Beruflich Dokumente
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THEORY AND
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2013
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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GNITS
UNIT-1
Co-ordinate System....
In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, appropriate coordinate system
is required.
- A point or vector can be represented in a curvilinear coordinate system that may be orthogonal
or non-orthogonal.
An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
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ax.ax= 1
ax.ay= 0
ay.ax= 0
az.ax= 0
ax.az= 0
ay.ay= 1
az.ay= 0
ay.az= 0
az.az= 1
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Transformation of vector A from (Ax, Ay, Az) to (A, A, Az) i.e. transformation of Vector A
from Cartesian to Cylindrical can be obtained as
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Transformation of vector A from (A, A, Az) to (Ax, Ay, Az) i.e. transformation of Vector A
from Cylindrical to Cartesian can be obtained as
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Q.2. Express the point P (1, -4, -3) in cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates?
Ans.
P1 (x, y, z) P 1 (, , z)
P2 (x, y, z) P 2 (r, ,)
Q. 3
a) If V = XZ XY +YZ, express V in Cylindrical co-ordinate system.
b) If U = X2 + 2Y2 +3z2, express U in Spherical co- ordinates System.
Ans.
a) Since the equation given is a scalar equation, hence we just need to substitute the values of x,
y and z in terms of , and z.
We know x = cos and y = sin
V= xz xy yz
= ( cos) z ( cos) ( sin) ( sin)z
= z cos 2 cos sin z sin
b) We know x = r sincos; y = r sinsin & z = rcos
U = x2 + 2y2 +3z2
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Er = (y2 x2) sin cos + xyz sin sin + (x2 z2) cos
= (r2 sin2 sin2 r2 sin2 cos2 ) sin cos +(r sincos)(r sinsin)(r cos) sin sin + ( r 2 sin2
cos2 r2 cos2 ) cos
= r2 sin3 (sin2 - cos2 ) cos + r3 sin3 sin2 coscos + ( r2 sin2 cos2 r2 cos2 ) cos
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Similarly,
E = - r2 sin2 (cos2) cos cos + r2 sin2 sin2 cos2 cos - (r2 sin2 cos2 r2 cos2 ) sin
E = -(r2 sin2 sin2 r2 sin2 cos2 ) sin + r3 sin2 sin cos cos2
E = Er ar + E a + E a
Q.5 Express the vector A = (z2 + 1)a - z cosa in Cartesian co-ordinate system?
.
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Az = 0
Hence, A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
Q.6 Express the vector E =2r sin cosar + r cos cosa r sina in Cartesian co-ordinate
system?
Ans.
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VECTOR ANALYSIS
SCALAR - A scalar quantity is defined as a quantity that has magnitude only.
- A scalar quantity does not point to any direction i.e. a scalar quantity has no directional
component.
example - when we say, the temperature of the room is 30o C, we dont specify the direction.
- Hence examples of scalar quantities are mass, temperature, volume, speed etc.
- A scalar quantity is represented simply by a letter A, B, T, V, S.
VECTOR :
- A Vector has both a magnitude and a direction. Hence a vector quantity is a quantity that has
both magnitude and direction.
- Examples of vector quantities are force, displacement, velocity, etc.
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NOTE:
1. Unit vector has a magnitude of one. Hence the name unit vector.
2. . A unit vector is always used to describe the direction of respective vector.
Hence any vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and its unit vector.
- Unit Vectors along the co-ordinate directions are referred to as the base vectors.
For example unit vectors along X, Y and Z directions are ax, ay and az respectively.
Position Vector / Radius Vector ( r ):
- A Position Vector (rQ)/ Radius vector defines the position of a point in space relative to the
origin.
rQ = xax + yay +zaz
- If the coordinates of some point is given as x =1, y =2 and z =3, then the position vector is
defined as
r = ax + 2ay +3az.
Hence Position vector is another way to denote a point in space.
- Position vector for Cartesian system in general is written as
r = xax + yay +zaz
But we cannot say the position vector for cylindrical and spherical coordinate system to be
r = a + a + zaz
r = rar +a + a
because and are not a unit of distance.
- Hence the correct position vector for cylindrical and spherical system is given as:
r = cosax + sinay + zaz
r = rsincosax +rsinsinay + rcosaz
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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- A position vector should always be expressed using Cartesian base vectors (ax, ay, az).
- Displacement Vector is the displacement or the shortest distance from one point to another.
Vector Multiplication:
When two vectors are multiplied the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how they
are multiplied.
The two important types of vector multiplication are:
- Dot Product/Scalar Product (A.B)
- Cross product (A x B)
DOT PRODUCT (A . B):
- Dot product of two vectors A and B is given as:
A . B = |A| |B| cosAB
Where AB is the angle formed between A and B.
Also ranges from 0 to i.e. 0 AB
- The result of A.B is a scalar, hence dot product is also known as Scalar Product.
If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then
A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
If A.B = |A| |B|, then obviously cosAB =1 which means AB = 0o
This shows that A and B are in the same direction or we can also say that A and B are parallel
to each other.
If A.B = - |A| |B|, then obviously cosAB = -1 which means AB = 180o.
This shows that A and B are in the opposite direction or we can also say that A and B are
antiparallel to each other.
Similarly if A.B = 0, then cosAB =0 which means AB =90o.
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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ax . a x = a y . a y = a z . a z = 1
ax . ay = ay . az = az . ax = 0
CROSS PRODUCT (A x B):
- Cross Product of two vectors A and B is given as:
A x B = |A| |B| sinAB an
Where AB is the angle formed between A and B and an is a unit vector normal to both A and B.
Also ranges from 0 to i.e. 0 AB
- The cross product is an operation between two vectors and the output is also a vector.
If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,
- The resultant vector is always normal to both the vector A and B. - If A x B = 0, then sin AB =
0 which means AB = 0o or 180o;
This shows that A and B are either parallel or antiparallel to each other.
-Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have
ax x ax = ay x ay = az x az =0
ax x a y = a z
ay x a z = a x
az x a x = a y
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Volume of a parallelogram having A, B and C as edges is given by the Scalar Triple Product.
A x (B x C) = B (A . C) - C (A .B)
COMPONENT OF A VECTOR:
Scalar Component AB of vector A along vector B
AB = AcosAB = A |aB|cosAB = A.aB
Vector Component AB of vector A along vector B
is the scalar product multiplied by the unit vector along B
i.e. AB = (A.aB) aB
1. Prove that (A * B) . A = 0.
A * B = ax ( Ay Bz - Az By ) - ay ( Ax Bz - Az Bx ) + az ( Ax By - Ay Bx )
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az
(A * B ) . A = Ax Ay Bz - Ax Az By - Ax Ay Bz + Ay Az Bx + Ax Az By - Ay Az Bx
0.
rQR = rR -rQ
= 3ay +8az (2ax + 4ay + 6az)
= - 2ax ay + 2az.
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a) 2B + 0.4A
= 2ax 4ay +2az + 0.4 (3ax + 5ay 7az)
= 3.2ax + 6ay - 0.8az
| 2B + 0.4A | = (3.22 + 62 + 0.82)1/2 = 6.846
b) A.B - | B |2
= (3ax + 5ay -7az) . (ax -2ay + az) (12 + 22 +12)1/2
= - 14 (6)1/2
= - 16.4494
c) A x B
Q.5 Given Vectors T = 2ax 6ay + 3az and S = ax + 2ay +az; find
a) the scalar projection of T on S.
b) the vector projection of S on T.
c) the smaller angle between T and S.
Ans:
a)
b)
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L A .dl
- The line integral is the dot product of a vector with a specified curve C.
- We can also say that line integral is the integral of the tangential component of vector A along
the curve C.
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- If the path of integration is a closed path, the line integral becomes a closed line integral and is
called the circulation of A around C.
Line Integral is useful in finding the electric field intensity along a path L.
- The surface integral of a vector B across a surface S is defined as
s B .ds
- When the surface S is closed, the surface integral becomes the net outward flux of B across S,
i.e.
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Q.2 given that H = x2 ax + y2 ay, evaluate L H .dl where L is along the curve y =x2 from (0,
0) to (1, 1).
Ans:
L H .dl = ( x 2 ax + y2 ay ) . (dx ax + dy ay + dz az)
= ( x 2 dx+ y2 dy )
But on L, y = x2 hence dy = 2x dx
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Therefore
L H .dl = 01[x2 dx+ x4 (2xdx) ] = 01( x2 dx+ 2x5 dx )
= | x3/3 |01 + 2 | x6 /6 |01 = 0.667
Q.3 Given that s = x2 + xy, calculate s sds over the region y x 2, 0< x< 1.
Ans:
ssds = x2 dxdy + xy dx dy
= 01x2 dx dy + 01x dx ydy
= 01x2 dx | y | + 01x dx | y2 / 2 |
= 01x4 dx + 01 ( x5 / 2) dx = 1/5 + 1/12 = 0.2833
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ELECTROSTATICS
Introduction to Electrostatics and Coulomb's Law...
- Electrostatics is a branch of science that involves the study of various phenomena caused by
electric charges that are slow-moving or even stationary.
- Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter and charge exist in integral multiple of
electronic charge.
Electrostatics as the study of electric charges at rest.
- The two important laws of electrostatics are
- Coulombs Law.
- Gausss Law.
- Both these laws are used to find the electric field due to charge configurations.
- Coulombs law is applicable in finding electric field due to any charge configurations where
as Gausss law is applicable only when the charge distribution is symmetrical.
COULOMBS LAW:
- Coulombs law is the Law of Action which describes the force between two point charges.
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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- A point charge is a charge that occupies a region of space which is negligibly small compared
to the distance between the point charge and any other object.
- Coulombs law states that
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
- Proportional to the charges Q1 and Q2.
- Varies inversely as the square of distance between them.
- Acts along the line joining the two point charges.
- Mathematically, Coulombs law is expressed as:
o -is known as the permittivity of free space and r is called the relative permittivity of any
dielectric material.
In Free Space, r = 1, hence
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-If there are N numbers of charges Q1, Q2, Q3..Qn located respectively at points with position
vectors r1, r2, r3.rn, the force experienced by a charge Q located at position vector r is given as:
- Electric field intensity or the electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit
charge.
Mathematically,
E=F/Q
OR
F=EQ
- The force on charge Q is the product of a charge (which is a scalar) and the value of the
electric field (which is a vector) at the point where the charge is located.
- Hence force will be either parallel or anti-parallel to the Electric field intensity.
(i.e. Q > 0) the force F points in the same direction as the electric field E.
- If the charge is negative (i.e. Q < 0) the force F points in the opposite direction as the
electric field E.
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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- Electric field intensity (E) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with position
vector r1 is given as:
Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 .Qn located at points with position vectors r1, r2,.rn,
the electric field intensity at point r is given as:
- Charges can occur as point charge, line charge, surface charge and volume charge.
The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as:
dQ=ldl
Q = L ldl
(Line Charge)
dQ = sds Q = S sds
(Surface Charge)
dQ = vdv Q = V vdv
(Volume Charge)
- Electric field intensity due to different charge distribution is hence given as:
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- Hence the electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge is given as:
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- In general, Electric field intensity for an infinite sheet of charge is given as:
NOTE :
1. The electric field intensity (E) points away from the plane if s is positive and towards the
plane if s is negative.
2. The magnitude of the electric field is a constant the magnitude is independent of the
distance from the infinite plane.
3. This is because no matter how far the point is from the infinite sheet, the distance becomes
incomparable with the dimensions of the plane. Hence it seems the point is very close to the
infinite plane.
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4. In a parallel plate capacitor the electric field intensity between the two plates having equal
and opposite charge is given by:
The first ve sign denotes ve charge on one plate and the second ve sign denotes opposite
direction.
Electric Field Intensity (E) Due To a Circular Ring Charge...
- Consider a circular ring of radius 'a' which carries a uniform line charge density L as
shown in figure.
- We need to find out electric field at a point P (0, 0, h) on the z axis (z > 0).
In this case,
dl = d
(Where radius = a)
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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dl = a d
Consider the triangle shown in the above figure
a a + R = h az
R = - a a + h az
aR = R / | R |
R2 = a2 + h2
Substituting all these values in the above equations, the electric field
intensity E becomes:
For every element dl there is a corresponding element diametrically opposite that gives an
equal but opposite dE so that the two contributions cancel each other.
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Hence Electric field intensity (E) due to a circular ring (of radius a carrying a uniform
charge L) placed on the x-y plane and if the point of interest is any point on z axis, then it is
given as:
Similarly if the ring is placed on x-z plane and point of interest is any point on y- axis, then
E is given as:
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We need to find out electric field (E) due to a circular disk at a point P (0, 0, h) on the
z axis (z > 0).
Electric field intensity (E) at a point due to any surface charge (s) is given as:
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a + R = h az
R = - a + h az
| R | = (2 + h2)1/2
aR = R / | R |
aR = - a + h az / (2 + h2)1/2
Substituting all these values in the above equations, the electric field intensity E becomes
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Q. 2 Five Identical 15 C point charges are located at the center and corners of a square
defined by -1 < x, y > 1 and z = 0.
Find the force on the 10 C point charge at (0, 0, 2).
Therefore,
F / 1.35 = [(0, 0, 2) / 8] + [(-1, -1, 2) / 63/2] + [(1, -1, 2) / 63/2]
+ [(-1, 1, 2) / 63/2] + [(1, 1, 2) / 63/2]
F = 1.35 [(0.25 + (8 / 63/2)] az
= 1.072az N
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Q.3 Point Charges Q1 and Q2 are respectively located at (4, 0, -3) and (2, 0, 1). If Q2 = 4nC,
find Q1 such that
a) The E at (5, 0, 6) has no z component.
b) The force on a test charge at (5, 0, 6) has no x component.
a) Electric field intensity at point (5, 0, 6) is given as:
b) F (5, 0, 6) = qE (5, 0, 6)
If Ex = 0
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= 157.91 C
E due to Line, Surface and Mixed Charge Configuration...
Q.1 An infinite long uniform line charge is located at y = 3, z = 5. If L = 30 nC/m. Calculate
the electric field at point (5, 6, 1).
Ans:
The electric field intensity (E) due to an infinite line charge is given as:
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In this case
R = 4 a x z az
ar = (4 ax z az) / (42 + z2)
Hence we have,
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Q. 3 Two identical charges are located on the y axis at y = 3 and y = 9. At what point in
space is the net electric field zero?
Ans:
As the both charges are on the y axis, the point at which the fields due to the two charges can
cancel has to lie on the y-axis also. Since the two charges are identical, the point at which the
net electric field will be zero is midway between them, i.e. at point (0, 6, 0)
Q.4 A point charge 100 pC is located at (4, 1, -3) while the x-axis carries charge 2 nC/m. If
the plane z = 3 also carries charge 5nC / m2, find E at (1, 1, 1).
Ans:
Electric field at point (1, 1, 1) is given as:
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Let f (x, y) = x + 2y 5
f = ax + 2ay
Now since (-1, 0, 1) lies below the plane, therefore Electric field is given as:
- Electric line of force (also called Electric Flux lines or Streamlines) is an imaginary straight
or curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field.
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1. Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate either at negative charge or move
to infinity.
2.if the negative charge is absent , then the flux lines terminate at infinity
3. Lines of force never intersect i.e. they do not cross each other.
4. Tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field E at that
point.
5. Lines are dense close to a source of the electric field and become sparse when one moves
away.
6. The lines of force are independent of the medium in which charges are placed.
7. if the charge on a body is Q , then the total number of the lines originating or terminating on
it is also Q .
8 .The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is proportional to
the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close together, E is large and
where they are far apart E is small.
9. If there is no charge in a volume, then each field line which enters it must also leave it.
If there is a positive charge in a volume then more field lines leave it than enter it.
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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If there is a negative charge in a volume then more field lines enter it than leave it.
Hence we say
Positive charges are sources and Negative charges are sinks of the field.
= S (D . ds)
We know,
Therefore
= Qenc
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This is
MAXWELL`s I
EQUATION
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Steps to follow
1. Identify the type of charge distribution ( i.e either point , line , surface ,or volume
charge)
2. Check out whether symmetric charge distribution exists or not.
3.
5.
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-Since the Gaussian surface is a hollow sphere, hence the variable terms are and . Thus the
differential surface for a hollow sphere is given as:
ds = (=0)2 (=0) (r2 sin d d) ar = 4r2 ar
5. The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, Qenc = Q.
- Hence applying gauss law, we have
Qenc = Dr 4r2
Hence
2. An Infinite Line
- Consider an infinite line charge carrying a charge per unit
length of L along the z axis.
- Gaussian surface selected for a symmetric line charge is a
hollow cylinder of radius and length l as shown in the figure
- A cylinder has basically three surfaces: top, bottom and the
curved cylindrical surface.
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Hence its clear that D and ds are parallel to each other only for the curvilinear Gaussian
surface.
- Since the Gaussian surface is a hollow cylinder, hence the variable terms are and z. Thus
the differential surface for a hollow cylinder is given as:
ds = (=0)2 0l ( d dz) a S = 2l a
Hence applying gauss law, we have
Qenc = D 2l = L l
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(0 < r < a)
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If r > a (consider the above figure), the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is:
5.
(r > a)
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Q.1 A point charge of 30 nC is located at the origin while plane y = 3 carries charge 10 nC /
m2 . Find D at (0, 4, 3)?
Ans:
Electric flux density (D) at point (0, 4, 3) due to a point charge and line charge is given as:
D = DQ + D
For 0 r 10
Dr (4r2) = 2r (r2 sin dr d d)
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Dr (4r2) = 4 (2r4) / 4
For r 10
Dr (4r2) = 2ro (r2 sin dr d d)
Dr (4r2) = 4 (2ro4) / 4
Dr (4r2) = 2ro4
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v = . D
=4
At point (-1, 0,3) v = 4
b) The total charge (Q) enclosed by the cube
Q = v v dv
= (x=0)1 (y=0)1 (z=0)1 4x (dxdydz)
= 4 | (x2 / 2) |01 (1) (1)
=2C
c) The flux through the cube defined by:
= Qenc = 2C
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Qenc = v v dv
= (r=0) r (=0) (=0)2 o (a/r) (r2 sin dr d d)
= - o a | r2 / 2 |0r (2) | (cos) |0
= - o a (r2 / 2) (2) ( -2)
= 2 o ar2
Electric flux is given as:
Since,
= Qenc
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Dr (4r2) = 2 o ar2
D = [ (o a) / 2a ] ar
Electric Potential / Electrostatic Potential (V)
- If a charge is placed in the vicinity of another charge (or in the field of another charge), it
experiences a force.
- The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
VAB = WAB / Q
= - AB(E . dl)
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= - InitialFinal (E . dl)
NOTE :
1. If the potential difference is positive, there is a gain in
potential energy in the movement, external agent performs the work against the field.
2. If the sign of the potential difference is negative, work is done by the field.
3. The electrostatic field is conservative i.e. the value of the line integral depends only on end
points and is independent of the path taken.
- Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the electric potential can also be written as:
VAB = - AB (E . dl )
= - APo (E . dl) - PoB (E . dl)
= - PoB (E . dl) - (- APo(E . dl)
= VB VA
Thus the potential difference between two points in an electrostatic field is a scalar field that is
defined at every point in space and is independent of the path taken.
- The work done in moving a point charge from point A to point B can be written as:
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Electrostatic potential or Scalar Electric potential (V) at any point P is given by:
V = - PoP (E . dl)
The reference point Po is where the potential is zero (analogues to ground in a circuit).
The reference is often taken to be at infinity so that the potential of a point in space is defined
as
V = - P (E . dl)
- Basically potential is considered to be zero at infinity.
Thus potential at any point ( rB = r) due to a point charge Q
can be written as the amount of work done in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point (i.e. rA
)
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Electric potential (V) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with position vector
r1 is given as:
Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 .Qn located at points with position vectors r1, r2,
r3..rn, the electric potential (V) at point r is given as:
The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as:
dQ = ldl
dQ = vdv
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Relationship Between Electric Field Intensity (E) and Electric Potential (V)...
The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
VAB = VB - VA
Similarly,
VBA = VA VB
Hence its clear that potential difference is independent of the path taken.
Therefore
VAB = - VBA
VAB + VBA = 0
- AB (E . dl) + [ - BA (E . dl) ] = 0
- The above equation shows that the line integral of Electric field intensity (E) along a closed
path is equal to zero.
In simple words,
No work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
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If the Curl of any vector field is equal to zero, then such a vector field is called an Irrotational
or Conservative Field.
Hence an electrostatic field is also called a conservative field.
Since Electric potential is a scalar quantity, hence dV (as a function of x, y and z variables)
can be written as:
Hence the Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric potential (V).
The negative sign shows that E is directed from higher to lower values of V i.e. E is opposite
to the direction in which V increases.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE:
An equipotential surface refers to a surface where the potential is constant.
The intersection of an equipotential surface and a plane results into a path called an
equipotential line.
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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No work is done in moving a charge from one point to the other along an equipotential line
or surface i.e. VA VB = 0
Hence,
From the above equation, its clear that the electric flux lines and the equipotential surface
and normal to each other.
Because the electric field is the negative gradient of electric potential, the electric field
lines are everywhere normal to the equipotential surface and points in the direction of
decreasing potential.
The equipotential lines for a positive point charge. The solid lines show the flux lines
or electric lines of force.
Electric Potential (V) Due To A Circular Disc...
Consider a circular disc of radius a which carries a
uniform surface charge density s , C/m2.
Say the disk lies on x - y plane (or z = 0 plane) with its axis
along the z axis as shown in the figure.
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Electric potential (V) at a point due to any surface charge ( s) is given as:
In this case,
ds = d d
(Since its a disc, the varying terms are radius and angle )
R = (2 + h2)1/2
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Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two point charges of equal magnitude but of opposite sign and
separated by a small distance.
Consider an electric dipole centered at origin and placed
in z axis as shown in the figure:
The potential (V) at point P is given as:
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If r >> d,
r2 r1 d cos ;
r1 r2 = r ;
r1r2 r2
Substituting the values in the above equation, the potential at point P becomes:
- Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric Potential (V).
Hence,
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The expressions for electric potential (V) and field intensity (E) above are only valid for a
dipole centered at the origin and aligned with the z-axis.
To determine the fields produced by any arbitrary location and alignment, we first need to
define a new quantity p, called the Dipole Moment.
p=Qd
Since the distance d is a vector quantity, the dipole moment p is also a vector quantity.
Dipole moment p is a measure of the strength of the dipole and indicates its direction.
Vector d is a directed distance that extends from negative charge (- Q) to positive charge (+
Q). This directed distance vector d thus describes the distance between the dipole charges, as
well as the orientation of the charges.
Therefore
d = | d | ad
Where | d | is the distance between the charges and ad defines the orientation or direction of
the dipole.
Say a dipole is aligned along z axis, then directed distance d is given as:
d = | d | az
From the above diagram its clear that:
az . ar = cos
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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The above expression no doubt is applicable for all and any dipole moments p, but is valid
for dipoles centered at origin.
Electric potential (V) at point P with a position vector r due to a dipole centered at a point
with position vector r1 is given as:
= - (2x ax + 4y ay + 8z az )
= -2x ax - 4y ay - 8z az V/m
b) V = 2 (z + 1) sin
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Using the scalar relationship between Cartesian and spherical system, we have
r = (x2 + y2 +z2)1/2 = (100)1/2 =10
Hence
Electric potential at point r due to a point charge Q located at origin
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C = - 2.5
a) Electric potential at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point (-3, 2, 6) is given as:
= 3. 929 V
b) Electric potential at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point (1, 5, 7) is given as:
= 2.696 V
c) The potential difference VAB is given as:
VAB = VB VA = 2.696 3.929 = - 1.233 V
Q.3 If point charge 3 C is located at the origin. Also there are two more charges -4 C and
5 C are located at (2, -1, 3) and (0, 4, -2) respectively. Find potential at (-1, 5, 2) ? Assume
zero potential at infinity.
Ans:
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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For N point charges Q1, Q2 .Qn located at points with position vectors r1, r2, r3..rn, the
electric potential at point r is given as:
At V ( ) = 0, C = 0
| r r1 | = | (-1, 5, 2) (2, -1, 3) | = (46)1/2
| r r2 | = | (-1, 5, 2) (0, 4, -2) | = (18)1/2
| r r3 | = | (-1, 5, 2) (0, 0, 0) | = (30)1/2
Hence electric potential is given as:
= 10.3 kV
Q.4 An electric dipole of 100 az pC.m is located at the origin. Find V and E at points
a) (0, 0, 10)
b) (1, /3, /2)
Ans:
a) At point (0, 0, 10)
Cartesian Spherical
(x, y, z) (r, , )
(0, 0, 10) (10, 0 o, 0o)
VENKATA REDDY BOLLA GNITS
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Electric potential (V) due to a electric dipole centered at origin and aligned with the z axis is
written as:
Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric Potential (V).
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Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric Potential (V).
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- Now bring in another point charge Q3 from infinity to position r3 in the system. In this case
we have to do work against the electric field generated by Q1 and Q2.
Hence, W3 = Q3 V31 + Q3 V32 = Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
where V31 and V32 are electrostatic potential at point r3 due to Q1 and Q2 respectively.
- The work done is simply the sum of the work done against the electric field generated by
point charge Q1 and Q2 taken in isolation:
- Thus the total work done in assembling the three charges is given as:
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2 V21 + Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
- Also total work done ( WE ) is given as:
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- If the charges were positioned in reverse order, then the total work done in assembling
them is given as:
WE = W3 + W2+ W1
= 0 + Q2V23 + Q3( V12+ V13)
where V23 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q3 and V12 and V13 are electrostatic
potential at point r1 due to Q2 and Q3 respectively.
- Adding the above two equations we have,
2WE = Q1 ( V12 + V13) + Q2 ( V21 + V23) + Q3 ( V31 + V32)
= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3
Hence
WE =1 / 2 [Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3]
where V1, V2 and V3 are total potentials at position r1, r2 and r3 respectively.
- The result can be generalized for N point charges as:
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b) This is the work done in bringing the static charges from infinity and assembling
them in the required system.
c) This is the kinetic energy which would be released if the system gets dissolved i.e.
the charges returns back to infinity.
- In place of point charge, if the system has continuous charge distribution ( line, surface or
volume charge), then the total work done in assembling them is given as:
- Since v = . D and E = - V,
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Substituting the values in the above equation, work done in assembling a volume charge
distribution in terms of electric field and flux density is given as:
The above equation tells us that the potential energy of a continuous charge distribution is
stored in an electric field.
Q.1 Point charges Q1 = 1 nC, Q2 = -2 nC and Q3 = 3 nC and are positioned one at a time
and in that order at (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0) and (0, 0, -1) respectively. Calculate the energy in the
system after each charge is positioned?
Ans:
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No work is done in transferring the first charge Q1. However work done to transfer the point
charge Q2 is given as:
Q3. A point charge Q is placed at the origin. Calculate the energy stored in region r > a?
Ans:
Work done in assembling a volume charge distribution in terms of electric field and flux
density is given as:
Electric field intensity due to a point charge Q placed at origin is given as:
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