Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

The Acidic Environment

1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of
some flowers depends on soil composition
Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
All of the substances we use are acidic, basic, or neutral. This classification is
usually based on the concentration of hydrogen ions produced when the
substance is dissolved in water
Acids:

Common Acids:
o Hydrochloric acid (HCL), sulphuric acid (H 2SO4) and Nitric acid
(HNO3)
o Vinegar, lemon juice, aspirin

Bases

Strong bases complete ionize in aqueous solution to give OH- and a cation
Weak acids do not completely ionize in solution but exist in equilibrium.
Common bases:
o Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2), potassium
oxide (K20) Iron III oxide (Fe2O3), copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and
Ammonia(NH3)
o Cleaning agents ammonia , sodium carbonate, oven cleaners

Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl

orange and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or
basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is identified
by change in indicator colour
Indicators: substances that change depending on the concentration of hydronium
(H30+) ions in a solution to determine whether a solution is acidic or basic.

Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the

testing of soil acidity/basicity

Testing Soil pH:

o

Some plants only grow within narrow pH ranges, so the pH of the soil
needs to be regularly tested.
1

Curtis Moore
o

Year 12 Chemistry

A neutral white powder (barium sulfate) is sprinkled over the damp soil;
a few drops of indicator(s) are placed on top.

The white powder allows the colour change to be seen clearly.

Testing pH of Pools:
o

Pool water must be near neutral to avoid health problems.

A few drops of indicator is placed in a sample of the pool water;

alternatively, pH paper, already soaked in indicator can be used.

Effluent Testing :
o

Acidity is a useful way to assess the levels of certain types of pollution

from industry.

Industry technicians and government authorities use indicators to

monitor the pH of water and natural waterways

Indicators are used to measure the pH, and substances added to

neutralise it.

2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the

atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and
sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing
since the Industrial Revolution:
Identify oxides of non-metals which acts acids and describes the
conditions under which they act as acids
Acidic Oxides: one which reacts with water to form acids or one which reacts
with bases to form salts. Oxides are compounds that contain OXYGEN. They also
react with WATER to form acids. React with BASES to form salts.

Some non-metal oxides that act as acids are: CO2 (carbon dioxide), SO2
(sulfur

dioxide),

NO2

(nitrogen

dioxide)

and

P2O5

(phosphorus

pentoxide).

When they are in solution, they become acids:

CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

H2CO3 (aq) (carbonic acid)

SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

H2SO3 (aq) (sulfurous acid)

2NO2 (g) + H2O (l)

HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) (nitric and nitrous acid)

P2O5

2H3PO4 (aq) (phosphoric acid)

(g)

+ H2O (l)

Basic Oxides: one which reacts with acids to form salts, but does not react with
alkali solutions.

Metal oxides behave as BASES.

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

E.G. Some metal oxides that act as bases are: K2O (potassium oxide), Na2O
(sodium oxide) and MgO (magnesium oxide).

In solution, tend to form basic hydroxides:

K2O (s) + H2O (l)
Na2O (s) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + H2O (l)

2KOH (aq) (potassium hydroxide)

2NaOH (aq) (sodium hydroxide)
Mg(OH)2 (aq) (magnesium hydroxide)

AMPHOTERIC OXIDES:
Amphoteric oxides are oxides that can act as BOTH acids and bases.
Their behaviour depends on the reaction they are put in.

The only elements that combine to form amphoteric oxides are

beryllium, aluminium, zinc, tin and lead.
The exceptions are the neutral oxides include N2O (dinitrogen oxide), CO (carbon
monoxide) and NO (nitric oxide), which do not form acids.
Analyse the position of these non- metals in the periodic table and
outline the relationship between position of elements in the periodic
table and acidity/ basicity of oxides.

The acidic oxides are on the RIGHT side of the periodic table (non-metals).

The basic oxides are on the LEFT side of the periodic table (metals).

The amphoteric oxides are in-between; NOBEL gases have no oxides.

The basic trend in oxide acidity across the rows of the periodic table is:
Basic Amphoteric Acidic
3

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

The basic trend in oxide activity down the period groups of the periodic table
is:
Acidic Amphoteric Basic.

Non -metals are found mostly in the top-right corner of the periodic table,
and thus have acidic oxides

Define Le Chateliers principle

When a change is made to an equilibrium system, the system moves to
counteract the imposed change and restore the system to equilibrium

Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible

reaction
The following changes to an equilibrium system will have the following effects,
with each effect obeying Le Chateliers principle by opposing the change:
o

Changes in temperature:
o

If the forward reaction is exothermic, an increase in temperature

causes the system to shift in the reverse direction.

If the forward reaction is endothermic, an increase in temperature

causes the system to shift in the forward direction.

The opposite effects would be observed for a decrease in

temperature.

Changes in concentration:
o

An increase in the concentration of one or more reactants, or a

decrease in the concentration of one or more products, causes the
system to shift in the forward direction.

A decrease in the concentration of one or more of reactants, or an

increase of the concentration of one or more products, causes the
system to shift in the reverse direction.

Changes in pressure (of homogenous gaseous systems):

o

An increase in pressure causes the system to shift in the direction of

fewer gas molecules.

A decrease in pressure causes the system to shift in the direction of

more gas molecules.

Curtis Moore
o

Year 12 Chemistry
If the number of particles on each side of the reaction is equal, then
a change in pressure has no effect.

Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various

conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le
Chateliers

principle
o

TEMPRETURE
o

As the forward reaction is exothermic, an INCREASE in temperature

causes the system to move in the reverse direction.

As the forward reaction is exothermic, a DECREASE in temperature

causes the system to move in the forward direction.

CONCENTRATION
o

An INCREASE in the concentration of carbon dioxide or a decrease in

the concentration of carbon dioxide causes the system to move in
the forward direction.

A DECREASE in the concentration of carbon dioxide or an increase in

the concentration of carbonic acid causes the system to move in the
reverse direction.

PRESSURE
o

An INCREASE in pressure causes the system to move in the forward

direction.

A DECREASE in pressure causes the system to move in the reverse

direction.

Thus, the solubility of carbon dioxide in water is dependent on

temperature, concentration and pressure.

Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of

nitrogen:
Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release
sulfur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen
Oxides

Natural Sources

Industrial Sources

Curtis Moore
Sulphur
dioxide (SO2)

Oxides of
Nitrogen
(NOX)

Year 12 Chemistry

Geothermal Hot springs

Emissions from Volcanoes
Bushfires
Natural decay of
vegetation on land, wet
lands and oceans
2H2S (g) + 3O2 (g)
2SO2 (g)
+ 2H2O (l)

S(s) + O2

O2(g) + N2 (g) 2 NO(g)

N2O formed by bacteria

(g)

SO2(g)

When metals are extracted

from sulphides ores.

2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO

+ 2SO2(g)

Lighting

The Burning of fossil fuels

which contain sulphur, such
as coal and oil

Indoor domestic appliances

)( gas stoves, gas heaters
etc)
Motor vehicles

Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of

sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their

release into the environment

(s)

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

These oxides combine with water to form an acidic solution in the atmosphere
creating acid rain. Increase in oxides have led to increase production of
photochemical smog, especially in large cities which brings forth respiratory
problems of humans and animals, ie. Breathing difficulties, tissue damage
Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric
concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

Evidence of the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen being formed:

Oxides o sulphur and nitrogen are mainly found in the atmosphere as a result to
a number of natural process such as:
Volcanic action , which produces sulphur dioxide
Natural decay of vegetation on land and sea (SO2)
Lighting which produces nitric oxide
Due to the industrial revolution and increased human population, there has been
an increase of these oxides. manmade sources of the pollutants include:
Extracting metals form sulphides ores (SO2)
Burning of fossil fuels for car and engines and power plants, which all
increase the concentration of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
The increase in atmospheric concentrations of these oxides is evident form :
The formation of acid rain, which has damaged waterways, forest, farm
and buildings over many years
The build up of atmospheric pollution, with nitrogen oxides contributing to
the photochemical smog. High levels of these oxides have led to health
issues, often in large cities

Calculate volumes of gases given masses of

some substances in reactions, and calculate
masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in
reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or
25C and 100kPa

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Rain is normally slightly acidic (pH between 5 and 6) due to the formation
of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide.

Acid rain: Rain that has a higher hydrogen ion concentration than normal
(pH less than 5).

Other than carbonic acid, the acids generally present in acid rain are
sulfuric and nitric acids, which are formed by sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen respectively.

FORMATION of acid rain:

Sulfur dioxide reacts with rain in the atmosphere forming sulfurous

acid:
SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

H2SO3 (aq)

Sulfurous acid then reacts with oxygen; this is catalysed by air

particles:
2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g)

2H2SO4 (aq)

Curtis Moore

Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with rain, making nitric and nitrous acids:
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l)

HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

Nitrous acid then reacts with oxygen, again catalysed by air particles:
2HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g)

Year 12 Chemistry

2HNO3 (aq)

Thus, in industrialised areas, rain can contain relatively high levels of

very strong acids; that is nitric and sulfuric acids.

This reduces the pH to about 3-5, which is grossly unnatural and

harmful.

EFFECTS of acid rain:

Environmental damage includes the destruction of forests (such as

the pine forests of Europe and North America), the increasing acidity of
lakes, leading to the death of aquatic life (as has been observed in
many lakes in Scandinavia) and the ruining of soils, making them
unable to support vegetation.

Urban and structural damage include the corrosion of marble statues

and buildings (marble contains carbonates which acids readily react
with).

3. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs:
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in
water

When acids dissolve in water, it can donate a proton, ie a Hydrogen Ion

(H+) to a water molecule
The proton ion in water solution may be presented as H + (aq) or H3O+ (aq)
( hydronium)
9

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

For example
H+ (aq) + Cl(aq) ( donor)

HCl (g)

HCl (g) + H2O (l)

H3O+ (aq) + Cl(aq)

Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid

Acetic Acid:

Systematic name: Ethanoic acid

Molecular formula: CH3COOH

It is the acid present in vinegar.

It is classified as a weak acid.

Citric Acid:

2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid

Molecular formula: C6H8O7

It occurs in citrus fruit.

Hydrochloric Acid:

Molecular formula: HCl

It is a very strong acid.

Sulfuric Acid:

Molecular formula: H2SO4

It is also a strong acid.

Used to make batteries, fertilizers etc.

Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases

The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

Low pH means a high level of proton (hydrogen) concentration and thus
very acidic and a High pH means a low level of proton concentrations, so
its basic.

Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the
terms strong, weak, and concentrated and dilute

Strong acids: one that disassociate completely or almost completely in

water, forming H+
Weak acids: those that partially ionize in water
Concentrated acids: are those that have a large amount of solute in a
given amount of solution. It has a high number of moles per litre
Dilute acids: those that have low amounts of solute ionized in a given
amount of solution.

10

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means

a ten-fold change in [H+]

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic

and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation
of their molecules
Acid
Citric acid
Acetic acid
Hydrochloric acid

Strength
Weak (pH 2)
Weak (pH3)
Strong (pH 1)

Degree of Ionization
Very low
Low
Very high

Comparison:

Citric and acetic acid are both very weak acids. Acetic acid is a weaker
acid with a pH of around 2.9 while critic acids has a pH od around 2.1
Hydrochloric acid is a much stronger acid, around pH1. This means that
HCL has a very high degree of ionization, so the forward reaction in: HCL
+
is much more favoured, producing more
(aq) + H20(l) H3O (aq) + Cl (aq)
ions.

Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of

an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions

A strong acid is an acid that releases ALL its H + ions when in solution.

Its molecules are completely disassociated in solution.

Its ionisation reaction goes to completion:

H3O+ (aq) + Cl(aq)

EG: HCl (g) + H2O (l)

A weak acid is an acid that does NOT completely release all its H + ions;
Some of its molecules remain intact in solution

Its ionisation reaction with water is a reversible reaction that reaches

equilibrium when a certain number of H + ions are released:

EG: CH3COOH (s) + H2O

11

(l)

H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO( aq)

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

The terms concentrated and dilute refer ONLY to the amount of acid
molecules present in the solution; they have nothing to do with ionisation.

A CONCENTRATED acid has approximately more than 5 mol/L of solute.

A DILUTE acid has less that 2 mol/L of solute.

Hence, strong acids can be both concentrated and dilute, and weak acids
can also be both concentrated and dilute.

4. Because of the prevalence of acids, they have been used and studied
for hundreds of years. Over time the definitions of acids and base have
been refined:
Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including
those of:
Lavoisier
Davy
Arrhenius
Lavoisier:

Proposed that an acid must conatin oxygen

Non metals oxides react with water to form acidic solutions

Davy

Redefined an acid as a substance containing hydrogen (rather than

oxygen), which could be partially or totally replaced by metals when it
reacted together, to produce a salt. He realized this by discovering that
HCl had acidic properties

Arrhenius:

Suggested that acids ionized in solution to produce hydrogen ions as the

only positive ions in solution
Bases produced hydroxide ions as the only negative ion in solution
Completely ionized acids were strong acids, weak id they partially ionized
Arrhenius proposed these ideas only when the acid was in an aqueous
state

Outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

12

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

It states that:

An acid is a PROTON donor (is gives protons to a base)

A base is a PROTON acceptor (is accepts protons from an acid)

Brnsted-Lowry definition they can be solids, gases, cations, anions, non-water

solutions; even water can be an acid, or a base.

EG: Reacting hydrogen chloride gas and ammonia:

HCl (g) + NH3 (g)

NH4Cl (s)

If one looks closer, a proton donation and acceptance has occurred:

HCl + NH3

NH4+ + Cl

HCl has donated a proton to NH3 OR NH3 has accepted a proton from HCl.

Hence, by Brnsted-Lowry definition, HCl gas is an acid, and NH3 gas is a base.

Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and
a base and its conjugate acid

Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral

solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature

13

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Identify conjugate acid/base pairs

Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe

their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions

An amphiprotic substance is one that can act as BOTH an acid and a

base.

Their behaviour depends on the environment they are placed in.

EG: The hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3 is amphiprotic:

HCO3( aq) + H3O+ (aq)

HCO3( aq) + OH ( aq)

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O

CO32( aq) + H2O

14

(l)

(l)

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic
Neutralization reactions consist of an acid reacting with a base to produce a salt
+ water. This is a proton transfer reaction, which is exothermic
Eg. NaOH (aq) + CH3OOH (aq) NaCH3COO (aq) + H20 (l) in this reaction, a proton
from acetic acid and an OH from sodium hydroxide cancels out, providing water.
The remainder is a salt, sodium ethanoate.
Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and
preparation of standard solutions

Titration is a chemical technique used to experimentally determine the

unknown concentration of a solution through a chemical reaction.

EG: Nitric Acid & Sodium Carbonate:

Example, the titration of a solution of nitric acid (HNO3) of UNKNOWN

concentration with a known solution of alkaline, 0.05 M sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3).

The first step in any acid/base titration is to identify the chemical

reaction that is going to occur, by writing a balanced chemical
equation. In this case:
2HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq)

2NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

20 mL of the 0.05 M sodium carbonate was titrated with the nitric acid
and the endpoint was reached after 22.2 mL of nitric was used.

Looking at the chemical equation, the molar ratio of reaction is 2:1

Hence, 22.2 mL of nitric acid contains TWICE as many moles as 20 mL

of sodium carbonate. Calculating:
n1 = c1 v1 = 0.05 x 0.02 = 0.001 mol of sodium carbonate.
n2 = 2 n1 = 0.002 mol of nitric acid.
c2 = n2 / v2 = 0.002 / 0.0222 = 0.09 M

From this titration, the concentration of nitric acid was calculated to be

0.09 M

Method to do a titration:
Volumetric Flask: This is used to prepare and hold standard
solutions.
Conical Flask: This is used to hold the reactants during titration.
Its shape prevents the reactants from spilling as they are swirled
together.
15

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Burette: The burette is a piece of cylindrical glassware, held

vertically, with volumetric divisions on its full length and a precision
tap (stopcock), on the bottom. It is used to dispense precise
amounts of a liquid reagent in titration. Burettes are extremely
precise and accurate to 0.05 mL.
Pipette: The pipette is a glass tube used to transfer precise
volumes of liquid reagents. Pipettes are usually designed to transfer
one measurement of volume, such as only 25 mL. The reagent is
drawn up the pipette using a pipette filler (e.g. a rubber bulb).

Before titration can begin, all glassware must be RINSED appropriately.

The proper rinsing technique for the different glassware is:

After everything is rinsed appropriately, the glassware is filled.

Usually, the base is placed in the burette, and the acid in the conical
flask, but it really doesnt matter much. Using the above example again:
Using a funnel, the sodium carbonate is poured into the burette
until ABOVE the zero mark. Hold a white card behind the zero mark,
and open the tap slowly until the meniscus sits JUST on top of the
mark. The white card makes the meniscus clearer.
Using the pipette, a fixed volume of nitric acid (say 25 mL) is drawn
from the volumetric flask and deposited into the conical flask.

A few drops of methyl orange indicator are added to the conical flask,
and the solution turns a clear yellow colour.

THE TITRATION:

Finally, the titration can be performed.

The conical flask is placed on a white tile (to make the solutions colour
clear) under the burette, which is held in a retort stand.

The tap is slowly opened, and the conical flask is continuously swirled.

When the first colour change is noticed, the tap is immediately closed. A
swirl of the conical flask will likely return the solution back to its original
colour.

Very slowly open the tap so that solution flows out in drops, and stop
when the endpoint is reached, as shown by the colour of the indicator:
In the case of the above example, the endpoint is pale pink.

The first titration performed is a rough draft and often overshoots the
endpoint. This first titration is rejected.
16

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Titration is performed multiple times to achieve the accurate results

Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific

example in a natural system

5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be

performed in the laboratory
Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid
functional groups in carbon compounds

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by

reactions of straight-chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straightchained primary alkanols from C1 to C8

Step 1: name the alky group, which comes from the alcohol ( methyl ,
ethyl, propyl, butyl etc)
Step 2: name the alkanoate part ( methanonate, ethanoate, propanoate
etc)

17

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by

straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol
structures

Alkanols have high melting and boiling points due to the polarity and
potential for hydrogen bonding present within the molecules.
Similarly, the polarity of an alkanoic acid is one reason why the melting
and boiling points of an alkanoic acid are high, a property increased due to
the greater molar mass of alkanoic acids relative to alkanols. When
combined with the potential for two occurrences of hydrogen bonding to
occur on the -COOH chain (and thus much strong intermolecular forces,
driving up the melting and boiling point), this means that the melting and
boiling points of alkanoic acids are higher than that of alkanols.
Remember- Alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points
because the -COOH chain increases intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol

and describe, using equations, examples of esterification
An ester is formed when an alkanol and an alkanoic acid join:
Alkanol + Alkanoic Acid Ester + water
Example:
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate + water

HCOOH + CH3CH2OH HCOOCH2CH3 + H2O

The underlined atoms eat the ones that in equation join together to form
water

Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis

In the process of esterification, concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a

catalyst. Acting as a strong dehydrating agent, concentrated sulfuric acid
can rapidly remove any water produced during the reaction.

C2H5OH(l) + CH3COOH(l)

C4H8O2 (l) + H2O(l)

According to Le Chateliers principle, a system will work to minimise any

disturbance to its equilibrium. As such, if water is being removed, then the
equilibrium will shift to favour the forward reaction in order to replace the
lost water, increasing the amount of ester produced. As such,
concentrated sulfuric acid can be used to increase the yield of ester.

Remember- Acid is used during esterification not only to lower the activation
energy required for the reaction to take place, but also to increase the output of
products.
Explain the need for refluxing during esterification:

18

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

Heating the reaction flask has 2 main benefits:

The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of

reaction; equilibrium can be reached much faster than
if it was left at room temperature.

Also,

esterification

is

an

endothermic

reaction;

increasing the heat of the flask encourages the forward

reaction, creating more ester.

However, the ester, alkanol and alkanoic acid are all highly volatile
substances; any open heating will cause the reactants as well as products
to evaporate away.

A refluxing apparatus is basically a condenser placed vertically onto a

boiling flask; it cools any vapours that boil off so that they drip back into
the flask.

Refluxing allows the mixture to react at high temperatures without fear

that the reactants or products will evaporate away.

Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of

esters

19

Curtis Moore

Year 12 Chemistry

20