90
85
80
75
0.125
0.253
0.380
0.507
0.633
2.5e4
2.5e4
2.5e4
2.5e4
2.5e4
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
1.32
2.62
3.92
5.22
6.52
0.13
Pi = 3 bar
Pi = 5 bar
0.125
Pi = 8 bar
0.12
0.115
0.11
0.105
0.1
0.095
75
80
85
90
95
0.12
0.118
0.116
0.114
0.112
0.11
V = 370 rpm
V = 340 rpm
V = 320 rpm
V = 300 rpm
0.108
280
Pi = 3 bar
80
85
90
Table 5
Experimental conditions.
Parameters
Values/designation
Heating temperature
Inlet cooling temperature
Initial lling pressure
Cooling water ow rate
Material constituting material
Regenerator porosities
300500 C
12 C
38 bar
8.16 l/min
Stainless steel
95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%
Pi = 5 bar
260
95
0.106
75
Pi = 8 bar
240
220
200
180
160
75
80
85
90
95
Fig. 9. Working uid temperature crossing the regenerator for different stainless
steel porosities (temperature recorded by thermocouples TR1) for Pi = 3, 5 or 8 bar
and Th = 400 C).
278
350
320
Th= 300C
Th= 400C
Th= 500C
Pi = 5 bar
280
300
Pi = 3 bar
300
250
200
Pi = 8 bar
260
240
220
200
180
160
150
140
100
120
75
80
85
90
95
75
Fig. 10. Working uid temperature crossing the regenerator for different stainless
steel porosities (temperature recorded by thermocouples TR1) for Th = 300, 400 or
500 C.
Pi = 3 bar
55
Pi = 5 bar
50
80
85
90
95
Pi = 8 bar
45
40
35
30
Fig. 13. Brake power function of the porosity for different initial lling pressure.
25
20
75
80
85
90
95
Th= 300C
Th= 400C
Th= 400C
300
60
T = 300C
T = 400C
T = 500C
55
250
50
45
40
35
30
200
150
25
20
100
15
75
80
85
90
95
75
80
85
90
95
279
26.1
Th=500C
E C [%]
240
26
25.9
74
220
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
24
200
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
190
180
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
E C [%]
230
Th=400C
23.95
23.9
23.85
74
76
78
80
20.45
370
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
rpm [rpm]
For porosity lower then a critical value depending on functioning conditions, the increase in porosity generates a positive balance
of different observed effects, which implies an increase in engine
power Stirling Gamma. Beyond the porosity critical value, the negative effects overcome the positive effects, which cause the
decrease of engine power.
The Stirling engine brake (Fig. 15) power increase with the
engine speed (rpm) until an optimal value.
Different contradictory effects interfere when the engine rpm
increase.
Decrease of the thermal losses by external conduction through
the engine walls: positive effect.
Decrease of the exchanging duration between the working uid
and the exchanging surface: negative effect.
Decrease of the heat quantity stored in the regenerator: negative effect.
Increase of the friction losses: negative effect.
Initially, the increase of the engine speed generates a positive
balance of different observed effects, which implies an increase
in Stirling engine power. Reaching a limit speed value, the negative
effects outweigh the positive ones causing the decrease of engine
23.95
E C [%]
Th=300C
Fig. 15. Brake power evolution vs. regenerator porosity and engine RPM.
20.4
20.35
20.3
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
23.9
EC [%]
Pi = 3 bar
5. Conclusion
Pi = 5 bar
23.85
Pi = 8 bar
23.8
23.75
75
80
85
90
95
Four matrices made of different materials have been experimented as regenerator. These materials are: Stainless Steel, Copper, Aluminum and Monel 400. The experimental results show
that the regenerator Monel 400 stainless steel and Copper has
the best thermal efciency and engine brake power but the presence of oxygen in the working uid has a great handicap leading
to the rapid oxidation of the material, and after the modication
of the thermo-physical properties of the matrix. This degrades
extremely heat exchange, and therefore the mechanical power of
the Stirling engine. The regenerator Aluminum has a thermal
efciency acceptable, and does not oxidize. However, its use is
somewhat limited by its melting point. The engine power is very
sensitive to the nature of the material constituting the regenerator
280
and the Stainless Steel is the best material that can be used as
Stirling engine regenerator working in this rage of heating
temperature. Based on various experiments, it can be concluded
that the matrix Stainless Steel is best placed to constitute the
Gamma Stirling engine regenerator. The experimentation of different stainless porosities, shows that a porosity of 85% presents the
maximal brake power and engine efciency.
A maximal heating temperature (500 C) and maximal initial
lling pressure (8 bar) applied to a stainless steel regenerator of
a porosity of 85% offer the optimal Stirling engine performances
(brake power of 320 W and a Carnot efciency over 26%).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the laboratories LAMIH CNRS
UMR 8201 (University of Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambresis,
France) and LESTE (ENIM, University of Monastir, Tunisia). These
supports are gratefully acknowledged.
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