EducationAggression and Hypoglycemia Among The Qolla: A Study in Psychobiological Anthropology

University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education
Aggression and Hypoglycemia among the Qolla: A Study in Psychobiological Anthropology

Author(s): Ralph Bolton
Source: Ethnology, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jul., 1973), pp. 227-257
Published by: University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education
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Aggression
and
Hypoglycemia
Among
A
Study
in
the
Qolla:
Psychobiological
Anthropologyl
RalphBolton
PomonaCollege
In a seriesof important
writingspublished
morethantenyearsago,Anthony
F. C. Wallace(I960, I96Ia, I+Ib, I96IC, I962) suggestedthatspecialists
in
the fieldof cultureandpersonality
expandthe scopeof theirinterestsand
incorporate
newtheoretical
perspectives
intotheirthinking.He recommended
that anthropologists
devotemoreattentionto two significant,thoughneglected,problemareas:(I) the relationbetweencultureandcognition,and
(2)
thebiological
basesof culturalbehavior
andmentalillness.In reviewing
Wallace's
proposals,
LeVine(I963:II0)
notedthatthesewritings"constitute
a challengeto the cultureandpersonality
fieldsto considerrivalbiopsychologicaltheoriesfortheinterpretation
of dataratherthandrawingexclusively
uponthe one theoretical
framework
derivedfrompsychoanalytic
sources,"
andhe concluded
bysaying,"Itseemsunlikelythatinvestigators
cancontinue
to ignorebiologicaland cognitivefactorsin cross-cultural
studiesof personality."
Duringthepastdecadeanthropologists
haveresponded
to oneof Wallace's
challenges;
andone of LeVine'spredictions
hasprovento be accurate.
We
havewitnessed
theemergence
of a majoremphasis
on thestudyof cognition,
and,atthesametime,wehaveseena "decline
in popularity"
of psychoanalytic
workamonganthropologists
(PeltoI967). However,
Wallace's
otherchallenge
hasnot beentakenup.Biological
factorsin socialandculturalbehavior
and
in mentalillnesshavenotbeenwidelyexplored.
Withsomenotableexceptions,
psychobiological
approaches
to problems
in cultureandpersonality
continue
to be neglected.
In thispaper,I shallattemptto demonstrate
the utilityof a
psychobiological
approach
to cultureandpersonality
byapplyingit to a traditionalproblem
in psychological
anthropology.
In the research
reportedherewith,I set out to discoverthe rootsof social
conflictamongtheQollaIndiansof Peru.2SinceI wasunableto accountfor
theformsandintensityof aggressive
behavior
foundonthebasisof socialand
culturalfactorsalone,I directedmy attentionto an examination
of the possiblebiological
factorswhichmightberesponsible
fortheapparently
irrational
227

228 ETHNOLOGY
aspectsof Qollaagonisticbehavior.Consequently,
this studyis intended
asa contribution
to theexplanation
of thenatureandetiologyof theso-called
Aymarapersonality
andtheaggressive
behavior
of Andeanpeoples.By providinga partialsolutionto thatquestion,I shallendeavor
to showthatwe
haveadvancedour theoretical
understanding
of a problemof considerably
broader
concern
throughout
thebehavioral
sciences,
thecausesof aggression.
AYSIARA
PERSONALITY
Generalizations
aboutthe outstanding
characteristics
of Qollasocialbehaviorarelargelycontained
in thecorpusof literature
whichdealswiththe
Aymarapersonality.
TableI presentsa list of the salientfeaturesof social
TABLE 1
Behavioraland PersonalityTraits Attributedto Aymara-SpeakingQolla
Paredes
*
pesslmlstlc
doubtful of everything
expect only the bad
fearful
no creativeimpulses
.
Forbes
su Dmlsslve
reflective
silent
cruel
highly suspicious
intense hate
distrustful
non-communicative
*
distrustful
su zmlsslve
hostile
self-pitying
Bandelier
distrustful
*
su Dmlsslve
neglectful
gruff
ma lClOUS
quarrelsome
rancorous
dishonest
cruel
.
pugnacious
Carter
anxious
hostile
.
su Dmlsslve
utilitarian
deceitful
vengeful
fatalistic
miserly
distrustful
little appreciationfor
originalthought
boastful
Tschopik
anxious
hostile
irresponsible
submissive
disorderly
.
La Barre
apprehensive
crafty
treacherous
violent
hostile
turbulent
sullen
humble
melancholic
*
Romero
reticent
silent
melancholic
distrustful
no lmaglnatlon
cruel
no aspirations
emotionally
unstable
*
su Dmlsslve
pugnacious
bad humor
emotionallyunstable
Squier
sullen
cruel
morose
jealous
vindictive
Utl ltarlaIl
See Tschopik (1951) for details on Paredes,Forbes,Squier,Romero,Bandelier,

and La Barre;and see Carter(1965, 1966, 1968).

QOLLA
AGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
229
behaviorandpersonality
attributed
to the Aymara-speaking
Qollaby eight
different
scholars.
Althoughthetermsemployed
bydifferent
observers
arenot
alwaysidentical,in generalthe descriptions
areconsistent
withone another
andarecompatible
with the interpretation
of high aggressiveness
andpervasivehostilityamongtheQolla.
"Inthe anthropological
literature,"
as Pelto (Ig67: I5I) has pointedout,
"theseAndeanhighlanders
areportrayed
as perhapsthe meanestandmost
unlikablepeopleon earth."In fact,the Aymara-speaking
Qollain recent
yearshavebeencitedby numeroustextbookwriters(e.g., BarnouwI963,
I97I; HarrisIg7I) as theclassic
exampleof a peoplewithan extrememodal
personality
configuration
dominated
by excessesof hostilityandaggressiveness.Withtheexception
of Plummer(I966), mostauthorities
agreewiththis
evaluation.
It canbSetracedbackas farasthe sixteenthcentury,whenPadre
Martlnde Murua(I946) a Mercedarian
friar,described
theQollaas'brutos
y torpes,"wordswhichin Englishcanbe glossedas "irrational,
cruel,uncivilized,stupid,dull."
The Qolla,as I haveobserved
them,tendto swagger,especially
wheninebriated,
andat suchtimestheyfrequently
indulgein monologues
describing
theirown ferocitywhilelaughingat the puninessof theirenemies."Noqa
q'aritani,
taraho"
theyshout,gesticulating
wildlyin the air,as if in the
faceof thepersonbeinginsulted.'iIama man,dammit!You,youarenothing
buta dog,anass,excrement!"
Whilethereis a concernfordisplaying
masculinity,it wouldbe inaccurate
to claimthatthe Qollapossessa full-blown
machismocomplex.
Qollainformants
sometimesattestedthatgoingto law overinsignificant
damagesto crops,for example,wasnecessary
to preventfuturerecurrences.
O-nemust defendoneself.A Qollaman mustbe strongenoughto deter
potentialencroachments
on hissexualandeconomic
rightsbyothermembers
of hissociety.In theprevention
of suchinfringements
a reputation
forfiercenessmightbevaluable.
Credibility
is gainedbya demonstration
of willingness
to reactvigorously,
regardless
of the costs,whenanyonedaresto infringe,
evenby accident.Indeed,a smallamountof "irrational"
touchiness
might
addto theeffectiveness
of one'sstance.
In realitytheQolladonothaveanethicwhichextoIsviolenceoraggressiveness.Insteadtheirmoralcodedemandsof themcharity,compassion,
and
co-operation
withallmen.Informants
werequiteadamant
in theirinsistence
upontheimportance
of Christian
virtues.Neitherpersistent
probingnormy
mostskillfulcajolinginterrogation
couldbudgeinformants
in the slightest
froma rigidadherence
to a seriesof moralimperatives
by whichmenareto
be guidedat all times.Often,duringsuchinterviewingsessionsbut in a
differenttopicalcontextn
informants
wouldillustratehow theyhad reacted
tosituations
in whichthecodecouldbethoughttoapply.Whiletheinformants
rarelyperceived
thediscrepancy
betweentheirownconductandtheconduct
calledfor by the code,the dispa,rity
vrasenormous.
In theirmoraldiscourse
the Qollaset exorbitantly
high standards
for themselves,
andthattheyfail
to meetthosestandards
is not surprising.
Butthattheyshouldfail so miserablyis strange.

230 ETHNOLOGY
to my
whogaveanswers
IntheendI cameto agreewithseveralinformants
others'
each
slaughtered
another,
one
killed
people
why
about
questions
animals,burnedtheircrops,foughtwiththem,andso forth.Theyinsisted:
"Suchbehavioris not rational.A rationalpersoncouldnot do thingslike
that!No es racional,pues."Studyof the conflictcasefilewhichI compiled
of Qollapeasants
seemedto suggestthatin thatevent,the "irrationality"
wascausingmuchtroublein thevillageof Incawatana.
syndrome
havetriedto accountfor thebehavioral
Severalanthropologists
of whatcan
hasbeenthe majorproponent
to the Qolla.LaBarre
attributed
In a seriesof articles(cf. LaBarre
hypothesis."
be calledthe "domination
he has offeredthe notionthat the antisocialbehaviorand
I966),
I965,
of yearsof
Qollaarea resultof hundreds
attitudesof theAymara-speaking
butit suffersfroma
carriesa certainplausibility,
Thishypothesis
domination.
whetherInca,
by whichsuchdomination,
failureto specifythe mechanism
within
intohostilityandaggression
Spanish,or mestizo,becomestranslated
the villages.It alsofailsto describethe variableswhichformpartof the
concept.
comlnatlon
LaBarre(I965: 2g) notesthat"fromourearliestknowledgeof them the
societysuchas is not
power-stratified
Aymarahavehad an authoritarian,
development."
agricultural
foundamongpeopleof considerable
uncommonly
He continues(ibid.,p. 30):
.
We know somethingof the resultsin behaviorand moraIefrom experimentsof

psychologistswith varying 'autocratic'and 'democratic'organizationof groups to
advanceour hypothesis:if the Aymara,as evidencedin their folktales(and indeed
violent
crafty,treacherous,
throughoutthe rest of their culture), are apprehensive,
and hostile,one reasonfor this may be that such a characterstructureis an understandableresponseto theirhavinglived underrigidlyhierarchic,absolutist,tyrannical
economic,militaryand religiouscontrolsfor perhapsas long as a millennium.
to
causesmightbe at workin contributing
Withoutdenyingthathistorical
is suspectforseveralreasons.
argument
of theQolla,LaBarre's
thepersonality
Theywere
to whichhe alludeshavelittlerelevance.
First,the experiments
communities
and
homes
democratic
less
or
more
in
presumably
out
carried
Second,
atmosphere.
toan"autocratic"
notaccustomed
obviously
withchildren
lookirlgat lifefromwithinthevillageratherthanfromthevantagepointof
rigid
an outsideobservera casecanbe madefor the reverseof absolutism,
The
anarchic.
is
villages
Qolla
within
Life
tyranny.
external
and
hierarchy,
whenhe said,
summedup by oneof my informants
situationwassuccinctly
societalstructure
If an authoritarian
"Wesufferfromtoo muchfreedom!"
then,as my informant's
structure,
character
has producedan authoritarian
impliestheliftingof controlscouldbe asmucha sourceof anxiety
statement
to see
moreso.It is difficult
orperhaps
themselves,
andhostilityasthecontrols
andanarchy
bothhierarchy
canaccommodate
hypothesis
howthedomination
asthecausesof Qollabehavior
andthereleasefromdomination,
domination
andattitudes.
by the Incas,then
Thereis anothersense,however,in whichdomination
of
development
the
to
contributed
have
may
mestizos
andfinally
Spaniards,
Qollabehaviorpatterns.As Murra(I968) haspointedout,previousto the

QOLLA
AGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
23I
exogenous
conquests,
eachotheQollastatescontrolled
vastareasencompassing manydifferentecological
zones.Thesestateswerenot fractionated
into
communities
alongcontemporary
lines.If thisis thecase,thenit maybethat
pre-Incaic
residentsof Qollaterritoryenjoyeda healthierdietandaccessto
moreresources
thanthemodernQolla.If true,thenan inadequate
diet,possiblyoneof thecausesof thephysiological
conditionwhichproduces
aggression,couldbeattributed
to conquest
of theregionbyoutsideforces.
Harris(I97I: 577),too,hasarguedin favorof thedomination
hypothesis.
He writesthat,"Asin thecaseof theChimborazo
of Ecuador,
the temperamentof theAymarareflectsa historicprocessof sustained
deprivation
at the
handsof both Indianand Spanishrulingclasses."In discussingAndean
xenophobia,
Harris(I97I: 478) assertsthat"hostility
andfearareadaptively
correctresponses"
to outsiders.
He doesnot indicatethe extentto whichhe
believes
thatintravillage,
interpersonal
aggression
andhostilityare"adaptively
correct
responses."
Barnouw(I963) usedtheAymarapersonality
to illustrate
thecomplexities
involvedin tryingto unravelthe networkof etiological
factorscontributing
to the development
andmaintenance
of an extrememodalpersonality.
He
listed(BarnouwI963: I5-I6) a seriesof factorswhichhe suggestedmight
enterintotheetiology.
High altitude,excessivedrinking and coca chewing, combinedwith unsanitary
homes,inadequateclothing,poor diet, and much sickness is there any wonderthat
the Aymaraare unhappy?Yet theseare not the only factorsthat may be responsible
for their alleged charactertraits.There is also the historicalbackgroundof these
peopleand theirsocialrelationships
with the Mestizostowardwhom they play a submlsslvero.e.
.
Aftersurveying
hislistof possible
causes,Barnouw
recognized
theinadequacy
of someof them.Forexample,
he statesthataltitudemaynotbea significant
factor;afterall,theNepaleseandTibetansalsoliveat highaltitudesanddo
not havethe samereputation.
Indeed,it is possiblethat,takenindividually,
anyoneof thesefactorsmightberefutable.
In essence,then,we find two closelyrelatedhypotheses
in the literature
to accountforAymaraaggressiveness:
(I) thedomination
hypothesis,
which
emphasizes
the roleof socialsubordination
in the etiologyof the Aymara
personality,
and (2) the environmental-harshness
hypothesis,
whichplaces
emphasis
on a seriesof stressfactorsfoundin theculture,society,andphysical
environment
of theQolla.
In thispaperI shallsuggestthatit is socialandphysicalstresses
in theQolla
environment
thatpromoteaggressiveness
throughtheircombinedeffectson
the physiological
conditionof individualssubjected
to them.I shallargue
-thatproblems
of glucosehomeostasis
arecausally
relatedto aggressiveness.
In
examiningthe termsin TableI, one findsthat aggressiveness
is the most
frequentlymentionedtrait,althoughthe conceptis oftentaggedby other
descriptive
terms.In accounting
forQollaaggressiveness,
consequently,
I hope
to explainin largepart the distinctivefeatureof the Qolla or Aymara
personality.
The hypothesis
whichI amproposing
maybe calledthe "hypoglycemiahypothesis."

232 ETHNOLOGY
IN INCAWATANA
AGGRESSION
Varieties
of aggression
behavior
of themajorformsof aggressive
to a discussion
Beforeproceeding
I wishto definetwotermswhichI shallbeusing.Aggression,
in Incawatana,
followingBerkowitz(I962), iS behaviorwhosegoal is the injuryof some
referto responsetenand aggressiveness
object.Aggressive,aggressivity,
is excludedthemoregenFromthisdefinition
denciesinvolvingaggression.
whichis sometimespartof the definitionof
eralideaof self-assertiveness
in thesenseintended
involvesaggression
Not allself-assertion
aggressiveness.
by the definitionusedhere.Included,however,is the notionof intention.It
personto do harmto someotherpersonor
is theintentionof an aggressive
object.
of injury.Consequently,
involvestheintention
behavior
Not alloppositional
to designate
conceptis needed,andI shallusetheterm"agonistic"
a broader
on the partof one social
opposition
or expresses
behaviorwhichsymbolizes
entity(i.e.,personorgroup)towardanothersocialentityor entities.In other
opposition,but it does not
words,agonisticbehaviormay communicate
consistof any intentionto injureon the partof the behaving
necessarily
entity.
of behavioral
multiplicity
canassumeanyof a bewildering
Qollaaggression
to decidewhetheror
it maybe difiRcult
instances
forms.In specificbehavioral
sinceintentmay
as aggression,
involvedshouldbe classified
notthebehavior
or maynot be present.Mostof the typesof behaviorwhichI shalldiscuss
ratherthanmerelyagonisticbehaviorin at
belowdo qualifyas aggression
to
is available
forwhichinformation
of all instances
leasta highpercentage
whichthe Qollathemselves
us. I shalldiscussonlythoseformsof behavior
in thevillage.
occurring
tobethemostserioustypesof aggression
consider
Villagersreadilycomactivityin Incawatana.
Litigationis an important
whentheyfeelthatsomeone,
authorities
anddistrict-level
plainto local-level
againstthem.Only
of theirnuclearfamily,hasaggressed
includinga member
trivialarepermittedto passwithout
considered
thoseformsof aggression
mediators
to thirdpartiessuchasthetenientes, whoaretheprincipal
resorting
have
Althoughthetenientes andothervillageauthorities
in villagedisputes.
theydo providea setting
to disputes,
almostno powerto imposesettlements
resolved.
canbeairedanddifTerences
in whichgrievances
havekeptrecordsof disputes,
Forthepastfifteenyears,villageauthorities
broughtbeforethem.The docucarefullynotingthe detailsof complaints
who hearsthe casesas evidence,in the
mentsareretainedby the authority
mightbe neededin laterdisputesinvolvingthe
eventthatsuchinformation
the villagefor these
searched
samelitigants.For two yearsI systematically
fromtheirownersandcopied.Onthebasisof
whichI borrowed
documents,
I constructed
throughinterviews,
withdataobtained
combined
thismaterial,
above.Thefiledoesnotcontainthe
theconflictcasefilewhichwasmentioned
to the litigants,
completeuniverseof disputes.In casesof lessersignificance
arenotalwaysdrawnup.A fewvillagershadlostsomedocuwrittenrecords
I estimatethatforthedecadefromI96I
mentsto thievesorfire.Nevertheless,

233
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
AGGRESSION
QOLLA
on at least60 percentof all

throughI970 I wasableto obtaininformation
cases.We findthatduringthatperiodan averageof 80
publiclyprocessed
(population
forthevillageof Incawatana
casesperyearcameto ourattention
I,200)
behavior.
Mostconflictcasesdo notdealwithonlyoneinstanceof agonistic
In fact,usuallya varietyof differingformsoccuras partof a sequenceof
actions.One formof agonisticbehaviorleadsto escalatingagonisticinteris transformed
interaction
action;or,justasoften,someformof nonagonistic
Forexample,whenX's sheepwander
agonisticsequence.
intoan escalating
or aredrivenintoY'sfield,Y mayshoutto X tO removethe animals.X, in
turn,mayshoutback,addingan insultdirectedagainstY. Y thenrunsup
to kill Y andY leavesthe scene7
andhitsX, inflictinga wound.X threatens
X's cocabagor scarf.The hearingconvened
butnotwithoutfirstsnatching
to hearsucha casewouldhaveto dealwitheachof theseacts:insults,threats,
damage,andtheft.The rightsandwrongson eachsideof
assault,property
the disputewouldhaveto be carefullybalancedin orderto achievea harof thecase.
monioussettlement
categoryin the conflictcasefileis one called"fights
The majorcomplaint
and the personwho
Violentencountersare commonplace,
and injuries."
is quite likelyto suefordamages.
eventheslightestwoundin a scuffle
receives
In manycaseswoundsareserious.Morethantwo hundredcasesin the file
in a cominvolvefightsandinjuries,thusindicatinga markedinvolvement
and RobertsI964).
petitivestylebasedon physicalskill (Sutton-Smith
brawlsalsoincludeinsults,
Whilemostcasesinvolvingfightsor large-scale
the secondmost
not all casesof insultingescalateto fighting.Consequently,
in the filedealswithinsultsalone
behavior
of aggressive
category
important
Althoughthe Qolla definethe conceptof insult ratherbroadly,minor
it is considered
Interestingly,
insultsarenot broughtbeforethe authorities.
an insultto the hearerwhena man walksalongshouting"Iam a man,"
phraseis thatothermenarenot men.
of thatoft-heard
sincetheimplication
on guardagainstslightsandinsults,andthey
TheQollatendto beconstantly
seeminglyinnocentstatementintoan occasionfor reoftentwistsomeone's
it is said.
words,"
tortingwithaninsult.People"errin choosing
in thefile.To someextent,
Stealingranksjustbelowinsultingin frequency
butnot aggression.
of course,stealingmightbe viewedas agonisticbehavior
primarily
committed
andsometimes
overtones
thefthasutilitarian
Certainly
as
becausethe thiefdesiresthe objectstolen.Butquiteoftenin Incawatana,
in theAndes(seeGadeI970), theftdoesinvolvetheintentto injure
elsewhere
forsome
Orthethiefmay be retaliating
as aggression.
andmust beclassified
by his victim. This can most readilybe seenin inaction
agonistic
earlier
stanceswhenthe objectstolenhasno valueto the thief,suchas thevictim's
draftcard.Butevenin manycasesin whichthe stolenobjecthaspotential
are
objectives
value,the choiceof victimindicatesthatmorethanutilitarian
atstakein thecrime.
Damagesto crops,the nextmostfrequentoffensecategory,canbe intenfailto controltheirherds,
maydeliberately
Shepherds
tionalorunintentional.
fields.In some
allowingtheanimalsin theirchargeto eat fromneighboring

234 ETHNOLOGY
casesof cropdamage,intent to injure is safelyinferred,forexample,whena

manmethodically
uproots
hisenemy's
potatoplantsbeforetheyhaveproduced
anytubers.
Difficulties
in classification
of casesareinherentin thenextcategory,
failure
to paydeStsorfulfillcontracts.
A peasantmayrefuseto paya debtbecausehe
lacksthemoneyto do so.Frequently,
however,
hisfailureto payis an actof
aggression
againstthecreditor,
whomustgo to greatlengthsto recoveroutstandingloans.
Anothermajorcategory
involvesthreats.
Thesemaybe directedagainstthe
personor his property
or both.Sometimes
the wordingis subtle-e.g.
("You'llsee") butat othertimesit is brutallyblunt.Whileit is easy
tooverlook
insultsbya drunk,threats
aretakenveryseriously.
Othertypesof agonisticbehaviorareless prominentin Incawatana,
althoughwhentheyoccurtheyareconsidered
serious.
Themiscellaneous
group
of casesincludesrape,arson,abortion,
slander,andlandownership
disputes.
Of course,manyformsof agonisticbehaviorandaggression
areengagedin
extensively
but arenot dealtwith by the authorities
undernormalcircumstances.For example,whileadulteryis widespread,
retaliation
againstthe
participants
is morelikelyto taketheformof spouse-beating
thanlitigation.
Finally,althoughlowin termsof relativefrequency,
homicide
is animportant
formof aggression)
andI now turnto a detaileddiscussion
of homicidein
Incawatana
"Vas
verJ}
Homicidein Incawatana
Homicideis stronglydisapproved
of, receivinggreatercondemnation
than
anyotherformof behaviorwith the possibleexceptionof incestuous
intercoursebetweenmotherand son, fatherand daughter,and compadreand
comadre(ritualkin). Nevertheless,
in conversations
withme,villagerswere
quickto accuseone anotherof homicidalacts;andregardless
of the actual
rateof homicide
in Incawatanan
thereis a widespread
assumption
thatliterally
dozensof fellowvillagersaremurderers.
For severalreasons,I havechosento employhomicideas my indicatorof
societallevelsof aggressiveness.
First in almostall societieshomicideis regardedasoneof themostseriousformsof aggression.
Second,homiciderates
havebeencalculatedfor numeroussocieties,thus providingus with data
againstwhichto comparethe Qollarate.Third,becauseof the gravityand
relativeinfrequency
of homicide,statistics
forhomicidetendto be moreaccuratethanthoseforotherkindsof aggressive
behavior.
To be sure,measuring homicideratesstillinvolvesmanypotentialpitfalls;but,I wouldargue
theseratescanserveas a roughindicatorof the levelof aggressiveness
in a
society
Calculating
thehomicide
rateforIncawatana
is complicated
bythefactthat
the population
baseto useis not obvious.Onemustdistinguish
threecategoriesof individuals
in the population
of a "village":
(I) resident
members
actuallyin residence
at thetimeof a population
count;(2) residentmembers
of thecommunity
whoaretemporarily
absentforpurposes
of working,visiting,studying,etc.;and(3) nonresidents
whoarestillconsidered
to be mem-

QOLLAAGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
235
bersof the eommunity

by virtueof elosetiesof kinshipandproperty,
even
thoughtheyareresidingelsewhere
beeauseof a permanent
jobormarriage
to
an outsider.On the basisof estimatesof the averagepopulation
in eaehof
theseeategories
duringthe2s-yearperiodIg4s-Ig6g,
I ealeulated
thehomieide
ratesgivenin Table2. The ratewhichis probably
mosteomparable
to rates
ealeulated
for othersoeietiesis A.I. in Table2; in otherwords55 homicide
victimsperyearperIOO,OOO
population.
Thisfiguremeasures
thenumberof
vietimsin a geographieally
limitedareawithrespeetto thetotalstablepopulationin the area.Datain Table2 ineludeonlythoseeasesforwhiehthe evidenee,bothfromdoeuments
andinterviews
withvillagers,
waseonsistent
and
generally
aeeepted
astruebyeveryone.
If one eompares
thisratewith ratesfor othersoeieties,one diseovers
that
theQollado indeedhavean extremely
highhomiciderate.Not oneeountry
forwhiehdataareavailable
hasa rateashighastheQolla:nationalratesrange
between.3 and34.oper IOO,OOO
population(WolfgangandFerraeutiI967:
274-275).Nor doesanyAfrieantribereported
on in Bohannan(Igb7)have
sueha highrate:thesefallbetweenI.I andII.6 homicides
perIOO,OOO
population.In a fewdistriets
of Colombia
therateis ashighas63 perIOO,OOO,
andin
someareasof Mexieoratesashighas82.8havebeenreported.
Friedrich(I964)
notesthatduringoneyearthevillageof Acanhadarateof200.
It mightbe arguedthatmy methodof gatheringdatahasinflatedtherate
forIncawatana.
Butevenif onecountsonlyprosecuted
homicides,
onefinds
thattherateis high,20 perIOO,OOO.
No estimatefortheQollaasa wholeexists
in the literature.
However,Cuentas(I966) hasprovidedinformation
which
allowsus to calculatethe ratefor the provinceof Huancane(Peru)during
fiveyearsin theIgfos,andthatrateis approximately
I5 homicides
perIOO,OOO,
TABLE 2
HomicideRates and Numbersfor 25 Years, 1945-1969, Involving Residents
and Membersof the Villageof Incawatana
A. IncawatanaVictimsof Homicide
1. Residentmembers,killed inside confinesof the
village
2. Absenteeresidentmembers,killed outside the
village
3. Non-residentmembers,killed outside the village
4. Combinationof 1-3, i.e., all personsconsidered
membersof Incawatana
B. IncawatanaO.ffenders,
HomicideCases
1. Residentmembersprosecutedfor involvementin
homicide
2. Residentmembersformallyaccusedof involvement in homicide
3. Residentmemberssuspectedof involvementin
homicidebut not accusednor prosecuted
4. Residentmemberswho in fact probablyparticipated in homicide
Number
Rate
11
55 .0
4
S
80.0
lO0.0
20
66.7
13
65 .0
19
95.0
13
65.0
21
105.0
(Note: the rates are calculatedfor a hypotheticalpopulationof 100,000.)

236 ETHNOLOGY
a figurereasonably
closetotherateforIncawatana,
sinceCuentas
countedonly
prosecuted
cases.Additionally,
AndreeMichaud(personalcommunication),
an anthropologist
who studieda villagenearIncawatana,
foundthe ratein
thatvillagetobeatleastashighastheoneforIncawatana.
ThesehighratesfortheQollahaveimplications
whichI cannotdealwith
in thepresentcontext,butI wouldliketo mentionthebroadramifications
of
thistypeof aggressive
behavior
withinthevillage.Duringthe2s-yearperiod
underconsideration,
Incawatana
consisted
of approximately
220 households,
whicharethe solidaryunitsin Qollasociety.Morethan20 percentof all
households
contain,at present,
an adultmemberwhohasbeendeprived
of at
leastoneparent,child,spouse,or siblingthroughhomicide.
An additional
I0
percentof allhouseholds
havea livingadultmemberwhohasbeenformally
accusedof murderor who hasprobably
participated
in an actof homicide;
therefore,
over30 per centof all Incawatana
households
containan adult
memberwhoseparent,child,spouse,orsiblinghasbeeninvolvedasanoffenderin a homicidecase.It canbe seen,then,thatan impressive
proportionabove50percent-of allIncawatana
adultshavehadsomeformof participationin theeventssurrounding
at leastonehomicide.
Sinceretaliation
against
the murderer
requiresself-helpactivitiesby the deadperson'skinsmenand
theiraction-sets,
homicide
mayin anysinglecasegenerate
considerable
participationin thepost-homicide
eventsbya largesegmentof thevillage.Theeffects
of anactof homicidearewidelyfeltthroughout
thecommunity
in thissmallscalesociety.
Violenceproduces
moreviolence.
Afggression
Rankings
in Incawiatana
Not everyone
in Incawatana
participates
in equalmeasure
in theagonistic
interaction
whichtakesplacein thevillage.Whendiscussing
aggression
with
informants
and whenreviewingthe casefile,we foundthatthe namesof
somevillagersappeared
morefrequently
thanthoseof others.Somenames
cropped
uponlyrarely,andthenin thecontextof minortroubles
ratherthan
seriousones.The remainder
of thisworkis basedon this differentiation.
I
havetriedto supportthe conclusion,
reachedby earlierethnographers,
that
the Qollaareaggressive.
Now I wouldliketo proceedto anotherquestion,
specifically,
"WhyaresomeQollapeasants
moreaggressive
thanothers?"By
explainingdifferences
in aggressiveness
withinQollasociety,I hopeto providepartof the answerto the largerquestion,"Whyarethe Qollaaggressive?"Sincea largeproportion
of theaggression
in Incawatana
is accounted
for by the activitiesof its mostaggressive
citizens,if we understand
what
causesthemto be aggressive,
thenwe shouldhavea betterunderstanding
of
thecausesof thelevelof aggressiveness
in Qollasocietyas a whole.
It becameapparent
earlyin ourfieldworkthatit wouldbe impossible
to
havea detailedacquaintance
with all I,200 residentsof the village.Consequently,I decidedto concentrate
on aggression
by males.This approach
seemedadvisable
forseveralreasons.
First,we couldmorereadilyinterview
malesthanfemaleswithoutarousing
suspicions
of ourintentions.
Second,the
mostseriousformsof aggression
seemto be engagedin primarily
by males.
This is not to implythataggression
by femalesis not important.
It is our

QOLLAAGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
237
impression
thatquiteoftenthe actionsof womenprovidethe stimulusfor
maleaggression.
Forexample,a drunkenwomanmayrunaroundinsulting
neighbors,
thusprovokingmoreseriousaggression
suchas a fight,between
thehouseholds'
maleresidents.
Maleaggression
is morelikelyto leadto action
beforethe authorities;
andsincemostof ourbehavioral
datawasgenerated
by examiningrecordsof legalproceedings
andinterviewing
participants
in
theseaffairs,
wecouldgetmoreandbetterdataonmales.
Anotherreasonfor our decisionto dealprimarilywith malehousehold
headswas that time-depthcomparability
is importantand could not be
achievedusingyouthsor children.
However,248subjects
werestilltoomany
to includefor interviewing
andotherprocedures,
eventhoughmoreelaborate statistical
workwouldbe possiblewith a largersample.Therefore,we
selecteda 50percentrandomsampleof malehousehold
heads,chosenequally
fromall sevensectorsof the community,
in orderto achievea kinshipand
residerltial
balance.
Whenwe collected
physiological
data,only66of theI24 subjects
wereavailablefor testing(seebelow).In orderto obtaina measureof the aggressivenessof these66 subjects,
I hadthemrankedby key informantraters.The
ratersweregivena setof cardswiththenameof onesubjectwrittenon each
card.The raterswereinstructed
to placethesecardsin order,startingwith
themostaggressive
individual
ontheupperleftcornerof thetableandending
with the leastaggressive
individualon the lowerrightcorner.Raterswere
givenasmuchtimeastheyneededtocomplete
thetask.
Theinstructions
to theratersweredesignedto getattheconceptof aggressivenessin the broadestfashion.Sinceall threeratersunderstood
Spanish,
theinstructions
werefirstgivenin thatlanguageandthensupplemented
with
a Qucchuarephrasing
of the statement.
Theyweretoldto basetheirjudgmentson questionssuchas who likesto fighta lot, who gets into lots of
trouble,who is nastyand ill-tempered-whois aggressive,
in short.The
ratershadnodifliculty
in understanding
theinstructions.
The ratersworkedcompletely
independently
of eachother,carryingout
tlleirassignments
in different
roomsundersupervision.
Eachraterperformed
thetaskof ratingtwice,thesecondsessionfollowingthefirstbyseveralhours.
(Partof the intervalwas occupiedwith ratingthe samesubjectson other
traits,suchas wealthandindulgence
in alcoholicbeverages.)
Consequently,
the samplewas ratedon aggressiveness
a totalof six times.The intercorrelations
of theseratingsaregivenin Table3.
An analysis
of thecorrelations
in Table3 showsthatthisindicator
of aggressiveness
hasa moderately
highdegreeof reliability
if thefirstrater's
ratingsare
eliminated.
The firstraterwas not consistentwith himselfon the ratingrerating,nor with the otherraters.The correlations
of the rating-rerating
scoresforthesecondandthirdraters,on theotherhand,areacceptably
high,
.92and .78respectively.
Moreover,
the averagecorrelation
for ratingsthree
throughsix is satisfactory
at .76.Sincethereliability
of thefirstrater'sscores
is low,I excludedhis ratingsfromthe finalaggressiveness
scale,whichconsistsof the combinedscoresof the otherfourratings.I usedthe Spearman
rho.

238 ETHNOLOGY
TABLE 3
Intercorrelationof AggressionRankingsfor a Sampleof Incawatana
HouseholdHeads
l
2
3
4
5
6
1st Rater's 1st Ranking

1st Rater's2nd Ranking
2nd Rater's 1st Ranking
2nd Rater's2nd Ranking
3rd Rater's 1st Ranking
3rd Rater's2nd Ranking
.51
X
.62
.50
X
.56
.46
.92
X
.50
.39
. 72
. 68
X
.50
.52
. 75
. 72
.78
X
To someextent,the ratingsprobably
reflectthe likesanddislikesof the
raters.An additional
sourceof inconsistency
is time.Althoughtheraterswere
instructed
to maketheirjudgments
on thebasisof howthepersonhadacted
duringthepasttenyears,it is difEcult
to knowwhetherornottheytookinto
accountthe entireperiod.Whilethe traitof aggressiveness
is undoubtedly
somewhatstable,individuals
do not maintaina constantlevelof aggressive
behavior,
andI suggestthatindividuals
passthroughwhatmightbe called
"agonistic
careers"
duringwhichtheirlevelsof aggressiveness
mayriseor
fall.Thetheoretical
basisforthissuggestion
isto befoundbelow.
Theaggressiveness
scoresof thesubjects
rangedfrom7 (highlyaggressive)
to 263 (nonaggressive),
while the theoretically
possiblerangewas from4
through264.
Validationof the Rantings
Althoughit has beenshownthatthe indicatorof reputational

rankings
foraggressiveness
is acceptably
reliable,
thequestioncanstillbe raisedabout
the appropriateness
of thisindicator.
I woulddefendtheuseof thismeasure
on thefollowinggrounds.I aminterested,
firstof all,in naturally
occurring
aggression
ratherthanexperimentally
inducedaggression;
therefore,
I need
anindicator
whichmeasures
aggressiveness
asdemonstrated
in naturalsettings
ratherthanin the laboratory.
Further,I am interested
in inferringaggressivenessfromovertbehavior,
andto do thisa greatertimespanthanwould
be possiblein experimental
sessionsis desirable.Certainlysome sort of
"objective"
measurecouldbe found,suchas frequencyof involvement
in
fightsor lawsuits.However,an objection
to a morepreciseindicatorof that
typecanbe of3ered,
whichis thatthe formaggressive
behaviortakesmay
varyfromonepersonto another.
Therefore,
onemightnotmakean accurate
inferenceaboutgeneralaggressiveness
by limitingthe indicatorto narrow
behavioral
types.The reputational
methodof rankingsubjectscan be improperlyused,of course.However,I feelthatits utilizationis warranted
in
thevillagecontext.Theraterswereextremely
familiarwiththepersonsthey
rated.Theyhaveknownthe subjectsthroughout
a lifetime.Theyareconstantlyhearinginformation
aboutthe behaviorof thesesubjects,
including
theirintimatebehavior
withinthenuclearfamily,throughtheextensivegossipingwhichis partof everyday
lifein Incawatana.
If a manbeatshiswifeor

Q*
OLLA AGGRESSIONAND liYPOGLYCEMIA
239
knowsaboutit.The
theneighbors
hearit andsooneveryone
hitshischildren,
is knownto every
"character'
of almosteveryadultresidentof Incawatana
of authority,
otheradultvillager.It is evenbetterknownbymenin positions
withmostof thevillagersandarestrategically
sincetheyinteractfrequently
situatedto hearmoregossip.The two mostreliableratershaveoccupied
repeatedly
overthepasttenyears.
authority
positions
however,
to examinethevalidityof theaggressiveness
It mightbedesirable,
of aggressive
behavior
measures
it to more'4objective"
indicator
bycomparing
I pointedoutearlierthat,duringour
indicators.
as wellas other"subjective"
two yearsin the village,the villagersratherreadilyaccusedone anotherof
homicidalacts.Ourfieldnotesshowthat I5 out of the 66 subjectsin our
samplewereso accusedat one timeor another.Table4 showshow these
ratingdonebythe
withrespectto theaggression
accusations
weredistributed
keyinformants.
on
to our information
ratings,then,tend to correspond
The aggression
periodof ourresearch.
databuiltup overthetwo-year
homicideaccusations,
of homicide
areincludedin thetopfourth
accused
Sevenof thefifteensubjects
in aggression
ranking,whileonlyonepersonaccusedof homiof thesubjects
rankings.
cidelieswithinthebottomfourthoftheaggression
Anothercheckon the validityof the aggressionrankingscan be made
The resultsof thatcheckarepresented
of litigation.
throughanexamination
is classifiedinto threecategories-plaintiff,
in Table5, whereparticipation
whichincludesonly
category
defendant,
andmiscellaneouplusa combined
The subjectsratedhigh
casesinvolvingthe subjectas plaintiffor defendant.
in litigationthando those
havehigherratesof participation
in aggression
of whetherthesubjectis involved
rankedlow.Thisfindingoccursregardless
whichincludeswitcapacity,
or in a miscellaneous
as a plaintid,defendant,
are
the high aggressors
andpublicoflicials.Interestingly,
nesses,guarantors
thanas plaintiffswhilethe low aggresinvolvedin casesmoreas defendants
thanasdefendants.
in casesasplaintiffs
sorshaveahigherinvolvement
a numberof factorswhichareoperating.
category
reflects
Themiscellaneous
in
not onlyarenotinvolvedas principals
First,it showsthatlow aggressors
Theextremediscases,buttheyalsotendnotevento attendjudicialhearings.
capacity,
however,is
in thesecasesin a miscellaneous
parityof involvement
TABLE4
Ratings
to the Aggression
Compared
HomicideAccusations
Rankings
Aggression
(groupedby fourths)
1 (highaggression)
2
3
4
Numberof Subjects
Accusedof Homicide
7.0
3.5
3.5
1.0
(The 3.5 figureis a result of one subject falling at the median with respect to
aggressionscores. Note that the end quartilescontain one less subject each than
the middlequartiles.)

rHNoLoGY
E240
TABLE 5
Participationin LitigationComparedto AggressionRatingsfor the Subjects
in the Sample
AverageNumberof Cases
AggressionRankings
(groupedby fourths)
1 (high aggressors)
2
3
4
Plaintiff Defendant
4.4
3.2
3.9
2.5
6.8
3.9
3.2
1.9
Combined
11.2
7.1
7.1
4.4
Miscellaneous
25.3
15.9
15.1
2.1
by thefactthatI haveincludedin thiscategoryparticipalargelyexplained

Thereis a strongtendencyfor personsholdingofl;cial
tionas an authority.
positionsto be rankedamongthe mostaggressivein the village.Several
can be foundfor thatfact.First,only extremelyaggressive
interpretations
individualscouldhandlethe job of settlingdisputes,sincesuchworkrequiresthat the authoritybe strong,vigorous,and willing to engagein
threatsand violencein orderto deal with highlyaggressiveindividuals.
arein a positionwheretheymustengagein behavior
Second,publicoHicials
theraterswould
andtherefore
orat leastagonistic,
whichis seenasaggressive
oftheirgenerallevelof aggressiveness.
tendtO rankthemhigh,regardless
I notedearlierthatthe casefile includedan averageof 80 casesperyear
onecaseforeverythreehouseorapproximately
forthevillageof Incawatana,
of thetruelevelof litigaholds.Butthatfiguredoesnotprovideanindication
as manycasesinvolvemultipleplaintiSsand multiple
tion involvement.
7.2caseseach
We findthatthe subjectsin my sampleaveraged
defendants.
onlyabout
thatthecasefileincludes
overthepastdecade.Whenoneconsiders
thatthevillagers
60percentof theactualnumberof cases,it canbe surmised
areinvolvedon the averagein onecaseof litigationperyear.The rangeof
is froma lowof zerocasesthroughmorethanfour
participation
differential
period,a rangeof noinvolvecasesperyear;orin otherwords,fortheten-year
almostprecisely
mentin litigationthroughabout40cases.Thisrangemirrors
ratings.
inthekeyinformant
therangeof scoresobtained
to documentthe formsof
In this sectionof the paperI haveattempted
amongthevillagers.
andtherangeof differentiation
in Incawatana
aggression
In the nextI shallendeavortO explainpartof the biologicalbasisof Qolla
aggressiveness.
HYPOTHESIS
THEHYPOGLYCEMIA
The Physiologyof Aggression
our
hasadvanced
of aggression
on thephysiology
In recentyearsresearch
Forexcelof thistypeof behavior.
dimensions
of thebiological
understanding
of this,the interestedreadershouldconsultMoyer(I97I,
lent discussions
Boelkinsand Heiser(I970), Markand Ervin(I970), Storr(I968),
I972),

QOLLAAGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
24I
Clementeand Lindsley(I67), Wolfgangand Ferracuti(I967),

Klopper
(I964),
Buss(I96I), andScott(I958).
Formorethanhalfa centuryfairlyaccurate
information
aboutthephysiologicaleGectsof anger-has
beenin circulation.
Whilethe detailshavebeen
refinedoverthe years,in I9I5, Cannonpresenteda schemeinvolvingthe
basicef3ectsof angeron theorganism,
e.g.,increasein thepulserate,risein
levelof bloodglucose,increasedbreathing
rate,and reductionin digestive
processes.
Theseareallmeansof preparing
theorganism
forphysicalexertion
suchasfighting.Manyof theeffectsof angeraretheresultsof changesin the
outputof numerous
hormones.
In particular,
it hasbeenfoundthatanxiety
andangerarepotentstimuliin theelicitation
of adrenalsecretions
(Illopper
I964)
However,whenone turnsfroman examination

of the effectsof angeror
aggression
on theorganism
to thephysiological
causesof aggression
or anger,
not onlyis evidencemoredifiicultto find,butthereis alsoconsiderable
disagreement
amongbiological
scientists.
Themappingof brainstructures
associated
withaggressive
behavior
is quite
advanced,
andthereis lessdisagreement
on thistopicthanon someothers.
Studiesof brainfunctioning,done by recordingelectricalactivityin the
brain,the removalof partsof the brain(ablation),and stimulationwith
chemicalsor electriccurrent,haveindicatedthosestructures
of the brain
whichareimportantin the activation
or inhibitionof aggressive
behavior,
notonlyin loweranimalsbutin manaswell.
The disagreement
centerson whetheror notthe acknowledged
circuitsin
the brainwhich are associatedwith aggressivebehaviorcan fire in the
absenceof an externalstimulus.Moyer(I97I:62)
has proposedthat the
neurological
systemswhichareinvolvedin aggression
canexistat anypoint
in timein oneof threestates:(I) inactiveandinsensitive,
i.e.,"cannot
befired
bytheusualstimulation
thatwillprovokeattack,"
(2)
sensitized
butinactive,
i.e.,dueto theabsenceof an appropriate
stimulus,and (3) spontaneously
firingevenin theabsence
of theappropriate
stimulus.
If spontaneous
firingof the aggression
systemsin the brainoccursin the
absenceof an externalstimulus,thecausecouldbe relatedto changesin the
internalenvironment
of the neurologically
relevantstructures,
particularly
hormonal
andbloodchemical
levels.Onefinds,however,
thattheevidencefor
thisis notsubstantial,
at leastin studieson humansubjects.
To datethereis
information
whichsupports
thenotionthathypo-andhyperfunction
of both
theadrenals
andthyroidareimplicated
in increased
irritability.
Additionally,
the evidenceincreasingly
favorsthe hypothesis
that sex hormonebalances
leadto increased
or decreased
aggressivity.
Althoughconsiderable
workhas
beendoneon therelationship
of theadrenalmedullary
hormones,
especially
epinephrine
andnorepinephrine,
to aggression,
andwhileit is clearthatthese
hormonestendto be excretedas partof an emotionaldisturbance,
it is not
clearthattheyareamongthedirectcausesof aggression
orthattheycanlead
tothespontaneous
firingof neuralmechanisms
(MoyerI97I :47).
Finally,thereis the possibilitythat a causalrelationship
existsbetween
bloodglucoselevelsandthelevelof aggressiveness
of anorganism,
i.e.,what

242 ETHNOLOGY
I havecalledthe "hypoglycemia
hypothesis."
Accordingto Moyer(Ig7I:
I00):
Hypoglycemia,
from whatevercauseis, in many cases,associatedwith tendenciesto
hostilityand is anotherdysfunctionin the bloodchemistrywhich evidentlysensitizes
the neuralsubstratesfor aggression.There has, unfortunately,
been relativelylittle
systematic
studyof thisrelationship.
Aggression
andHypoglycemio-:
TheHypothesis
In spiteof the paucityof research
whichprobesthe relationship
between
glucoselevelsandaggressiveness,
theideapresented
in thishypothesis
is not
new.Wilder(I947 :I26) reviewing
thestateof knowledge
atthattimedealing
withthishypothesis,
concluded
that:
we areprobablystandinghereat a beginningratherthanat an end of a new scientific
approachto the problemof crime,and that many and carefulinvestigations
will be
necessaryin orderto establishthe properplaceof this problemwithin the framework
of criminology
andcorrectional
medicine.
The carefulstudieson hypoglycemia

werenotforthcoming
duringthe next
two decades;physiologists
did not delveintothisquestionnorconductthe
carefulinvestigations
whichWilderthoughtwouldfollow.Moyer(I97I:
I00) has notedthatwhileWilderhad compiled
a "remarkable
amountof
evidence,"
hispaperwas"muchneglected."
The studieswhichWilderreviewedwereprimarilyof two kinds: (I)
thosewhichdealtwith personality
manifestations
of insulin-induced
hypoglycemiaand (2) thosewhichpresented
casematerials,
particularly
evidence
connectinghypoglycemia
with specificaggressive(usuallycriminal)acts.
Wilder(I947:I09) listednumerous
typesof crimeswhichhadbeencommitted
"eitherunderthe influenceof insulinor in a stateof spontaneous
hypoglycemia,"
including:
disorderlyconduct,assaultand battery,attemptedsuicideand homicide,crueltyagainst
children or spouse,various sexual perversionsand aggressions,false fire alarms
drunkenness,embezzlement,petty larceny,willful destructionof property,arson,
slander,violationof trafficregulations.
He surveyed
otherstudieswhichpresented
evidenceof higherratesof hypoglycemia
amongpsychotics
thanfoundinnonpsychotic
populations.
Two studiespublishedsince Wilder'sreviewindicatefurthersupport
for the association
of hypoglycemia
and hyperirritability
and aggression.
Gyland(citedin Fredericks
andGoodmanI969) reported
that89percentof
600 hypoglycemic
patientssuSerfromirritability
andthat47percentof these
patientswereunsocial,asocial,or antisocial.
Salzer(ibid.)notedthat45 per
centof hypoglyr
cemicpatientsareextremely
irritable
and22 percentengagein
unsocialor antisocial
behavior.
Duringrecentyears,thediscussion
of hypoglycemia
andits effectshasundergonea drasticchangeof venue,fromthemedicalandpsychiatric
journals
citedbyWilderto popular
booksonmedicine,
e.g.,Martin(I970), Fredericks
andGoodman(I969), andAbrahamson
andPezet(I95I). Sincethesebooks
containsweepingclaimsabouttheevilsof hypoglycemia
andthevastnumber

Q*
. F
OLLA AGGRESSION AND . _ .YPOGLYCEMIA
243
of ailmentswhichcan be eliminatedby curingit, e.g.,neurosis,alcholism,

allergy,chronicfatigue,andinsanity,it hasacquiredthe statusof a fad diseaseandhasbecomethecenterof cult-likeattention
withintheUnitedStates.
Thus,whileonefindsinformation
abouthypoglycemia
in numerous
places,
the literature
on aggression,
regardless
of disciplinary
provenance,
neglects
thisfactoralmostcompletely.
In anthropological
writingsI haveencountered
onereference
to hypoglycemia
in relationto aggression.
LeVine(I0I) points
out thathypoglycemia
maybe a biopsychological
factorin the causation
of
socialconflict.
The hypoglycemia
hypothesis
canbe formulated
in severalways.On the
onehand,it canbestatedin thefollowingmanner:thelowerthefastingblood
glucoseleveltheworsethehypoglycemia
andthegreaterthe aggressiveness.
It wasmy realization
thatthe levelof bloodglucoseamongAndeanIndians
generally
is lowwhichledmeto testthehypothesis.
Mongea,ndMonge(I966:
I9) state,"Lowbloodglucoseconcentration
is characteristic
of the highaltitudenative."
CarlosMonge,Sr.(I968) reported
specific
readings
tosupport
tnlS COIltentlOn.
Myownfirstformulation
of thehypothesis
readsasfollows:abovea critical
minimumlevelof glucoseconcentration
in theblood,thereis aninverserelationshipbetweenthe levelsof bloodglucoseand the levelsof individual
involvement
in aggressive
andhostilebehavior,
particularly
in the rangeof
subnormal
andlow-normal
levelsof bloodglucose.The novelaspectof tlliS
formulation
is thenotionthattherelationship
maybecurvilinear
ratherthan
linear.Thismodification
of theearlierhypothesis
byWilderseemsnecessary
in viewof thefactthatindividuals
withverybadcasesof hypoglycemia
enter
intocomasand,presumably
previous
to reaching
thatlevel,suGera reduction
in aggressive
tendencies
due to diminution
of energy.At the upperend of
glucoselevelswithinthenormalrangethere1S no reasonto expectdifferences
in aggressiveness;
therefore,
I concludethatthehypothesis
is mostapplicable
in thesubnormal
andlow-normal
range.Onceonegetsintotherangeof high
levels(diabetes)the problemschange.SinceI did not expectto findmuch
diabetes
in theAndes,I didnotformulate
thehypothesis
to takeintoaccount
thehighlevels.
However,beforetestingthehypothesis,
I discovered
in the literature
add;tionalinformation
whichforcedme to revisethe hypothesis.
Apparently,
symptoms
of hypoglycemia
appearnotso muchas a resultof specificfasting
levelsas in responseto variouschangesin bloodglucoseconcentrations
and
to thespeedwithwhichthe leveldropsafterthelevelhasbeenraisedbythe
ingestionof food.Accordingto thisformulation,
therl,hypoglycemia
is definedaspresentwhentheglucoseconcentration
dropsbelowthenormalfasting levelbytenormoremilligrams
perIOO milliliters
of bloodwithinfourto
six hoursafterthe ingestionof food. (Detailsarein next section.)Consequently,thehypoglycemia
hypothesis
whichI amtestingcanbe statedin the
followingmanner:thereis a curvilinear
relationship
betweenthe amount
of dropin bloodglucoseduringthe administration
of a GlucoseTolerance
Test and the levelof aggressiveness
of an individual,with high levelsof
aggressiveness
occurring
in the rangeof mildhypoglycemia,
i.e., a dropin
.

244 ETHNOLOGY
glucoseby IO to 25 mg. per IOO ml. belowfastinglevel.Moreover,

it is
suggestedthatthe relationship
is causalin nature,with moderateglucose
.
cleprlvatlon
causlng
aggresslvlty.
Furtherexplication
of thehypothesis
willbeprovided
below,butfirstI shall
describe
themethods
usedtotestthehypothesis
inIncawatana.
PhysiologicalData CollectionMethods
Thestandard
diagnostic
indicator
of hypoglycemia
is theshapeof thecurve
obtainedfromthe GlucoseToleranceTest.In thistestthe subjectfastsfor
twelvehoursbeforethe beginningof the analysis,usuallyovernight.
In the
morningthefirstbloodsampleis drawnwhilethesubjectis stillin a fasting
condition.
Immediately
thereafter
heis givenorally50gramsof sugarin solution.The secondandthirdbloodsamplesaretakenat half-hourintervals.
Afterthat,samplesaretakeneveryhourfor fourhoursor more.Formerly
a laboratory
was generallyrequiredto handlethe analysisof theseblood
samplesfor theirglucosecontent;howeverreagentstrips,producedby the
AmesCompany
andmarketed
underthebrandname"Dextrostix,"
arenow
availablepermitting
on-the-spot
analysis.
Thestripsrequiremerelyonedrop
of bloodpersample,andthiscanbedrawnbythefinger-prick
method.Using
Dextrostix,
a dropof bloodis drawnandplaceddirectlyon thereagentat the
tip of the plasticstrip.The bloodis washedod exactlyone minutelater,
duringwhichtimethe colorof the reagentpartof the stripchangesto one
of a numberof shadesof blueor grey,dependinguponthe amountof glucosewhichthe bloodcontains.The stripis thencompared
to a colorchart
andthe corresponding
number(or, if necessary,
the interpolation)
is read
off. The numberindicatesthe milligramsof glucoseper IOO millilitersof
blood.
Thecollection
of physiological
datato testthehypoglycemia
hypothesis
was
carriedoutat theendof ourfieldworkin thenearbytownof Qochapata.
It
wasnecessary
to takethesubjects
outof Incawatana
in orderto controlthem
duringthe requiredfastingperiod.Community
leadersacceptedthetaskof
convincing
anddelivering
to us thesubjects
fromoursampleof adultmales.
Communityleaderswere paid for theirwork on the project,and each
participating
subjectreceivedpaymentin cashandfoodstuGs
forundergoing
thetest.Additionally,
everyone
wasprovided
witha freemedicalexamination
andmedicines
fordiagnosed
ailments.
In thiswaywe obtainedGlucoseToIeranceTestinformation
for66personsfromoursampleof I24 headsof families.Since25menfromthatsamplewereworkingin Punoorweretemporarily
awayfromIncawatana
for someotherreasonat the timeof the testing,we
obtained67 per cent of thoseavailable;33 eitherwere not contactedor
refusedto participate
in thetest.The testingtookplaceon threeconsecutive
dayswith subjectsarrivingin the lateafternoonandleavingthe nextday
jUSt beforenoon.Everyone
was accommodated
in one largehall and kept
insideasmuchaspossible
afterarriving,
sothattheycouldbewatchedbymy
assistants
andthe community
leaders.Afterthe eveningmealsubjectswere
instruct-ed
not to eat againuntil-givenpermission.
The eveningmealconsistedof a closeapproximation
to thenormalpeasantsupperof soupandtea.

245
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
AGGRESSION
QOLLA
aroseatsixo'clock,andfromthatpointon they
In themorningthesubjects
werecarefullywatchedto preventeating.Urinesampleswerecollectedand
above:6:oo,6:30,7:oo,8:oo,g:oo,andI0:00
bloodsamplestaken,as indicated
werethe startingtimesfor runningthe subjectsthroughthe line,usingthe
sameordereachtime.We wereunableto extendthetestingto an additional
supply
we didnothavea sufficient
oneortwosampleperiodsfortwo reasons:
beganto complainafterbeingprickedforthe
of Dextrostixandthe subjects
limit,eventhough
thirdtime.Thuswe felt it wiseto Stop at the four-hour
hadthe
of hypoglycemia
ourresultswouldhaveshowngreaterproportions
longer.
testbeenextended
was doneby studentnursesfromthe Punonursing
The fingerpricking
school.All readingsof glucoselevelweredoneby Ms.LeighGates,a British
individnursewho worksin the district.Shewas not acquainted
registered
Afterreadingthe colorchart,she
uallywith the subjectsfromIncawatana.
rankings
dictatedresultsto me.I mightaddthatat thistimethe aggression
bythekeyinformants.
hadnotyetbeenperformed
atalltimesover
controlwasmaintained
Wecannotbecertainthatcomplete
The roomwastoo largeandwe hadtoo manysubjectsat one
all subjects.
didingest
timeto keepaneyeon allof them.It is possiblethata few subjects
foodor cocaduringthe fastingperiod.(The two personswhomwe caught
munchingon somethingtheyhadhiddenin a pocketbothprovedto have
andso felta strongneedto cheaton thefastingrequireseverehypoglycemia
ment.)The firstmorning,by goodfortunemy wife spiedthevillagecandy
salesmanas he wasbreakingout his waresandwas aboutto beginto sell
in time.
He wasstopped
candiestothesubjects!
sugarball
Becausethe villageleadersallowedall twelvesubjectson the secondday
of testingto wanderoutsidethe buildingduringthe test,we becamesuspiciousof theresultsof theGTT forthatday.An analysisof the dataforthat
dayrevealedthatby the fourthhourthe glucoselevelsof 9I.5 percentof
It
hadrisenabovethefastinglevel,in somecasessubstantially.
thosesubjects
is possibleforthelevelto be abovethefastinglevelat theendof thetest,but
rise.Fortheothertwo days'
veryrarelydoesthishappento be a substantial
in the
teststheglucoselevelsrosein only20 percentof the cases.Therefore,
testedon theseconddayarenotincluded.
analysiswhichfollows,thesubjects
of having
suspected
definitely
thosesubjects
Ratherthanattemptto eliminate
cheated,it wasfeltbetterto eliminatethe testsof everyonerunon thatday.
on thefirstandthirddays.
thesubjects
controlling
We didnothaveprol}lems
was excellent.
it. Co-operation
All subjectswho beganthe testcompleted
I exTherewassomegrumblingon the firstdayaboutthe fingerpricking.
but they werenot given details
tO the participants,
plainedhypoglycemia
of severehypoglysymptoms
indicated
Severalsubjects
aboutthehypothesis.
Theywere
faintness,andperspiration.
cemiaduringthe test,e.g. headache,
TheywereabIe
manifestations.
watchedto preventmoredangerous
carefully
versionof the GTT, butit is doubtfulthatthey
to completethe four-hour
on theGTT
wouldhavelastedmuchlonger.AlthoughI shallrelyprimarily
in the analysiswhichfollows,eachsubjectwasgivena medicalexamination
Drs. JoseSardonand Miguel
physicians,
by-oneof the two-participating

246 ETHNOLOGY
Neyra.Thehelpof thesephysicians,
I mightnote wasimportant
notonlyin
orderto obtaindatafromthephysicalexaminations,
but alsoto lendlegitimacytothetestingin theeyesof thevillagers.
X Testof theHypothesis
In the analysisof the relationship
betweenaggressiveness
rankingand
scoreson theGTT,I considera risein glucoseat theendof the fourhours
or a dropof 5 mg. or lessto be '4normal,'
i.e.,as indicatingthatthe subject
had no hypoglycemic
tendencies.
A dropof I0 to 25 mg. indicatesthatthe
subjecthas "mildhypoglycemia"
and a dropgreaterthan25 mg. will be
considered
indicative
of a caseof "severe
hypoglycemia."
Whenone contrasts
the subjectswho aremoderately
hypoglycemic
with
theothersubjectsreducingTable6 to 2 X 2 formforpurposes
of statistical
analysis,
onefindsthatthenullhypothesis
canberejected(X2 = 6.I2 p < .02);
thereis a statistically-significant
relationship
betweenaggression
rankingand
thechangein bloodglucoselevelsduringa four-hour
GlucoseTolerance
Test.
Moreover,
theevidenceseemsto corroborate
the ideathatmildor moderate
hypoglycemia
is associated
withhighaggressiveness.
Twelveof the thirteen
highest-ranked
aggressors
84.6percentof thehighestquartile,haveglucose
homeostasis
problems,
andelevenof thethirteenappearto havemildhypoglycemia.
Indeed,,inspectionof Table6 revealsthe fact that glucosehomeostasis
problemsarewidespread
amongthe residents
of Incawatana.
Fully55.5per
centof thesemenappearto havehypoglycemia,
andonly44.5percenthave
normalreactionsto the GTT. I have not encountered
reliabledata on
othersocietieswithwhichto compare
thisfinding,butundoubtedly
thisrate
is high.(Estimates
fortheUnitedStatesrangefrom2 to 30percent,butthe
latterfigureis considered
highlyexaggerated
by mostmedicalresearchers.)
To be sure,it is notpossibleto inferfromthiscasestudyalonethatthelevel
of aggression
in a societywillberelatedto its rate of hypoglycemia.
However,
in thisvillageat leastglucosehomeostasis
problems
andhighaggressiveness
docoincide.
Onthebasisof thistest,it is diff;cult
to evaluate
thecurvilinear
aspectof the
hypoglycemia
hypothesis.
Only7 (I3 percent)of thesubjects
werefoundto
TABLE 6
Distributionof BIoodGlucoseConditionsin the SamplePoplllation
Accordingto AggressivenessRanks
Normal
Glycemia
Moderate
IIypoglycemia
Severe
Hypoglycemia
AggressionRankings
(groupedby fourths)
So
So
1 (high aggressors)
2
3
4 (Iowaggressors)
1
8
7
8
7 7
57.2
50 0
61.5
11
5
4
3
84.6
35.7
28.6
23.1
1
1
3
2
7.7
7.1
21.4
15.4

150
o\
247
AGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
QOLLA
Thesecasesdo seemtQ indicatethatcurvilinearity

haveseverehypoglycemia.
subjectsfallinto
is presentt
forwhile65.2percentof themildhypoglycemia
with
only42.9percentof thesubjects
rankings,
thetophalfof theaggression
It is truethatthecasesof
areamongthetopaggressors.
severehypoglycemia
additionalsupportfor curvilinarefew. Nevertheless,
severehypoglycemia
The groupedagearityis to be foundin themeanscoresforaggressiveness.
gressiveness
meansare as follows:NormalGlycemia I57, Mild HypoglybeI62. Whilethereis no difference
cemia II2, andSevereHypoglycemiaandthosewithnormalglucose
tweenthesubjectswithseverehypoglycemia
definitelytendto rank
reactions
to theGTT,-thosewithmildhypoglycemia
FigureI showsthe curvewhichis producedwhenthe
highin aggression.
rankingsareplottedagainstthechangein blood
meansfortheaggressiveness
GTT.
glucoseduringthefour-hour
rankingsandthe resultsof eachreadbetweenaggressiveness
Correlations
ing in theGTT werecarriedout.Ille resultsseemto suggestthatthedrop
aspectof thetestwithrespect
attheendof theGTTis nottheonlyimportant
Rather,it seemsthatthe rapidityof the declinein blood
to aggressiveness.
(.42) occursat the 8:ooA.M.
The highestcorrelation
glucoseis significant.
highglucoselevelsduring
thosewhoareableto maintain
reading.
Apparently
I alsotestedthe
theearlyphaseof thetestaretheleastlikelyto beaggressive.
in whichfastingglucoselevelswererelatedto aggressiveoriginalhypothesis
in
sincethereis no difference
however,
mustberejected
ness;thathypothesis,
Figure 1: Plot of Data Points and Means of Aggressiveness Rankings with Respect
to Blood Glucose Condition According to the GTT
10
Xigh
30
50
70
G
G
90
o
o
110
130
E
N
170
190
/-
o /:
a
*
'
\
.
-30
-35/40
;t
210'
.
230
250
Lsw
270
+15/10
+05
NONE
00
-05
-10
-15
-20
MILD
-25
SEVERE
DEGREE OF flPOGLYCEMIA

248 ETHNOLOGY
of deviant
An analysis
thefastingglucosemeansof highandlowaggressors.
in thispaper.
thatmaterial
out,too,butI cannotpresent
caseswascarried
of theResults
Discussion
of bloodglucose
abovethatthereis anassociation
It hasbeendemonstrated
suS
amongtheIncawatana
on theGTTandlevelsof aggressiveness
reactions
of ourhypothto theprediction
thedatacorlform
jectsof ourstudy.Moreover,
to be placedon theseresults,however,is not selfesis.The interpretation
arecausallyrelatedto agevident.I havearguedthatthe glucosereactions
to theGTT.In otherwords,
at leastin certainrangesof reaction
gressiveness
toberanked
in causinganindividual
is important
whiletheglycemicreaction
in the village,it doesnot accountfor the agamongthe highestaggressors
relativeto oneanotherif they
or rankof thesubjects
placement
gressiveness
to theGTT.Thosewithnormalbloodglucosearenot
reactions
haveidentical
and the glucosefactordoesnot seemto
likelyto be extremelyaggressive,
Whethera normal
accountfortheirpositionwithinthebottomthreequartiles.
glycemicsubjectfallsintothesecondquartileratherthanthethirdor fourth
dependson manyotherfactors,someof whichare perhapsbiologicalin
nature.Moyer(I972: 6), forexample,arguesthat"therearemanykindsof
basis...."
physiological
andeachhasa different
aggression
it is possible
andaggressiveness,
of glycemicreactions
Giventheassociation
aboutthe meaningof the asto arriveat a numberof differentconclusions
between
whichmightbeinvolvedin mediating
andthemechanisms
sociation
At thepresenttimeI canmerelypointout
glucoselevelsandaggressiveness.
interpretations.
someplausible
of the braindependsuponthatorgan'sreceivinga
Adequatefunctioning
thenormalfasting
supplyof bothoxygenandglucose.Presumably
sufiicient
of thebrain.It is
to meetthehighfuelrequirements
glucoselevelis adjusted
quitelikelythatwhentheglucoseleveldropsbelowthenormalfastinglevel,
is imarenot beingmet andnormalbrainfunctioning
brainrequirements
paired.
thuslowering
to becomeirritable,
maycausetheindividual
Hypoglycemia
stimuliin theenvironment.
releasebyappropriate
foraggression
thethreshold
to decidewhetherenvironmental
it is notpossible
Onthebasisof ourevidence
is thatQolla
Ourimpression
of aggression.
fortherelease
stimuliarenecessary
individualsdo go "spoilingfor a fight"on occasion.One couldcallalmost
Thepersonmayseethe
to aggression.
anythingwithinthevillagea sCstimulus>
orashe passes
fieldof anenemyandbegininsultinghimnevenin hisabsence;
a certainhousehe mayinsult theowner,notbecausethelatteris his enemy
butpor gusto (forthehellof it).
anindirect
maybeconsidered
Thereareotherwaysin whichhypoglycemia
of neuralcircuits in
If theactivation
ratherthandirectcauseof aggressivity.
systemof the brainis facilitatedby low glucoseconcentrathe aggression
arereto suchactivation
essential
tions or theirrapidchangeor if hormones
maybe an inthenhypoglycemia
of hypoglycemia,
leasedunderconditions
as
andnorepinephrine,
on epinephrine
If research
directcauseof aggression.
of these
aboutthesignificance
leadsto conclusions
wellasonotherhormones,

24g
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
AGGRESSION
QOLLA
thena lowglucoselevel,oronethatfallstoo
in causingaggression
substances
Moyer(I972:
thereleaseof thesehormones.
playsa rolebystimulating
rapidly,
pointsoutthatthere"isgoodevidenceforexamplethatbrainchemisI7-I8)
inanimals(isolatedmice)is digerentfromthatof normals,"
tryof aggressive
dopaand
norepinephrine,
serotonin,
of
rates
in
turnover
cludingdifferences
changes
maybecausedbytheendocrine
mine;andhesuggeststhataggression
or activationof particular
whichlead to "director indirectsensitization
brainsystems."
is as
mightincreaseaggressiveness
Anothermeanslzywhichhypoglycemia
thatthehumanorganismattemptsto maintainglufollows.If onepostulates
coselevelsat or abovethe nominallevel whichseemsto be the case,then
occurwhichwill
whenbloodglucosefallsbelowthenominallevel,processes
are
raisethe glucoselevel.In the normal,healthyorganismthoseprocesses
are not
If, however,thesemetabolicprocesses
internalmetabolicprocesses.
then
or liverdiseaseS
e.g.,becauseof adrenalexhaustion
properly,
operating
meansmightbe soughtto producethesameeffects.
andemotional
behavioral
aggression
mayfindthatbybecomingangryorbyexpressing
Theindividual
serveas a
reaction-may
fight-flight
the
Anger
raised.
is
level
glucose
his
a person's
glandsandorgans.CConsequently,
stimulusto sluggishlyoperating
feelingof well-being
becauseof the physiological
aggressionis reinfo-rced
actions.In thiswayhypoglyceoraggressive
theemotions
whichaccompanies
is extremely
becausethistypeof stimulation
miamayleadto aggressiveness
of
boosterof glucoselevels.And,in fact,thepeasants
effectiveas a short-run
mentionthatfighting"makesone feel better."A1occasionally
Incawatana
to pursuefurtheratthistime,it is tempting
thoughthetopicis toospeculative
changemaybe the basisfor persistingnoto suggestthatthisphysiological
effectsof aggression.
tionsaboutthecathartic
behaviormaybecomepartof
it canbe seenthataggressive
Consequently,
To be sure,
whichareinvolvedin glucosehomeostasis.
thesetof mechanisms
effectivein
whilemarkedly
of glucosehomeostasisS
thissolutionto problems
to the organismif continuedfor anylengthof
the shortrun,is detrimental
for the individual,it has potential
time.Whileit is probablymaladaptive
too, if, for example,it leadsto spacingout or
consequences,
eufunctional
importantfor an adequatediet.I shall
increasedaccessto scarceresources
discussthistopicbelow.
is thereverseof
of causality
It remainspossibleto suggestthatthedirection
Sincethe presentstudyis basedon correXational
the one I havepostulated.
mustbe entercauseshypoglycemia
thataggressiveness
data,the hypothesis
insulin-induced
of
effects
the
(e.g.,
sure
be
tO
evidence,
clinical
All
the
tained.
andirritabilcausesaggressiveness
suggeststhathypoglycemia
hypoglycemia))
ity ratherthan vice versa. AlthoughI havebeenstressingthe priorityof
betweenhypoglycemia
quiteclearlytheremustbe interaction
hypoglycemia,
withinlimitstheremayverywellbe a reciproMoreover,
andaggressiveness.
causesthe
Thatis, hypoglycemia
or oscillatinginteraction.
callyamplifying
In doingso, andthusbecomingthe targetfor
individualto actaggressively.
atleastto thepoint
worsens,
hypoglycemia
aswell,theindividual's
aggression
becomesextreme,when,perhaps,the individualeither
wherehypoglycemia

E250THNOLOGY
dies or withdrawsfor a slow recuperation.

"Hypoglycemic
careers"
and
"agonistic
careers"
areundoubtedly
closelymeshed.Sinceour studyis not
diachronic,
we cannotresolvethe issueof prioritywith our data.But we
stronglysuspectthatthe totalstressload,ratherthanaggression
per se, is
the startingpoint for hypoglycemia
and hence for the developmental
sequenceof interplaybetweenhypoglycemia
and aggressiveness.
THESYSTEMIC
CONTEXT
OFHYPOGLYCEMIA
AND
AGGRESSION
For the mostpart,the hypoglycemia

hypothesis
doesnot contradict
the
earlierhypothesesdealingwith Qollaaggressiveness,
i.e., the domination
hypothesisand the environmental-harshness
hypothesis.
In essence,we believethatthehypoglycemia
hypothesis
goesbeyondtheprevious
explanations
by pinpointing
the physiological
mechanism
throughwhichthe social,cultural,and environmental
factorspresentedin thosehypotheses
havetheir
effecton aggressiveness
levelsamongthe Qolla.I mustemphasizethathypoglycemia
is onlyoneof themanyvariables
responsible
forhighaggressiveness.At the sametime,I mustalsoemphasizethatthe etiologyof hypoglycemiais exceedingly
complexand poorlyunderstood.
Withoutany doubt,
however,it can be saidthatthe factorssuggestedby previoushypotheses
aboutthe Aymarapersonality
explainonly part of the variancein aggresslveness
ranilngs.
In thissectionof thepaperI shallrelatethehypoglycemia
hypothesis
to the
factorssuggestedby Barnouwto explaintheAymarapersonality.
Insteadof
merelylistingtheseitems,I shalloffera tentative
modelof the"bio-aggression
system"
of theQolla.Detailedevidenceto supportmyargument
will be presentedelsewhere(BoltonI973). Nevertheless,
it is hopedthat this brief
discussionwill enablethe readerto understand
the contextin whichthe
hypoglycemia
hypothesis
mustbelocated.
In Figure2, I haveoutlinedthe majorcomponents
in the bio-aggression
systemof theQolla.Thebasicpostulate
withwhichI amworking,of course,
is thatthe biologicalandecological
factorsinfluencing
aggressiveness
in Incawatanado so by contributing
to the development
of hypoglycemia.
In
orderto evaluatethishypothesis,
it is necessary
to workthroughthe system
itembyitem.Essentially
thismeansevaluating
thepotentialstressors'
effects
on hypoglycemia
andonaggressiveness.
Population
growthin Incawatana
hasresultedin a low percapitaresource
base,especially
withrespectto themajorformof productive
property,
land.
Overpopulation
requiresthe peasantsto use the availablelandintensively.
Fallowingis notpossible.Becauseof a lackof pastures
andothersourcesof
feed,villagers
areableto raisefewanimals.
Landis overutilized,
andvillagers
arenot ableto fertilizetheirfieIdsproperly.
Bothof theseconditionslead
to depletion
of thesoil.Percapitafoodproduction
is lowastheresultof three
majorfactors:the scarcityof land,the absenceof essentialnutrientsin the
soil,andthecapricious
weatherwhichbringshail,drought,
floods,andwinds,
allof whichruincrops,yearafteryear.
Inadequate
foodproduction
hasseveraleffects.First,it leadsto emigration
bymanyvillagers.
Somepeoplemigrateandremainawayfromhomepermai

Figure 2: A Model of the Bio Aggression System of the Qol
Altitude
> Cold/Heat
I> Hypoxia
of Reproduction <

E252THNOLOGY
nently.Othersspendseveralmonthseachyearearningcashby engagingin
menialoccupations
in nearbycities.Migration
solvespartof thefoodshortage
problem.
Permanent
migration
reducestheburdenof anexcessive
population.
Both temporary
and permanentmigrantsfrequentlysend foodstuffsand
otheritemsbackto theirfamiliesin thevillage.
Inadequate
food productionresultsin dietarydeficiencies
of numerous
kinds,includingprobably
hypocaloric
intakeandlow proteinintakeas well
as low intakeof essentialvitamins,e.g.,A, B complex,andCSandminerals
e.g.,calcium.Someof thesedeficiencies
areundoubtedly
periodicin nature
ratherthanconstant throughout
the year.DiGerentage and sex categories
maybe differentially
exposedto thesedeficiencies.
(Forinformation
on diet
consultSchaedelI967, ThomasIg7o,andPiconI968.) Dietarydeficiencies
are thoughttO haveseveralimportantconsequences.
First,theycontribute
directlyto the development
of hypoglycemia.
Spontaneous
attacksof hypoglycemiacanoccurwhenan individualhasnot eatenan adequatemeal,or
one highin carbohydrates
andthenexpendslargeamountsof energy.Second, dietarydeficiencies
produceotherdiseaseswhichare associated
with
hypoglycemiai.e., diseasessuch as cirrhosisof the liver.Third,dietary
deficiencies
maybe partlyresponsible
forthe highrateof premature
births
foundintheregion(LeighGatespersonal
communication).
Premature
births)miscellaneous
diseasesn
andhypoglycemia
all contribute
to a highmortality
rateforthevillage.Thehighmortality,
in turn prevents
the problemof overpopulation
frombecoming
moreacutethanit alreadyis.
Premature
birthstend to be associated
with hypoglycemia
in the infant
(McClungIg6g) whichmaythenbe prolonged
into adulthood
if the suS
sequentpostnatal
environment
itselfis deficient.
The unpredictable
weatherof theregioncausesconsiderable
arlxiety
in the
villagers(TschopikI95I). Thisanxiety,plustheextremes
of temperature
at
thisaltitude(I2,000 feetabovesealevel),maybe stressfulandthuspromote
thedevelopment
of hypoglycemia.
Hypoxia,too,rnayserveasa stressor
andmaybepartlyresponsible
forthe
widespread
hypoglycemia
in Incawatana
residents.
Butthisquestionis complex.The data (BakerI969) seemto suggestthatpermanent
residentsat
highaltitudehaveattainedan adaptation
whichpermitsequivalent
or higher
levelsof oxygenconsumption
thanis normalforsea-level
subjects.
However,
it maybe thatnot all individuals in the Andesareequallyadaptedto the
hypoxicconditions.
An individualmightin factbe overadapted
or underadaptedto the hypoxicenvironment.
If a personis overadaptedhe would
necessarilyburn moreglucoseat a fasterratethan is considerednormal
elsewhere.
Thushemightmorereadilyexperienceglucosedeficits,particuIarly
if nutritionis poorandif he encourltersotherformsof stress.If a personis
underadapted,the low oxygen pressurewould serveas stressorand possibly
lead to the eventualdeteriorationof the adrenalglands and from there to
the development
of hypoglycemia.One or bothof thesesituationsmay exist
(cf. VanLiereandStickneyI963). Pic6n(I962> I963, I966) hasbeenstudying the effectsof chronichypoxiaon carbohydrate
metabolism,
comparing
groupsof subJects
at sealevelandat highaltitudesin Peru.His studiesshow

QOLLA
AGGRESSION
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
253
thatthereareimportant
differences
in metabolic
processes
betweenthe two
groups.Amonghis findingsis thefactthatduringtheintravenous
GTT the
bloodglucoseconcentration
diminishes
morerapidlyin high-altitude
subjects
thanin sea-level
ones,andthattheinitialhyperglycemic
response
to glucoseis
lesspronounced
in the high-altitude
subjects.
It waspointedout abovethat
the highestcorrelation
betweenaggressiveness
and glucoselevelsoccurred
whenthe glucoselevelin the GTT haddroppedby the timeof the fourth
glucosereading,twohoursafterthe beginningof thetest.Consequently,
the
rapidityof the dropseemsto be relatedto bothaltitudeandaggressiveness.
Unfortunately,
it is not knownwhatcausesthis rapiddropamonghighaltitudenatives.
I havesuggested
thatthereis a reciprocal
interaction
betweencocachewing
andhypoglycemia.
Thepersonwithhypoglycemia
becomes
hungryandchews
cocato dullhis hungerpainsandto providehimselfwithenergy.The coca
hasimmediate
effectsin raisingtheglucoselevel,probably
by stimulating
the
transformation
of glycogenstores,butit probably
haslong-term
detrimental
effectswhichcomplicateglucosehomeostasis
problemsfor the individual
whochews.(SeeBucket al. I968a andI968bfora discussion
of therelationshipbetweencocachewingandhealth.)Alcohol,too,provides
theindividual
withquickenergy,raisingglucoselevels;butaccording
to somesourcesthe
cravingfor alcoholis itselfproduced
by hypoglycemia
(TinteraI955, I956,
I+6).
The highalcoholconsumption
maycontribute
to diseasessuchasfatty
liverorcirrhosis
whichalsoarefactorsin theetiologyof hypoglycemia.
Hypoglycemia
leadsto high involvement
in aggression.
Aggressionhas
significant
efTects
of severalkinds.First?aggression
increasesthe mortality
rate.It has a directeffectbecauseof the high homiciderateand indirect
effectsdueto thedebilitation
occasioned
bywoundsreceived
in fights.Aggressionis a factorwhichinfluences
somepeopleto migrateto the citieswhere,
according
to informants,
lifeis morepeaceful.Aggression
causesvillagersto
eyeoneanotherwithsuspicion
andprevents
themfromco-operating
withone
another,especiallyon projectswhichcouldhave a feedbackedecton the
productivity
of the community.
Forexample,it is possibleto use smudging
techniques
duringnightswhenfrostfallsduringthe growingseason.This
techniquecanpreventdamageto crops,but the villagershavefoundit too
diflicultto organizethistypeof communal
activity.Therefore,
thetechnology
whichis available
forincreasing
foodproduction
is notemployed.
Finally,population
growthhas resultedin a high populationdensityin
Incawatana.
High densityhasan effecton the aggression
level,bothdirectly
andindirectly.
High densityis associated
withincreased
ratesof interaction
and,thus,anincrease
in thelikelihood
thatanagonisticencounter
will occur.
We hypothesize
that it contributes
to the development
of hypoglycemia
as
well. It is diicult to test this hypothesisbecausethe residentialunits in
Incawatana
are almostequallyspacedthroughoutthe availableterritory;
consequently,
thereis notmuchdifferentiation
withinthevillagein termsof
distancesbetweenhouses.However,therearedif3erences
betweenvillagers
withrespectto the distancefromtheirhouseto a majorpath.Herewe find
thatthereis a correlation
betweendistanceandhypoglycemia
(.289),indicat-

THNOLOGY
E254
wholivccloseto a majorpatharemorelikelyto suffer

ingthatthosesubjects
andaggressiveness
betweenpathdistance
correlation
The
hypoglycemia.
from
lowerand not significant(.IO2).This topichas beenwell
is considerably
and otheranimals(cf. Hall Ig6g,DeeveyI960,
studiedin ratpopulations
Christianand Davis I964, CalhounI962). But littleis knownaboutthe
densityandcrowdingin humans.The reeffectsof population
physiological
with
of densityareassociated
suggestthatsomemeasures
sultsforIncawatana
thebio-aggression
onemustconsider
Indeed,in somerespects,
hypoglycemia.
systemwhichI haveoutlinedhereto be closelyrelatedto the population
withtheeffectsof crowdconcerned
by ethologists
controlsystemsdiscussed
appearto be
andaggression
ing anddensity.In partat least,hypoglycemia
whichwouldhaveto be includedin
linkedwithmanyof thesamevariables
I shalldealwiththisproblem
systemforIncawatana.
a modelof a population
atgreaterlengthin anotherwork.
ordothey
directly
causeaggression
dothesestressors
Thequestionremains:
first? Sincewe were
produceaneffectindirectlyi.e.,bycausinghypoglycemia
unableto measureall the variablesin this model,we can provideonly a
analysesusingdietary
tentativeanswerto thisquestion.Multipleregression
thatthese
conclusion
the
to
lead
variables
andspatialfactorsas independent
account
highdensityandproteindeficiency,
essentially
of itemsn
twocategories
a multiWeobtained
in levelsof hypoglycemia.
for20 percentof thevariance
whenwe used
at the .os level.In contrast,
of .45,significant
ple correlation
which
we didnot obtaina correlation
variable,
as the dependent
aggression
that
suggest
do
results
these
words
other
In
significant.
was statistically
dietaryand spatialfactorsinfluenceaggressionlevelsprimarilythrough
of oursubjects.
theireffectontheglycemiccondition
CONCLUSION
Onthe
hypothesis.
a testof thehypoglycemia
In thispaperI havepresented
have
we
First,
drawn.
be
can
basisof that test a numberof conclusions
aggresand
hypoglycemia
between
association
an
is
there
that
demonstrated
sivenessamongthe QollaIndiansof Peru.Analysisof the factorswhich
indicatesthatpreviousexof hypoglycemia
to the development
contribute
werenot so muchwrongas ineomfor the Aymarapersonality
planations
the earlierhypotheses.
subsumes
hypothesis
The hypoglycemia
plete.
physiois a widespread
thathypoglycemia
Second,we havedemonstrated
of thisfactopens
The discovery
logicalconditionin thisAndeanpopulation.
We will wantto havedetailedstudiesof the
possibilities.
up manyresearch
and betweenalcohol
betweencocachewingandhypoglycemia
relationship
havementioned
Numerousethnographers
andhypoglycemia.
consumption
cognitiveinconsisto be ableto livewithgreater
seem
thatAndeanpeasants
for
of hypoglycemia
tencythanotherpeoples.Whatarethe consequences
memory,andcognition?In
suchas perception,
processes
otherpsychological
it has oftenbeenreportedthathighaltitudehasan eiTecton
the literature
ortoboth?
tohypoglycemia
is thiseffectduetohypoxia,
dreaming;
theQollaseem
Although
Andes.
the
beyond
implications
has
research
This
theyarenot unique.I suggestthatthe question
aggressive,
to be extremely

255
ANDHYPOGLYCEMIA
AGGRESSION
QOLLA
shouldbe lookedat again.Manyof thesame

generally
of peasantpersonality
for the Qollaare present in most peasant
factorswhichserveas stressors
is foundin otherpeasantsocieties
societies.Is it possiblethathypoglycemia
foundforotheraggresthesituations
aswell?It mightbefruitfultore-analyze
Or onemightexaminethe differsivepeoplestoo,suchas theYZnomamo.
testingthe hypothesisthat
and agriculturalists,
encesbetweenpastoralists
in aggressiveness
mightbe a factorwhichexplainsdifferences
hypoglycemia
on this
(seeEdgertonI97I ). I cannotneglectto suggestthatfurtherresearch
ghettosandotherpovertyareaswhere
outin American
topicmightbecarried
highlevelsof stressarefound.
testof thehypoglycemia
thefirstlarge-scale
Sincethepresentstudyprovides
and we will needto havecontrolled
we will needreplication,
hypothesis,
of this
beforewe canproceedto workout all the implications
experiments
finding
In conclusionit seemsto me thatinsteadof engagingin uselessdebates

chalmusttakeup Wallace's
anthropologists
overinstinctsandimperatives,
andpersonalbasesof culturalbehavior
lengeWemustexplorethebiological
by
in humanbiologydiscussed
ity It is to be hopedthatthenew directions
to probapproach
will promotean integrated
HollowayandSzinyei-Merse
of bothculturaland
lemswh1chcanonlybe solvedthroughthe application
havenoted
I46-I47)
(I972:
HollowayandSzinyei-Merse
viewpoints.
biological
that
thereis a tendencyto forgetjust how biologicallife is. Indeed,a newer emphasisis
developing,awayfrom that of the pastcenturwhich had the greatvalueof showhumanbehavior-to that
ing the biologisthow importantcultureis for understanding
of indicatinghow ilnportantour biologicalheritageis for sane rnoral adaptive
human behavior.The synthesisbetweenthese approachesto human existenceand
is surelyclose at hand.We no longerbelieveit reasonableor cultural
improvements
to simply considerthe biologicalrealin as some sort of constant,
anthropologists
profitablyignoredso that socialvariablesalone can be studied.
to theproblemof Qollaaggression,
approach
By applyinga psychobiological
of theformsandintensityof
I havetriedto showthata betterunderstanding
hasbeenattaIned.
thatkindof humanbehavior
NOTES
An earlierdraft o this paperreceivedthe StirlingAward in Cultureand PersonalityStudiespresentedat the 7ISt annualmeetingof the AmericanAnthropologicaI
Associationin Torc)ntoCanadaDecemberI, Ig7z. Field work amongthe QolIawas
carriedout from December,Ig68, to ianuary,Ig7Is with the financialassistanceof
the ForeignArea FellowshipProgram.A grant from the Latin AmericanStudies
Programof CornellUniversitypaid for the collectionof the physiologicaldata employedin thisarticle.For thissupport I am extremelygrateful.Amongie manypeople
who contributedto the successfulcompletionof this research,I would like to express
especiallyto JohnM. Roberts}BerndLambert,Leigh Gates,Miguel
my appreciation
Neyra,JoseSardon,CharleneBoltDn,and the peopleof Incawatana.A brief version
of this articlewas presentedto the I972annualmeeting o the SouthwesternAnin LongBeachCalifornia.
Association
thropological
2. Details on Qolla cultureare providedin my forthcomingmonograph.I shouId
Qolla cultureis an Andean
and "Aymara."
explainmy usage of the terms"QQ11a"
subculturefound in the areaaroundLakeTiticacain Peru and Bolivia.On the basis
T.

256
THNOLOGY
of linguisticcriteriaalone, the Qolla have often been divided into Quechuaand

Aymara.In essence,however,one is dealingwith a single Andeansubculture,which
shouldbe referredto as Qollaratherthan Aymara.Incawatana,the Yillagewhich I
studied,is locatedin the Quechua-speaking
zoneof theQollao.
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Aggression and Hypoglycemia among the Qolla: A Study in Psychobiological Anthropology

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See Tschopik (1951) for details on Paredes,Forbes,Squier,Romero,Bandelier,

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We know somethingof the resultsin behaviorand moraIefrom experimentsof

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on at least60 percentof all

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casesof cropdamage,intent to injure is safelyinferred,forexample,whena

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bersof the eommunity

(Note: the rates are calculatedfor a hypotheticalpopulationof 100,000.)

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1st Rater's 1st Ranking

Althoughit has beenshownthatthe indicatorof reputational

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OLLA AGGRESSIONAND liYPOGLYCEMIA

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by thefactthatI haveincludedin thiscategoryparticipalargelyexplained

The Physiologyof Aggression

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Clementeand Lindsley(I67), Wolfgangand Ferracuti(I967),

However,whenone turnsfroman examination

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The carefulstudieson hypoglycemia

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OLLA AGGRESSION AND . _ .YPOGLYCEMIA

of ailmentswhichcan be eliminatedby curingit, e.g.,neurosis,alcholism,

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glucoseby IO to 25 mg. per IOO ml. belowfastinglevel.Moreover,

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Thesecasesdo seemtQ indicatethatcurvilinearity

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dies or withdrawsfor a slow recuperation.

For the mostpart,the hypoglycemia

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Figure 2: A Model of the Bio Aggression System of the Qol

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wholivccloseto a majorpatharemorelikelyto suffer

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shouldbe lookedat again.Manyof thesame

In conclusionit seemsto me thatinsteadof engagingin uselessdebates

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of linguisticcriteriaalone, the Qolla have often been divided into Quechuaand

CarterW. E. I965. AymaraCommunities

Edgerton,R. B. I97I. The Individualin CulturalAdaptation:

Gade,D. W. I970. Ecolog1a

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