Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
CEE561 Project
Sanya Johnson
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Programs ...............................................................................................................................2
2. CONCRTE RESPONSE .............................................................................................................4
2.1 Concrete Elements ................................................................................................................4
2.2 Concrete Constitutive Relations .........................................................................................16
2.3 Cracking ..............................................................................................................................35
3. REINFORCEMENT RESPONSE ............................................................................................39
3.1 Reinforcement Elements .....................................................................................................39
3.2 Reinforcement Constitutive Relations ................................................................................43
3.3 Bond ....................................................................................................................................48
4. COMPARISON TABLES ........................................................................................................52
4.1 Concrete Response ..............................................................................................................52
4.2 Reinforcement Response ....................................................................................................54
5. REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................55
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
The purpose of this project was to compare a variety of software tools that employ non-linear
finite element methods for the analysis of reinforced concrete. The subject matter of this project
involves the theoretical basis of the programs where structural concrete is concerned; including
element libraries, concrete material models, and reinforcement material models. This project
does not cover non-structural concrete aspects nor does it cover the modeling procedures,
program structure, or aspects concerning the users interaction; the user interface and the preand post-processing procedures etc.
The data for each program utilized in this report was taken directly and objectively from the
respective users manuals. As such, the following three points should be noted: First, the
information presented for each program is based on the users manual as of the date listed in the
reference section of this report. Certainly as programs come out with newer versions, the data
presented herein may become out-of-date. Secondly, only the figure captions contain reference
citations. For brevity, the text contains no reference citations as all data of a specific nature were
obtained directly from the respective users manual. Thirdly, no attempt was made to suggest
one software program is superior to another for any reason. This report is simply meant to
present the available behavioral models for each of the programs included and is not meant to
compare all aspects and features of each program.
This report is organized as follows: First an introduction to each program is presented; second,
the concrete and reinforcement elements and behavioral models are presented; and finally, tables
are used to compare various aspects of the programs.
Finally, please note that the information presented herein is given simply as a general overview
of each programs capabilities concerning a given topic. In some cases, only figures are
presented for comparison and in others mathematical relationships are presented. For a full
understanding of the models available as well as their theoretical basis, derivations and
implementations, see the respective users manual and corresponding references.
Special thanks goes to Heui Hwang Lee, Oh-Sung Kwon, and Dr. Ho Jung Lee for their help and
clarifications.
1.2 PROGRAMS
ABAQUS
ABAQUS is a general purpose simulation tool based on the finite element method that can be
used for a variety of applications ranging from the modeling of civil engineering structures to
acoustics. To handle such a diversified range of applications, ABAQUS has two main analysis
products; ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit (used to model dynamic events using an
explicit dynamic finite element formulation) as well as four special-purpose products that are
add-ons to ABAQUS/Standard. Analysis of a model is performed via one or more of this suite
of products. Pre- and post-processing can be done using either another program or by
ABAQUS/CAE, (Complete ABAQUS Environment).
ABAQUS/Standard employs the finite element method to implicitly solve a system of equations
at each solution increment for the analysis of solid, shell, and framework models. This product
can be used to solve combinations of static and dynamic, linear and nonlinear problems.
ADINA
ADINA stands for automatic dynamic incremental nonlinear analysis. This software was
developed by ADINA R & D, Inc., a company whose mission is the development of the ADINA
analysis system. ADINA R & D was founded by Dr. K.J. Bathe, author of Finite Element
Procedures. The ADINA system is composed of many modules which together can simulate
nonlinear analysis of solids and structures, thermo-mechanical coupled analysis, compressible
and incompressible flow, and fluid-structure interaction.
ATENA
ATENA is a nonlinear finite element analysis program that specializes in the modeling and
computer simulation of reinforced concrete behavior. The program was developed by Cervenka
Consulting (Dr. Cervenka was the winner of the international panel response prediction contest).
The program consist of two primary components: 1) The solution core which houses the 2D and
3D continuum models, the element, material, and solution libraries and 2) The user interfaces.
ATENA is capable of calculating load carrying capacity, push-over analysis, crack widths,
accurate deflections and areas of concrete crushing.
DIANA
DIANA has been under development at the Department of Computational Mechanics at the TNO
Building and Construction Research in the Netherlands since 1972. It is a multi-purpose finite
element program based on the displacement method that is robust in the areas of concrete and
soil. In addition to its nonlinear capabilities, it offers a variety of analysis types such as: linear
static, dynamic, Euler stability, potential flow, and nonlinear dynamic analysis, to name a few.
OpenSees
OpenSees is a research oriented finite element program developed to simulate the response of
structural and geotechnical systems subjected to earthquakes. It has been selected as the
simulation component for the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES). In
OpenSees, structural components can be described on the element level using force-deformation
models, on the sectional level using moment-curvature models and on the fiber level using
material stress strain models. OpenSees has the capability to conduct the following analyses:
Static push-over, static reversed-cyclic, dynamic time-series, uniform-support excitation and
multi-support excitation.
VECTOR2
VecTor2 was developed at the University of Toronto to analyze the response of two-dimensional
reinforced concrete membrane structures subjected to in-plane short-term static monotonic,
cyclic, and reverse cyclic loading using the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT) and the
Disturbed Stress Field Model (DSFM) as the theoretical bases.
The MCFT incorporates a rotating smeared crack approach along with average stresses and
strains, and consideration of local crack conditions to analytically predict the load deformation
response of reinforced concrete membrane elements. The DSFM was developed to enhance the
MCFT. Two examples of such enhancements are: 1) an inclusion of crack shear slip
deformations; and 2) a decoupling of the orientations of the principal stress and strain fields.
Although VecTor2 was originally based on the MCFT and the constitutive relations formulated
with it, the user is free to select alternative relations to model various second order effects as
discussed further in this report.
ZEUS-NL
As the analysis and simulation platform of the Mid-America Earthquake Center, Zeus-NL was
developed to analyze nonlinear large displacement behavior of structures under static and
dynamic loading. ZeusNL has the capabilities of performing the following types of analyses:
Eigenvalue analysis to determine natural frequencies and mode shapes; Static pushover analysis,
with an ability to utilize both conventional and adaptive loading procedures; Static time-history
analysis; and Dynamic analysis, employing both synchronous and asynchronous excitation; and
static with non-variable loading. This program can account for both material and geometric
nonlinearities and can model the spread of inelasticity along member length and across section
depth.
2. CONCRETE RESPONSE
2.1 CONCRETE ELEMENTS
ABAQUS
ABAQUS has an extensive library of elements that can be used to model concrete, including
both continuum and structural elements. Elements are classified first by the family to which
they belong. This section describes element families that can be used to model concrete. (Please
note that the following is just a sampling of the available elements in ABAQUS.)
Axisymmetric solids ABAQUS also offers a library of axisymmetric solids with or without
twist. The element types are similar to the two-dimensional solids except that the degrees of
freedom correspond to displacement in the radial and in the z direction. ABAQUS also
offers axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation.
Infinite elements ABAQUS also has infinite elements for use with boundary value
problems in which there is no definite boundary. The properties of these elements are
defined by solid sections.
Warping elements Warping elements are special purpose elements used to model arbitrarily
shaped beam cross-section profile for use with Timoshenko beams.
Figure 4. ABAQUS
Beam Element
(Fig. 21.1.1-1 Ref. 1)
Figure 5. ABAQUS
Membrane Element
(Fig. 21.1.1-1 Ref. 1)
ADINA
The following continuum and structural elements are available in ADINA for the modeling of
reinforced concrete:
3-D plane stress (membrane). Some typical 2-D solid elements can be seen in the figure
below:
Three-dimensional solid elements General 3-D analysis can be performed using a variety of
3D isoparametric displacement-based finite elements ranging from four to 27 nodes. The 8node element has the incompatible mode feature. Also, degenerate elements are formed by
assigning the same global node to the local element nodes located along the same side or on
the same face.
Beam Elements The available beam elements are 2-node Hermitian elements that can
model transverse, longitudinal, and torsional displacements. The formulation of these
elements is based on Bernoulli-Euler beam theory although shear deformation can be
modeled if requested. The geometry and displacements can be seen in the figure below.
Available beam elements are:
Linear: displacements, rotations, and strains are
infinitesimally small; Large displacement elastic beam element: large displacements and
rotations can occur, however strains are small; Nonlinear elasto-plastic beam element:
models material non-linearities; and Moment-curvature beam element: the behavior is
defined by relationships between bending moment and curvature and between torsional
moment and angle of twist. .
Additionally, Iso-beam elements and axisymmetric shell elements are available which can be
employed as plane stress 2-D beam, plane strain 2-D beam, axisymmetric shell, and general
3-D beam forms. The axisymmetric shell element formulation is basically a 2-D beam
element that includes axisymmetric hoop stress/strain components.
Plate/shell elements Thin plates and shells can be modeled with the 3-node, six degree of
freedom per node, flat triangular element shown in Figure 10 below. The element includes
bending (discrete Kirchhoff) and membrane stress. Shear deformation cannot be modeled
ATENA
Available elements in ATENA are plane elements for 2D, 3D and axisymmetric analysis, and
solid 3D elements and special elements. According to the users manual, With few exceptions
all elements implemented in ATENA are constructed using isoparametric formulation with linear
and/or quadratic interpolation functions. Also, the majority of elements are integrated by Gauss
integration scheme. The available quadrilateral, triangular and 3D solid elements for the
modeling of concrete are presented in Figure 12 below. In this figure, the geometry of each
element is shown, in which the node positions are numbered such that the required nodes are
represented by solid points and the available additional nodes are indicated by open circles. Also
pictured in this figure are the quadrilateral Q-10 derived from a six-node triangle to create forms
not achievable with isoparametric elements (Figure 12 (f)),
smeared reinforcement superimposed over concrete layers. The smeared reinforcement layer
thickness is calculated based on the area of discrete reinforcement bars at that layer for which the
smeared reinforcement is modeled.
ATENA also offers a curvilinear nonlinear 3D beam element based on an element proposed by
BATHE(1982). This element, shown in Figure 14 below, uses quadratic approximation of its
shape and is geometrically and materially fully nonlinear.
DIANA
DIANA offers many structural and continuum elements for the modeling of concrete. The
following is a very brief description of what is available.
1. Beam Elements - DIANA has three classes of beam
elements: Class 1, classical beam elements with
directly integrated cross-section; Class 2, fully
numerically integrated classical beam elements; and
Class 3, fully numerically integrated Mindlin beam
elements. All of which can describe axial, shear, and
bending behavior.
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12
OpenSees
Reinforced concrete can be modeled with predefined sections or by elements with given material
properties. The available predefined sections are: elastic, uniaxial, elastic membrane plate, plate
fiber and general fiber sections. The fiber sections are composed of quadrilateral, circular,
triangular fiber patch objects, as well as straight and circular reinforcing bar fibers. OpenSees
has the following relevant elements available:
VECTOR2
VecTor2 only uses element types with linear (or bilinear) displacement functions. Concrete with
or without smeared reinforcement can be modeled with the following three element types:
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ZEUS-NL
In order to model reinforced concrete, Zeus-NL offers a single element type called the Cubic, a
cubic elasto-plastic 3D beam-column element. The element models both concrete and
reinforcement as at the two Gauss points, the cross section is divided into hundreds of fibers,
each fiber representing either concrete or steel. With the plane sections remain plane
assumption, as the element deforms, perfect bond is assumed and linear strain compatibility is
enforced. The stresses incurred in the concrete and steel are functions of the respective material
models used. The element is pictured in Figure 26 below.
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Zeus-NL offers a variety of predefined steel, reinforced concrete, and composite beam/column
sections that are modeled with the 3D beam-column element. The available reinforced concrete
sections are pictured in Figure 27 below.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 29. (a) Tension Stiffening and (b) Fracture energy cracking models in ABAQUS
(Fig. 18.5.1-1 and 18.5.1-2, Ref. 1)
As previously mentioned, because the model assumes primarily monotonic straining and
little or no unloading, the unload/reload response is elastic and includes plastic offset.
2. Brittle Cracking Model This model is available only in ABAQUS/Explicit and is intended
for applications in which the concrete behavior is dominated by tensile cracking and
compressive failure is not important. The model assumes linear elastic compression
behavior. Unloading/reloading in the compression region is linear elastic just as is the
assumed constitutive relationship for this model.
This model also models cracks in a smeared manner and the tension stiffening post-cracking
behavior can be accounted for by specifying a post stress-strain relation or by applying a
fracture energy criterion. Additionally, a brittle failure criterion can be defined, in which the
material point is considered to have failed once the number of cracks at that point reach a
user specified value (default is one). The associated element is then removed. If rebar is
present, this failure does not remove the rebars contribution to the element stress capacity,
unless specified to do so by the user.
3. Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model
This model takes into consideration
the degradation of the elastic stiffness
induced by plastic straining both in
tension and compression. It also
accounts for stiffness recovery effects
under cyclic loading.
The
compressive stress-strain relation can
be seen in the figure to the right. The
compressive behavior is elastic until
initial yield and then is characterized
by stress hardening followed by strain
softening after the ultimate point.
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ADINA
ADINA has an available Concrete Material
Model that can be used with 2D or 3D solid
elements which assumes small strains
regardless of use with small or large
displacement formulations. In compression,
the concrete material model assumes a
nonlinear stress-strain relation that includes
softening behavior. The multiaxial stressstrain relations are formulated based on the
uniaxial stress-strain relation as shown in
Figure 32 to the right. Tensile response is
linear until tensile failure corresponding to
the tensile capacity of the concrete. The
unloading response is linear back to the
origin, however, the slope depends on how
far along the monotonic loading regime the
unloading begins. If unloading is initiated at
Figure 32. ADINA uniaxial stress-strain law for
a point prior to the ultimate uniaxial
concrete (Figure 3.7-1 Ref. 2)
compressive strain, the slope is the initial
tangent modulus. If unloading is initiated at a
strain larger the ultimate uniaxial compressive strain, the unloading slope is a function of the
stresses and strains corresponding to ultimate and maximum compressive stress.
The tensile and compressive crushing failures are governed by respective failure envelopes to
establish the uniaxial stress-strain law accounting for multiaxial stress conditions, and to
identify whether tensile or crushing failure has occurred. Tensile failure occurs if the principle
tensile stress exceeds the tensile failure stress. At this point, the normal and shear stiffnesses
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across the failure plane are reduced. A smeared cracking approach is used in which tensile
response can be based either on tension stiffening or fracture energy. Post failure behavior
includes post tensile cracking, post compression crushing, and strain-softening.
ATENA
ATENA offers various concrete material models that will be described below.
(a)
(b)
Figure 33. ATENA SBETA (a) Uniaxial stress-strain law for concrete, (b) Biaxial
failure function (Figure 2-4, Ref. 3)
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Microplane Material Model This model will not be discussed herein, however the
following is a quote from the ATENA users manual: The basic idea of the microplane
model is to abandon constitutive modeling in terms of tensors and their invariants and
formulate the stress-strain relation in terms of stress and strain vectors on planes of various
orientations in the material, now generally called the microplanes.
DIANA
It is common in DIANA to combine a smeared cracking model for tension with a plasticity
model for compression, such as Mohr-Coulomb or Drucker-Pragar, both of which consider strain
hardening. As an alternative to specifying two separate models, the user can choose one of the
following three special concrete plasticity models which can handle both tension and
compression: 1) Rankine; 2) Rankine/Von Mises; and 3) Rankine/Drucker-Prager. In each case,
the Rankine criterion bounds the tensile stresses and the latter two cases, either the Von Mises or
Drucker-Prager criterion is applicable in the compression region.
Each of these models can be combined with hardening/softening models to better predict
response. The available hardening/softening models can be seen in the figure below:
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The available cracking models in DIANA are: smeared cracking, and total strain crack models
based on fixed and rotating crack concepts.
Figure 36. DIANA smeared cracking tension cut-off in twodimensional principal stress space (Fig. 6.1, Ref. 4)
In the constant tension cut-off model, a crack arises if the major principal stress exceeds the
tensile strength of the concrete. In the linear tension cut-off model, a crack arises if the
major principal tensile stress exceeds a minimum of two values, the tensile strength or
, a formula that accounts for lateral principal stress. The available brittle,
linear, multilinear, and nonlinear tension softening models for use with the smeared cracking
are shown in Figure 37 below:
Figure 37. Tension Softening DIANA Smeared Cracking (Fig. 6.2, Ref. 4)
In order to account for the reduction in shear stiffness due to cracking, two shear retention
relations are available for use with the smeared crack model: full and constant. In full shear
retention, the shear modulus is not reduced, whereas, with constant shear retention, the
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cracked shear stiffness is reduced in relation to a shear retention factor , which has a value
less than one.
Total Strain Crack Models The constitutive models based on total strain describe both the
tensile and compressive response and are developed along the lines of the Modified
Compression Field Theory (1999). There is also a three-dimensional version available that
was proposed by Selby and Vecchio (1985). Three types of cracking models are available
including 1) Fixed crack model (constitutive relations are evaluated in a coordinate system
that is fixed upon cracking), 2) Rotating crack model (constitutive relations are evaluated in
the principal directions of the strain vector), and 3) Non-orthogonal model (unlike the
previous two, crack directions are not assumed to be orthogonal).
The available pre-defined compressive behavioral models for use with the total strain crack
models are shown in the figure below. In addition, these models can be enhanced by adding
an increase in compressive strength due to lateral confinement as proposed by Vecchio and
Selby or a reduction duel to lateral cracking as proposed by Vecchio and Collins in 1993.
Compression functions can also be customized by the user.
Figure 38. Compressive behavior DIANA total strain crack model (Fig. 6.4, Ref. 4)
The available pre-defined tension softening behavioral models for use with the total strain
crack models are shown in the figure below.
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Figure 39. Tension softening DIANA total strain crack model (Fig. 6.4, Ref. 4)
The tension and compression stiffness degradation resulting from internal damage to the concrete
are accounted for separately in the loading-unloading-reloading curves as shown below. Also,
the user can define the hysteretic behavior for use with the Non-orthogonal model.
Figure 40. Loading-unloading for DIANA total strain crack models (Fig. 17.9, Ref. 4)
Like in the smeared cracking models, a shear retention factor can be used to model the reduction
in shear stiffness after cracking. This factor can range between zero and one with the fixed crack
concept and is assumed to equal one in the rotating crack concept.
OpenSees
OpenSees has the following four main concrete material models.
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2. Zero Tensile Strength This model employs the uniaxial compressive stress strain
relation proposed by Kent-Scott-Park in which there is no available tensile strength. The
unloading/reloading curve is degraded linear proposed by Karsan-Jirsa. This response
can be seen in the figure below.
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3. Linear Tension Softening This model employs a linear tension softening response as
shown in the figure below
4. Non-Linear Tension Softening This model has available tensile strength and nonlinear
tension softening as shown in the figure below.
VECTOR2
VecTor2 has many reinforced concrete compressive stress-strain relationships available to
choose from. These relationships can be classified as either pre-peak responses, full compressive
responses, or post-peak responses. These models are briefly described below:
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3. Popovics/Mander
Popovics (1973) was modified to model concrete confined with
transverse hoop reinforcement. The form of the curve is the same, however, the initial tangent
stiffness is assigned a particular value as described in the VecTor2 users manual.
4. Hognestad This compressive stress-strain relationship is
a parabola symmetric about the strain corresponding to
compressive peak stress.
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27
In order to account for compression softening, a reduction or softening of strength and stiffness
due to cracking and tensile straining, VecTor2 contains models used to calculate a softening
parameter, d that ranges between 0 and 1 that are used to modify the compression response
curves. According to the manual, Depending on how the models calculate and apply d, the
following compression softening models may be classified into two types: strength and strained
softened and strength-only softened models. The following models were developed based on
panel and shell element tests at the University of Toronto:
No compression softening:
Vecchio-Collins 1982:
o
o Strength-and-strained softened model, originally developed for the Hognestad
Parabola compression stress-strain model
Vecchio-Collins 1986:
o
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The following six models are available in VecTor2 to account for tension stiffening:
Bentz 1999 This model accounts for bond characteristics with a parameter, m that reflects
the ratio of the area of concrete to the bonded surface area of the reinforcement.
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Tension Chord Model (Kaufmann) This model was developed to address crack spacing
and tension stiffening effects in concrete reinforced with externally bonded FRP plates and
sheets as well as conventional reinforcement. This model considers a truss-like segment of
reinforced concrete as shown below. the tension chord model considers stresses and slips
between the concrete and reinforcement to determine the distribution of tensile stresses for
the two materials between the cracks. The corresponding average concrete tensile stress
equation can be found in the VecTor2 users manual.
To account for tension softening, the term fc1b is taken as the larger of that computed from the
tension softening base curve or the residual tensile stress, if included in the model. The
following three models are available in VecTor2 to account for tension softening:
Linear The base curve post-cracking stress-strain behavior is linearly decreasing to the
strain corresponding to zero stress as shown in figure 56 below. This figure also shows a
residual stress branch.
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Yamamoto 1999 No residual The base curve post-cracking stress strain behavior
decreases nonlinearly to the characteristic stress and strain and the linearly to the strain
corresponding to zero stress as shown in figure 57 below. This figure also shows a residual
stress branch.
In addition to the compressive and tensile responses previously discussed, VecTor2 is equipped
to model Tension Splitting, Lateral expansion, and confinement strength. Briefly, the means to
model these phenomena are described below:
Tension Splitting DeRoo 1995 is the model available in VecTor2 that account for tension
splitting. This is done by modifying the post-cracking Poissons ratio to reflect the dilation
effect of tension splitting. The following equation is used, where vo is the pre-cracking
Poissons ratio:
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Confinement Strength To account for the enhanced strength and ductility provided by
confined concrete, VecTor2 contains models that compute a parameter l that is used to
modify the compression response curves by increasing both the compressive strength and
corresponding compressive strain. The following three models are available:
1. Kupfer / Richart Model A modified version of a relationship, Kupfer et al. (1969),
that determines the strength of concrete subjected to biaxial compression.
2. Selby Model The stress enhancement factor l is taken as a ratio of the failure stress
(as determined numerically by Hsiesh et al. (1979)) to the uniaxial concrete cylinder
strength.
3. Monotoya / Ottosen Model Again, the stress enhancement factor is taken as the ratio
of the failure stress to the uniaxial concrete cylinder strength, however, the failure
stress is that proposed by Ottosen (1979).
In order to account for concretes response to cyclic and reverse cyclic loading, VecTor2 has
four different hysteric response models as described below:
No Plastic Offset In this model, the concrete unloads and reloads linearly to the origin of
the stress-strain curve (point of both zero stress and strain).
Plastic offsets; linearly loading/unloading In this model, the concrete unloads and reloads
linearly however, not to the origin. As such, plastic offset is accrued. The slope at which the
unloading and reloading takes place depends upon the loading history until that point.
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Palermo Model Plastic offsets; nonlinear w/ cyclic decay According to the VecTor2
manual, this model, proposed by Palermo and Vecchio (2002) is similar to the previous
plastic offset model but is enhanced by including modeling of damage in the reloading
curves, consideration for partial unloading and reloading, the shape of the unloading curves,
and calculations of the instantaneous plastic offset strains, in both the compression and
tension domains. The shapes of the hysteric curves are shown in the following figure:
(a)
(b)
Figure 58 (a) and (b). VecTor2 Palermo model of concrete hysteretic response
in compression and tension. (Figures 35 and 36, Ref. 6)
ZEUS-NL
The following three material models are available to model structural concrete.
1. Trilinear concrete model A simplified concrete model for uniaxial modeling that accounts
for residual strength. This model does not account for confinement or tensile resistance. See
Figure 59 (a) below.
2. Uniaxial constant confinement concrete model This nonlinear model, based on the work by
Mander et al (1988), assumes a constant (active) confinement defined by a factor k which
scales up the stress-strain response accounting for the maximum transverse pressure from
confining steel. See Figure 59 (b) below.
3. Uniaxial variable confinement concrete model This nonlinear model accounts for passive
confinement as it calculates and continuously updates the transverse confinement stress for
a given applied axial strain of an RC member under cyclic or transient loading. The means to
account for variable confinement was developed by Madas and Elnashai (1992). The
confinement is a function of the stirrup spacing and properties and the size of the concrete
core. See Figure 59 (c) below.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
The tensile response in Zeus depends upon which concrete constitutive model is chosen. If the
trilinear model is chosen, the concrete is assumed to have no tensile capacity. However, if either
of the confined concrete models are chosen, then tensile stress up until the tensile capacity of the
concrete is available.
The concrete response to cyclic loading for the active confinement model was enhanced by
Martinez-Rueda and Elnashai (1997) to enable the prediction of continuing cyclic degradation
of strength and stiffness. The cyclic response of the passively confined model was also
enhanced (by Madas and Elnashai (1992)) to account for the changing transverse confinement
stress. The unloading/reloading curves for both of these models are pictured in Figures 59 (b)
and (c) above.
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2.3 CRACKING
ABAQUS
The way in which each of the three concrete models in ABAQUS handles cracking is presented
below:
1. Smeared Crack Concrete Model This model does not track independent cracks, but rather
cracking is assumed to occur when the stress reaches a crack detection surface. The model
is dominated by the cracking and post-cracking anisotropic behavior. At each integration
point, constitutive calculations are performed independently and the stress and stiffness are
affected by the presence of cracking. Cracked shear retention is considered by either
specifying the reduction in the shear modulus as a function of the opening strain across the
crack or by reducing the shear modulus for closed cracks.
2. Brittle Cracking Model As with the previous model, this model assumes cracking is
smeared. This model assumes that the crack directions are fixed and orthogonal, and only a
specified number of cracks at a material point are allowed. Cracks are detected with a
Rankine crack initiation criterion: the maximum principal tensile stress exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete. The cracked shear modulus is reduces as the crack opens.
3. Concrete Damage Plasticity Model This model does not use the smeared crack approach of
the other two models. However, certain criteria can be adopted to visualize graphically the
effective crack direction.
ADINA
Crack propagation can be analyzed in ADINA for 2-D solids using two techniques: 1) Node
shift/release in which the propagation of the crack tip is modeled by shifting and releasing
successive crack tip nodes through the mesh; and 2) Node release-only in which the crack tip
node is not shifted, but only released.
ATENA
After cracking, the constitutive relation in the SBETA model is used in combination with the
crack band to model crack propagation based on a crack-opening law and fracture energy.
Both the SBETA and Fracture-Plastic models incorporate two smeared crack models, fixed and
rotating in which fracture is based on nonlinear fracture mechanics. In both cases, cracks form
when the principal tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. In the fixed crack
model based on Cervenka (1985) and Darwin (1974), once the crack forms, the crack direction is
defined by the direction of principal stress. The direction remains the same upon continued
loading. Also, the shear modulus is reduced according to the law derived by KOLMAR (1986)
to represent the reduction in shear stiffness due to the crack opening. In the rotated crack model
based on Vecchio (1986) and Crisfield (1989), the crack direction changes as the principal strain
direction changes.
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DIANA
DIANA offers smeared and discrete crack modeling. The smeared crack models incorporate the
full tensile response and therefore are described previously in the constitutive model section.
Discrete cracks can be modeled with interface elements.
OPENSEES
The cracking strength is taken as the specified uniaxial cracking strength. When the strain in the
concrete fiber exceeds the cracking strain, tensile stresses diminish to zero. Other than this, there
is no means to model cracking behavior or local conditions at cracks.
VECTOR2
VecTor2 has the following five cracking criterion models available:
1. Uniaxial cracking stress The cracking strength is taken as the specified uniaxial cracking
strength:
2. Mohr-Coulomb (stress) In this model, the cracking strength is the principal tensile stress,
fc1, of the Mohrs circle tangent to the failure envelope as shown in figure 60 below.
VecTor2 assumes the internal angle of friction is 37, c is a cohesion parameter, and fcru is
the unconfined cracking strength.
36
3. Mohr-Coulomb (strain) In this model, the cracking strength can be computed by using the
Mohrs circle of strains given the principal concrete strains:
4. CEB-FIP Model Based on a relationship developed by Kupfer et al. (1973), the cracking
strength is reduced as the biaxial compression is increased:
5. Gupta 1998 Model This model proposes a linear reduction in cracking strength as axial
compression increases (increased compressive strain):
3. Gupta 1998 Model This model is a modified version of the Vecchio-Collins 1986
model due to the results of a series of shear transfer tests. This model includes a factor,
R that accounts for the roughness of the crack surface:
37
ZEUS-NL
In considering flexural behavior, if either the active or passive confinement concrete constitutive
model is used, the cracking strength is taken as the specified uniaxial cracking strength. When
the strain in the concrete fiber exceeds the cracking strain, tensile stresses diminish to zero.
Other than this, there is no means to model cracking behavior or local conditions at cracks.
38
3. REINFORCEMENT RESPONSE
3.1 REINFORCEMENT ELEMENTS
ABAQUS
Rebar can be specified as smeared layers in membrane, shell, or surface elements as shown in
Figure 61 below. Rebar can also be included in continuum elements by embedding rebar
defined surface or membrane elements into the continuum element. Alternatively, elementbased rebar can be defined for membrane, shell, surface, continuum and beam elements.
Additionally, rebar can be modeled discretely in beam elements.
Figure 61. ABAQUS Rebar in a three-dimensional shell, membrane, or surface element (Figure 2.2.3-3, Ref. 1)
ADINA
To model rebar, truss elements can be connected to the 2D or 3D solid concrete elements. Truss
elements that can be used as rebar elements include axisymmetric and 3D truss elements. The
truss elements used to model reinforcement in higher-order continuum or shell elements are the
3- and 4- node truss elements shown below:
39
ATENA
ATENA offers both smeared and discrete reinforcement. The associated available elements are
discussed below.
Truss 2D and 3D elements These two or three node elements can be used in both plane
2D and 3D analysis models to model straight or radial reinforcement.
Reinforcement Bars with Prescribed Bond These discrete elements are fully bonded to
the surrounding concrete with limited prescribed bond strength (cohesion stress).
Slippage occurs if the cohesion stress rises above the bond strength.
40
DIANA
Like in VecTor2, discrete reinforcement can be modeled using regular truss elements. DIANA
also has enhanced truss elements for geometrically nonlinear and dynamic analysis.
Additionally, two types of embedded reinforcement are also available in DIANA, the bar and the
grid. These types are embedded in the structural elements, do not have degrees of freedom of
their own and by default are in perfect bond with the element in which they are embedded. The
strains and stresses are coupled to the degrees of freedom of the surrounding element. As
shown in Figures 65, and 66, the bar and grid elements are divided into several particles and thus
take on shapes and properties which may deviate from a line (in the case of a bar), or a flat
rectangle (in the case of a grid).
OpenSees
Truss elements are used in OpenSees to model concrete reinforcement.
41
VECTOR2
Discrete reinforcement is modeled using truss elements, with or
without bond-slip elements. If bond-slip elements are not used,
the reinforcement (truss) elements share common nodes with
the concrete elements and thus perfect bond is assumed. This
truss element has two nodes and four degrees of freedom (in the
global sense). The truss is considered a structural element and
its axial stiffness is related to its area, modulus of elasticity, and
length.
Figure 67. VecTor2 Truss Bar
Element (Figure 11, Ref. 6)
ZEUS-NL
As described previously, both concrete and reinforcement are modeled in the element type called
the Cubic, a cubic elasto-plastic 3D beam-column element. For more information on this
element, see the Zeus-NL component of the Concrete Elements section of this report.
42
ADINA
Many material models are available in ADINA for the modeling of reinforcement. Some such
models include elastic-isotropic, nonlinear-elastic, plastic-bilinear, and plastic-multilinear. As
an example, the Bilinear isotropic hardening model is pictured in Figure 68 below.
ATENA
Reinforcement can be modeled as discrete, using truss elements, or smeared, in which case it is
considered a component of composite material. In either case, the reinforcement stress strain
relationship can be defined by one of the following laws:
43
Cycling Reinforcement Model This model was developed by Menegotto and Pinto (1973)
and accounts for isotropic hardening under cyclic loading.
44
DIANA
Three material models are available in DIANA for the modeling of the bar and grid embedded
reinforcement.
1. Linear Elasticity This model is based on Youngs model and includes the influence of
temperature variations.
2. Plasticity Includes Von Mises yield criterion, strain hardening. This model also includes
the influence of temperature variations and corrosion.
3. User Supplied A general user-supplied nonlinear material behavior model can be specified
for both bar and grid type embedded reinforcement.
If truss members are used to model the reinforcement, a plasticity model combined with a strain
hardening model can be implemented (including plastic offset hysteretic response).
OpenSees
If a reinforced concrete section is defined, steel
fibers can be modeled with a uniaxial steel material
model based on the Chang and Mander model
(1994). The curve shown in Figure 72, represents
both tensile and compressive stress-strain relations
and takes into effect strain hardening. This model
has the additional capability of shortening the yield
plateau to better represent test data where strain
reversals are concerned.
OpenSees also has an elastic and an elastic-perfectly plastic material objects that can be used to
model reinforcing steel as shown in Figure 73 below.
Elastic
Elastic-Perfectly Plastic
45
VECTOR2
The available reinforcement constitutive models in VecTor2 are briefly described in the bulleted
points below. Additionally, VecTor2 offers the Tassios Model to model dowel action and the
Asatsu Model to model reinforcement buckling.
VecTor2 also has tension and compression only reinforcement options available. For tension
only, the constitutive response in tension is the trilinear relationship used for ductile steel and
the reinforcement stresses in compression are always zero. The opposite is used for
compression only reinforcement. VecTor2 also has an externally bonded FRP reinforcement
option.
ZEUS-NL
Reinforcement is modeled with a bilinear elasto-plastic model with kinematic strain-hardening.
The strain hardening is accounted for by modifying the post yield elastic stress-strain slope by a
strain-hardening parameter as shown in the figure below.
46
As shown in Figure 75 above, the unloading branch is linear with a slope equal to the elastic
modulus of the steel, resulting in plastic strain offset.
47
3.2 BOND
ABAQUS
Bond between concrete and rebar is modeled in ABAQUS approximately by introducing tension
stiffening into the concrete modeling to simulate load transfer across cracks through the rebar.
However, contact elements can also be used to model bond.
ADINA
Perfect bond is assumed between reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete.
ATENA
ATENA offers reinforcement elements with prescribed bond strength as previously mentioned.
Also interface elements can also be used instead of the prescribed bond to model the cohesion
between the concrete and reinforcing bars.
Bond-slip relations define the bond strength depending on the value of current slip between
reinforcement and surrounding concrete. ATENA has two models available that are based on
the compressive strength of the concrete and the type and diameter of the reinforcement. The
available models are pictured in the figure below. The user is also free to define their own bond
slip model.
DIANA
In order to model bond-slip in DIANA, it is suggested to use truss elements connected to the
surrounding elements via structural interface elements. Structural interface elements describe
the interface behavior between the normal and shear tractions and the normal and shear relative
48
displacements across the interface and as such can be used to model bond-slip along
reinforcement as well as discrete cracking DIANA offers three such structural interface
elements as follows:
1. Nodal Interface Elements Placed between two nodes. The figure below is an example
of a node interface element between two nodes in which variables are the nodal
displacements, relative displacements and tractions.
2. Line Interface Elements Placed between truss elements, beam elements, or edges of
two- and three-dimensional elements. The figure below is an example of a line interface
element between two lines in two-dimensions in which variables are the nodal
displacements, relative displacements and tractions.
3. Plane Interface elements Placed between faces of two- and three- dimensional
elements. The figure below is an example of a plane interface element between two
planes in three-dimensions in which variables are the nodal displacements, relative
displacements and tractions.
49
OPENSEES
Perfect bond is assumed between reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete.
VECTOR2
The two bond-slip elements available in VecTor2 are described as follows:
1. Link Elements The link element, magnified in Figure 81 below, is an element used to
measure bond-slip between concrete and reinforcement. The link element contains two nodes,
one associated with a truss element and one associated with a concrete element. Until slippage
occurs, these two nodes share the same location. This element measures bond slip between the
concrete and reinforcement at a particular node through a combination of displacements and
stresses measured tangential and radial to the reinforcement (truss) element, for a total of four
degrees of freedom.
2. Contact Elements The contact element is similar to the link element in that it measures
bond-slip between concrete and reinforcement as a function of the displacements and stresses
measured tangential and radial to the reinforcement (truss) element. However, instead of a single
pair of nodes, there are two pairs, located at each end of the truss member giving the contact
element a linear dimension and thus a continuous interface along the truss element and a total of
eight degrees of freedom. Linear interpolation is used between the displacements at the two
node pairs to determine displacements along the contact element.
50
VecTor2 has bond stress-slip models for embedded bars as well as externally bonded plates. The
externally bonded plate model is based on reference bond stress and slips provided by the user.
In VecTor2, the stress-slip relationships for embedded bars are calculated internally according to
one of the following selected models:
Perfect bond Deformation of the bond element is prevented due to assigned large stiffness
and strength characteristics.
Graphs characterizing models proposed by Eligenhause et al. (1983), Gan, and Harajli, as
well as a hooked bar model are presented below, where , if included, is a parameter that
reflects confinement pressure. (In addition to these, there is a Fujii model that provides bond
strength and ductility lower the these mentioned herein).
Figure 84. VecTor2 Gan bond stressslip response (Figure 42, Ref. 1)
Figure 85. VecTor2 Harajli bond stressslip response (Figure 43, Ref. 1)
ZEUS-NL
Perfect bond is assumed as the reinforced concrete is considered a single entity.
51
4. COMPARISON TABLES
Structural Elements
ABAQU
S
ADIN
A
ATEN
A
DIAN
A
OpenSee
s
VecTor
2
Beam
Continuum Elements
Plate/Shell
2D Solids
3D Solid
52
ZeusN
L
Constitutive Relations
OpenSees
VecTor2 ZeusNL
Compression Softening
Tension Stiffening
Cracking Model
Plastic Offset
Smeared
Shear Strength
Check
Discrete
53
Crack Width
Check
ADINA
ZeusNL
Elements
Discrete
Constitutive Relations
Smeared
Strain Hardening
Plastic Offset
Bond
Specific Elements
54
Bond Slip Relations
55
5. REFERENCES
1. ABAQUS Analysis Users Manual. ABAQUS Version 6.6. ABAQUS, Inc. 2006.
2. Theory and Modeling Guide Volume 1: ADINA Solids and Structures. ADINA R & D,
Inc. October 2005.
3. Cervenka, Vladimir, Libor Jendele, and Jan Cervenka. ATENA Program Documentation:
Part 1 Theory. Cervenka Consulting. Prague, Czech Republic: 2005,
4. TNO Building and Construction Research. DIANA Finite Element Analysis Users
Manual. Release 8.1 September 2002.
5. Mazzoni, Silvia, Frank McKenna, Michael H. Scott, Gregory L. Fenves, et al. OpenSees
Command Language Manual. Open System for Earthquake Engineering Simulation
(OpenSees). The Regents of the University of California: 2000.
6. Wong, P.S. and F.J. Vecchio. VecTor2 & FormWorks Users Manual. August 2002.
7. Elnashai, Amr S., Vassilis Papanikolaou, and Do Hyung Lee. ZEUS NL A System for
Inelastic Analysis of Structures Users Manyal. Version 1.3
8. Cook, Robert D., David S. Malkus, Michael E. Plesha, and Robert J. Witt. Concepts and
Applications of Finite Element Analysis. Fourth Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.:
2002.
9. Vecchio, Frank J. and Michael P. Collins. The Modified Compression-Field Theory for
Reinforced Concrete Elements Subjected To Shear. ACI Journal. March-April: 1986.
56