Experiments

Table of Contents
Module 1- ................................................................................................................................................ 2
1. Effect of Temperature on enzyme activity- .................................................................................... 2
2. Effect of pH on enzyme activity - .................................................................................................... 4
3. Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity- ................................................................... 6
4. Effect of dissolved CO2 on pH of water- ......................................................................................... 8
5. Investigating blood cells- .............................................................................................................. 10
6. Conducting tissues- Xylem and phloem-....................................................................................... 12
7. Dissection of Kidney-..................................................................................................................... 14
8. Water Conservation in plants- ...................................................................................................... 16
Module 2- .............................................................................................................................................. 18
1. Model of Natural Selection- .......................................................................................................... 18
2. Model of meiosis- ......................................................................................................................... 20
3. Effect of environment on phenotype- .......................................................................................... 21
4. Model for polypeptide synthesis- ................................................................................................. 23
Module 3- .............................................................................................................................................. 25
1. Identify microbes in water- ........................................................................................................... 25
2. Model of Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay-.................................. 27
3. Plant Diseases- .............................................................................................................................. 29
Module 4- .............................................................................................................................................. 31
1. Model of DNA- .............................................................................................................................. 31
2. Linkage- ......................................................................................................................................... 34

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Module 11. Effect of Temperature on enzyme activityAim- To investigate the effect of temperature on the activity of an enzyme (Rennin).
Hypothesis- the optimum temperature for the enzyme, Rennin, works best at 37 degrees
(i.e. body temperature), as it is found within the stomach of an organism.
Materials- Beakers (250mL), hot plate, test Tubes (3), rennin Solution, stopwatch, measuring
cylinder, thermometer, test tube rack, milk.
VariablesIndependent variable: temperature of the water bath. This temperature is constantly
changed throughout the experiment to test its effect on rennin. The temperatures used
were 0 c, 20 c, 40 c, 60 c and 80 c and were measured using a thermometer.
Dependent variable: enzyme activity or rate of reaction, measured as average time it takes
for milk to curdle. The time it took for the milk to curdle was measured using a stopwatch.
Controlled variables: Amount of milk placed into each of the test tubes (5mL), the amount
and concentration of rennin used (1ml), the time the test tubes were left in the water bath
(5min) and the same amount and type of milk.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. The milk and the enzyme may be contaminated and shouldnt be consumed. Neither
the milk nor the enzyme was consumed and safety gloves and lab coat was worn
when handling them.
2. Glassware is fragile and if broken, can cause cuts. The glassware was placed in the
centre of the table and handled carefully to avoid breakages.
3. A hot plate/water bath was used which can cause burns. Care was taken while
handling the hot water bath, didnt touch with bare skin and kept objects away.
Method1. Rennin solution was obtained.
2. A water bath was prepared at 40 degrees in a 250ml beaker using a hot plate.
3. 5ml of milk were placed into two test tubes labelled A (experimental) and B (control)
and 1ml of Rennin solution to the test tube labelled C.
4. The 3 test tubes were placed in the water bath and were left for 5 minutes.
5. The contents of test tube C were poured into test tube A and the stopwatch was
started.
6. Every minute or so, the test tubes were examined by gently tilting them and it was
made sure they were not shaken.
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7. The time taken for clotting to occur in both test tubes was recorded.
8. The above steps were recorded at temperatures of 0 degrees (using ice cubes to
keep constant temperature), 20degrees (tap water), 60degrees and 80degrees (using
hot plate).
9. The entire experiment was repeated several times and the average results were
calculated.
Results-

ConclusionEnzymes function at an optimum temperature. In this investigation, Rennin works best at 37

degrees. A very high temperature, such as 80 degrees, denatures the enzyme, whereas a
very low temperature, such as 0 degrees, slows down enzyme reaction.

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2. Effect of pH on enzyme activity Aim- to investigate the effect of pH on the activity of catalase.
Hypothesis- the enzyme catalase works best at an optimum pH of approximately 7 (neutral).
This is because catalase is found in many living organisms that require oxygen and their
internal pH is neutral. In this experiment the best pH is 7.5.
Materials- Citric acid buffer solutions of pH 4.4, 5.2, 6.5, 7.5 and 9, Hydrogen peroxide
solution, potato, 10ml and 100ml measuring cylinders, stopwatch, stand and clamp, water
bucket, cork borer, large test tube, rubber stopper and delivery tube, scalpel, hand gloves,
safety Glasses.
VariablesIndependent variable: pH buffer solution.
Dependent variable: the rate of reaction (volume of water displaced).
Controlled variables: Size of potato cylinders, amount of buffer solution, time of reaction,
volume of hydrogen peroxide and substrate concentration.
Risk Assessment/Safety Procedures1. Citric acid is corrosive therefore it can cause burns or irritations. Hand gloves are to
be worn to prevent any contact from citric acid buffer solution. Safety Glasses are to
be worn to prevent splashes in the eyes.
2. Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant and an oxidising agent (highly flammable). Hand
gloves and safety glasses are to be worn to prevent contact with skin/eyes. It is to be
kept away from any flames.
3. Glassware is fragile and if broken, can cause cuts. The glassware was placed in the
centre of the table and handled carefully to avoid breakages.
Method1. The apparatus was set up as shown below-

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2. A cylinder of potato 5cm long was cut using a cork borer. It was then cut into 10, cm
lengths and placed in the test tube.
3. 5ml of pH 4.4 buffer solution was added and the pH was recorded.
4. 5ml of hydrogen peroxide was added and the rubber stopper was immediately inserted
and the stopwatch was started.
5. The volume of oxygen collected in the measuring cylinder was recorded every minute
for 5 minutes.
6. The experiment was repeated using a different pH buffer solution and fresh potato.
7. The experiment was repeated using the different pH buffer solutions and the hydrogen
peroxide only. No potato was added and this acted as the CONTROL EXPERIMENT.
8. The steps 1-7 were repeated for each pH and the average results for each pH value was
calculated.

ConclusionEnzymes work best at an optimum pH and if this range is exceeded dramatically ( such as
with pH 4.4 or 9) the enzyme will become denatured and the rate of reaction will eventually
stop. The experiment proved that catalase works best at pH 7.5 as the greatest volume of
oxygen as produced (8ml).
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3. Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activityAim- to investigate the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity.
Hypothesis- As the substrate concentration increases the rate of enzyme activity will
increase up to a point. This is because each substrate molecule occupies an active site and
these active sites will eventually be fully occupied so the rate of enzyme activity will
increase up to the optimum and then continue to occur at the optimum.
Materials- 20mL hydrogen peroxide, distilled water, 5 test tubes and test tube rack, 10ml
pipette, cork borer, fresh potato, labelling pen or labels, ruler in cm and mm, stopwatch.
VariablesIndependent variable: substrate concentration: 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of hydrogen
peroxide.
Dependent variable: rate of reaction (measured as height of oxygen bubbles produced).
Controlled variable: Size of potato cylinders, type of potato, total volume of solution
(substrate) and time for the reaction (5minutes).
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidising agent and toxic if ingested. Do not put it near a
flame and dont ingest it. Wear safety glasses to prevent it entering the eyes if
splashes occur. It is also highly corrosive. Wear gloves, lab coat and safety glasses to
avoid contact with skin and eyes. Wash area with cold running water if it comes in
contact wit skin or eyes.
2. Glassware can cause cuts if broken. Glassware must be kept in the centre of the
bench. If broken it should be disposed of carefully with a dust pan.
3. Scalpel is very sharp and can cause cuts. While passing the scalpel it must be done
carefully and must be pointed downwards, away from the body. If cut, wash, apply
pressure and apply first aid.
Method1. 5 test tubes labelled 1-5 were set up.
2. The volumes of hydrogen peroxide and distilled water were pipette into each test
tube as shown below.
Test tube
mL H2O2
mL Distilled water
% of H2O2

1
0
10
0

2
2.5
7.5
25
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3
5
5
50

4
7.5
2.5
75

5
10
0
100

Experiments

3. The contents of each test tube were mixed and the level of liquid was marked in
each test tube, using the felt tip pen.
4. Prepared five cylinders of potato using a cork borer and each were cut into 6 equal
pieces.
5. Placed a set of 6 potatoes was placed into each test tube and quickly started the
stopwatch.
6. After 5 minutes for each test tube, the height of the oxygen bubbles produced was
marked and measured using a ruler, and the results were recorded in a table.
7. The experiment was repeated 5 times and the average results for each test tube
were calculated. NOTE- test tube 1 acted as a control (has no substrate).

ConclusionAs the substrate concentration increases the rate of enzyme activity increases up to a
certain point i.e. as the substrate increased from 0-100%, the rate of reaction also increased
as shown by the average height of oxygen bubbles produced. However, if the experiment
continues with the concentrated hydrogen peroxide (100%), the reaction will proceed at the
maximum rate. This is because once all the active sites of the enzymes are occupied the rate
of reaction ceases to increase but will proceed at the maximum rate.
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4. Effect of dissolved CO2 on pH of waterAim- to investigate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
Hypothesis- as the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the water increases the pH of the water
will decrease. This is because when carbon dioxide dissolves in water it forms carbonic acid.
This dissociates to form hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. This increase in hydrogen
lowers the pH of the water. Carbonic Acid ---> hydrogen + bicarbonate.
Materials- 50mL distilled water, beaker (100mL), pH probe and data logger connected to
computer, straw, stopwatch, pH chart.
VariablesIndependent variable: dissolved CO2 concentration in the water.
Dependent variable: pH of the water.
Controlled variables: volume of distilled water (50ml), time CO2 was exhaled into the water
(60sec) and amount of UI used (10drops).
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Glassware can cause cuts if broken. Glassware must be kept in the centre of the
bench. If broken it should be disposed of carefully with a dust pan.
2. Universal indicator is toxic and splashing may occur resulting in substances entering
the eye. Safety glasses must be worn to prevent splashing into the eyes when
blowing into the water with UI.
Method1. 50ml of distilled water was measured with a measuring cylinder and added into a
100ml beaker.
2. A pH probe was inserted into the beaker and it was connected to a data logger which
was connected to a computer.
3. Using a straw, Carbon dioxide was exhaled into the beaker for 60seconds, using a
stopwatch that was started simultaneously with the blowing of the straw. Changes in
the pH as the Carbon dioxide dissolved into the water were measured by the pH
probe, read by the data logger, and recorded by the computer in the form of a
graph, which was then printed out on a pH chart.
4. The experiment was repeated several times and the average results were calculated
(increases reliability).
5. As a control experiment the experiment was repeated several times without exhaling
into the beaker. This proved that any change in the pH of the water were a result of
dissolved CO2.
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ResultspH of water- pH probe and data logger- quantitative data

ConclusionIn conclusion an increase in the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in water results in
a decrease in the pH of the water. This was observed in the graph produced by the data
logger and computer (refer to results).
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5. Investigating blood cellsAim- To estimate the size of red and white blood cells
Materials- prepared slide of human blood smear, light microscope, labelled diagrams of
human blood cell types, graph with 1mm grid.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. When using the microscope, if care is not taken the slide and the objective lens can
break and pieces can cause cuts. Only lower the objective lenses while looking from
the side of the microscope. While looking through the eyepiece the lenses must only
be moved upwards to prevent them from crashing onto the slide and breaking the
lenses and slide.
2. There is a risk of infection if blood smears are prepared in the lab. Only a prepared
slide of human blood smear is used. This reduces chances of infection.
Method1. A light microscope was set up.
2. A microscope slide with a mini-grid was placed on the platform and it was focused
under the HP objective lenses.
3. The diameter of the field of view was measured and the value was recorded.
4. A prepared slide was observed under high power.
5. The slide was moved so that a row of red blood cells were lined up across the
diameter.
6. A row was selected so that it didnt include too many side on red blood cells. The
number of red blood cells across the diameter was estimated.
7. The number of red blood cells was divided by the diameter to estimate their size.
8. The number of white blood cells that could fit across the diameter was estimated
and the diameter was divided by the number of white blood cells to estimate their
size.
9. Steps 1-8 were repeat with different slides and the average was taken to minimise
any errors to increase the reliability.

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Results a123456-

Diameter of low power= 4.2mm= 4200micrometres

Diameter of high power= DLP X LPMHPM=420micrometres
No of RBC at HP=71 RBC across diameter
70 cells=420 micrometres 1 cell= x x =6micrometres
Scaled diagram - scale= 1cm=2micrometres
Diagram of red blood cell-

Results bWhite Blood cell

25cells=420micrometres
1cell=16.8 micrometres
Scale
1cm=4micrometres

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6. Conducting tissues- Xylem and phloemAim- To draw transverse and longitudinal sections of xylem and phloem tissue.
Materials- Light microscope, coverslip, beaker of water, watch glass, celery stem, eosin dye
solution, scalpel, probe, dropper, slides, cover slips, prepared slides of a plant stem both
longitudinal and transverse sections.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. When using the microscope, if care is not taken the slide and the objective lens can
break and pieces can cause cuts. Only lower the objective lenses while looking from
the side of the microscope. While looking through the eyepiece the lenses must only
be moved upwards to prevent them from crashing onto the slide and breaking the
lenses and slide.
2. Scalpel is very sharp and can cause cuts. While passing the scalpel it must be done
carefully and must be pointed downwards, away from the body.
Method1. A light microscope was setup.
2. A celery stem that had been left in eosin dye for 24 hours was obtained. Excess dye
was washed off with water.
3. The thinnest section possible was cut from the stem using a scalpel. Both
longitudinal and transverse sections were cut.
4. The cut sections were placed in a glass of water.
5. The thinnest sections were placed on microscope slides in a drop of water and were
covered with cover slips.
6. The longitudinal and transverse sections were observed under the microscope, firstly
under low power than high power.
7. The xylem and phloem cells were identified in longitudinal and transverse sections.
8. Observed the prepared slides of the plant stems that had been stained to show
different tissues were observed.
9. Large labelled diagrams were made displaying the L.S and T.S of both xylem and
phloem and a diagram of the transverse section of the stem was made.

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Results-

ConclusionThe structure of Xylem is different to the structure of phloem. Xylem is composed of large
vessels, whose walls are thickened and strengthened by lignin. Xylem also contains hard
fibre cells, which adds support to the tissue. Xylem is dead and conducts water. Phloem
comprises supporting fibre cells, and two special cell types: sieve tubes and companion cells.
Unlike xylem, phloem tissue is alive and is the tissue for translocation.
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7. Dissection of KidneyAim- To examine the external and internal structure of a kidney and to relate structure to
function
Materials- Sheep kidney (with fat possible), dissecting tray, scalpel, forceps, scissors, hand
gloves, microscope and slides and/or photographs of the cellular structure of the kidney,
model of a kidney and/or other visual resources.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. When using the microscope, if care is not taken the slide and the objective lens can
break and pieces can cause cuts. Only lower the objective lenses while looking from
the side of the microscope. While looking through the eyepiece the lenses must only
be moved upwards to prevent them from crashing onto the slide and breaking the
lenses and slide.
2. Scalpel is very sharp and can cause cuts. While passing the scalpel it must be done
carefully and must be pointed downwards, away from the body.
Method1. The fat was carefully removed from around the kidney.
2. The three tubes entering and leaving the kidney were identified (as the renal artery,
renal vein and ureter) and separated.
3. The kidney was cut in half lengthwise and the three tubes were left intact on one
side of the dissection.
4. The internal appearance of the kidney was observed and the cortex, medulla and
pelvis were identified.
5. The dissected kidney was disposed of correctly. The instruments, bench and hands
were washed thoroughly.
6. A slide of the microscopic structure of kidney tissue was examined. The Bowmans
capsule, nephron tubules and collecting ducts were examined.

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Results-

ConclusionThe purpose of the kidney is to filter out metabolic wastes and maintain a balance in water,
salts and pH. The adaptation which gives the kidney its function is the many structures it
contains; glomerulus, nephrons, Loop of Henle, ect. There are approximately 800000 to
1000000 nephrons inside the kidney.

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8. Water Conservation in plantsAim- To investigate structural features of various leaves that assist in conservation of water
Materials- Leaves from the following plants: banksias, casuarinas, eucalypt, geranium,
hakea, pigface, microscope slides, microscopes, hand lens/magnifying glasses, scalpel,
dropper.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Some plants may be toxic and there is a risk of allergic reaction to plant/soil. Gloves
should be used to protect the hands from contact with the soil.
2. The scalpel is very sharp and can cause cuts. While passing the scalpel it must be
done carefully and must be pointed downwards, away from the body.
3. When using the microscope, if care is not taken the slide and the objective lens can
break and pieces can cause cuts. Only lower the objective lenses while looking from
the side of the microscope. While looking through the eyepiece the lenses must only
be moved upwards to prevent them from crashing onto the slide and breaking the
lenses and slide.
4. Pot plants can fall of the bench and cause injuries. The pot plants must be left in the
centre of the bench to prevent them from falling off the bench.
Method1. A variety of leaves was collected from different species as listed in the materials.
2. The shape of the leaf was observed and compared with the Surface Area: Volume
ratio.
3. The orientation of the leaves was observed and any vertically hanging leaves were
noted.
4. A hand lens was used to observe the leaves for the presence of fine hairs.
5. A drop of water was placed on each leaf surface (upper and lower) to see if it had a
waxy cuticle.
6. A leaf was cut from the pigface and the cut surface was run across a microscope slide
to investigate any water storage in fleshy tissue.
7. Thin cross-sections of the various leaf surfaces were prepared and a light microscope
was used to see if stomates were present on the upper or lower surface and if the
stomates were sunken.
8. The water conservation features and how they reduce water loss, along with
examples of plants with the feature were recorded in a table.

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ResultsFEATURE

Vertically hanging
leaves
Waxy cuticle

Photosynthetic stems
Needle-like leaves
Water storage in fleshy
tissues
Sunken stomates

Hairy leaves

HOW IT REDUCES WATER LOSS

- Leaves hung vertically

- Reduce the surface area expose to the sun
- Less water evaporates.
- Reduces water loss as cuticle prevents
evaporation
- Reflects radiation from sun, reducing heat
gain.
- Reduces surface area exposed to sun and
water loss.
- Reduce surface area and water loss.
-Water is stored in trunk, leaves or roots.
- Stomates lay in cavity in leaf which results
in humid air being concentrated above
stomata which reduces water loss.
- Reduces air movement
- Increases humidity over stomates,
preventing transpiration and water loss.

EXAMPLES OF
PLANT WITH
FEATURE
Eucalypts

Saltbush, Eucalypts

Casuarina
Casuarina, Hakea,
Acacia
Pigface
Hakeas

ConclusionA plant that is adapted to an arid environment is called a xerophyte. Many xerophytes have
specialised tissues for storing water e.g. cacti. Others may have thin narrow leaves or even
spikes for minimising water loss. Xerophyte leaves often have abundant stomata to
maximise gas exchange during periods in which water is unavailable, and the stomata are
recessed in depressions, which are covered in fine hairs to help trap moisture in the air.

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Module 21. Model of Natural SelectionAim- to observe natural selection by means of a model.
Hypothesis- The green coloured toothpicks would be the least likely to be picked on the
grass, the red toothpicks would be the least likely to be picked on the red background and
the same for yellow.
Materials- 60 coloured toothpicks (20 green, 20 red, 20 yellow), different coloured
backgrounds.
VariablesIndependent: background.
Dependent: number and colour of toothpicks found.
Controlled: total number of toothpicks of each colour (20), time given for predators to pick
toothpicks (15 sec), total area of background surface (3m by 3m) and same predators.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Toothpicks have sharp, pointed ends- care must be taken whilst picking up
toothpicks to prevent pointed ends causing injuries to hands.
Method1. Measure out a 3m by 3m area on the grass surface. Mark the corners of the square
with wooden pegs and the sides of the area with strings.
2. Obtain 60 toothpicks (20 green, 20 red and 20 yellow).
3. Work in groups of 3 whereby one member will be the scatterer, the other two will be
predators.
4. Ask the predators to look away and then scatter the toothpicks over the marked
area.
5. Allow the predators 15 seconds to find as many toothpicks as they can.
6. Count the number of each colour of toothpick found and record in table.
7. Repeat the above steps 5 times to see if similar results are obtained. If similar results
are obtained the results are reliable. Calculate the average of the repeats as the final
results to make any errors insignificant.
8. The experiment is valid because only one variable is tested at a time.

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Results-

Limitations1. It doesnt take into account other factors that may affect the survival of an individual
in a population e.g. disease.
2. It assumes equal numbers of individuals are born each year whereas in natural
population numbers vary.
3. Oversimplifies natural selection in terms of time it takes to occur.
Advantages1. Simulates process of natural selection.
2. It shows that organisms with favourable characteristics have higher chance of
survival and reproduction than organisms without the characteristic.
3. It can be improved by repeating the experiment on a larger number of backgrounds
and comparing the results to see if similar results are obtained.
ConclusionGreen toothpicks were least chosen in the green background. This models natural selection
as it shows that green camouflage would be a favourable characteristic, and over time,
there would be greater numbers of green toothpicks in the population. This also applies to
the yellow toothpicks on the yellow background and the red toothpicks on the red
background.
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2. Model of meiosisAim- to develop a model to illustrate meiosis.

Materials- 2 different coloured dough (green and yellow).
Method1. Obtained two different colours of play dough e.g. green and yellow. Different colours
were used to represent maternal and paternal chromosomes within the homologous
pairs of chromosomes.
2. The green dough was rolled into two strips of equal length to represent replicated
chromosomes.
3. The two strips were joined by pressing near the middle to indicate the position of the
centromere. The green chromosome represents the paternal chromosome.
4. The above steps (2-3) were repeated with yellow dough to construct the maternal
chromosome.
5. The above steps (2-4) were repeated to construct another pair of homologous
chromosomes.
6. The homologous chromosomes were paired up in a line at the equator to show the
two tetrads at the first meiotic division.
7. Crossing Over was shown by swapping the ends of the two innermost chromatids in
the tetrad.
8. The chromosomes were moved through the steps of first and second meiotic division
to show the production of haploid gametes.
9. The homologous chromosomes were rearranged at the equator to show another
possible arrangement of homologous chromosomes at the first division. This is to
represent random segregation.
Limitations1. Oversimplifies the process of meiosis as only two pairs of chromosomes were shown
where in reality the number would have been much larger.
2. Behaviour of genes is not shown e.g. genes arent shown on the chromosomes.
Benefits/Strengths1. Two different colours enable maternal and paternal chromosomes to be
distinguished.
2. The model illustrates the behaviour of chromosomes during crossing over.
3. The model shows that the movement of chromatids during meiosis 2 is at 90 to the
movement of homologous chromosomes at meiosis 1.
4. The model also shows the production of haploid gametes from diploid cells.
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3. Effect of environment on phenotypeAim- to investigate the effect of one environmental factor on the phenotype of pea plants.
Materials- 20 pots, packet of genetically identical pea seeds (tall), potting mix, measuring
cylinder, ruler, measuring tape, gloves, safety glasses.
VariablesIndependent variable: amount of light the plant is exposed to.
Dependent variable: height of the pea plants.
Controlled variables: temperature, time for growth, type of soil, size of pot, amount of
water given.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Composts/potting mix contain microbes including bacteria and fungi. Avoid contact
with eyes and skin by wearing hand gloves and lab coat.
2. Inhalation of dust may irritate nose/throat/lungs. Avoid breathing in dust.
Method1. Firstly, the twenty pots were filled to the same level with potting mix, using ruler to
mark the level.
2. Then 5 pea seeds were put into each pot at equal depth, using a ruler to measure
depth.
3. The pots were then watered (10mL using measuring cylinder) and the potting mix
was moistened. 10 of the pots were placed on the window sill and the other 10 in a
dark cupboard, all of them for 2 weeks.
4. The pots were watered with the same amount of water each day (10mL).
5. The heights of the plants were recorded each day and any other differences such as
colour were noted.
6. The heights of the plants were measured using a measuring tape and results were
recorded each day. Any other differences such as colour were also noted.
7. The average height for the plants grown in both dark and light was calculated.

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Results-

Discussion/conclusion1. Compare growth of pea plants in light and dark- In the light the pea plants reached an
average height of 32.3cm whereas in the dark the plants reached an average height of
38.8cm. The peas grew taller in the dark. The pea plants grown in the dark also
appeared yellow in colour indicating a lack of the pigment chlorophyll.
2. How has the availability of light affected the growth i.e. how has the environmental
factor affected the phenotype- In terms of height all the pea plants had genetically
identical information (tall gene). With identical conditions all the seeds would be
expected to grow to the same height. There was differences observed after 2 weeks
and this was because of the environment. All variables were controlled except for the
amount of light the plants received. Therefore we can conclude that the lack of light
has resulted in pea plants growing taller than they do in the presence of light.
Environment + Genotype = Phenotype
3. Comment on the reliability of the data and any sources of error- It was observed that
not all the seeds germinated at the same time. Also not all the seeds germinated.
However, 10 pots each containing 5 seeds were placed in light and 10 in dark. These
repeat trials increase the reliability of the data.
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4. Model for polypeptide synthesisAim- to develop a model to illustrate polypeptide synthesis

Materials- blue, red, green, white, and yellow plastic pegs, wool of three different colours,
paper, cardboard, marking pen, sticky tape.
MethodTranscription in the nucleus1. Construct a double stranded DNA molecule as shown in the diagram below. Use blue
pegs to represent adenine, red pegs to represent thymine, green pegs to represent
guanine and yellow pegs to represent cytosine.
2. Use the sequence ATG AAA CTC on one of the strands and clip the complementary
base pegs on to these to form a double stranded molecule.

3. Now, unzip the DNA by unclipping all the pegs, leaving two single stranded
molecules.
4. Copy your original strand by again clipping complementary bases on, but this time
match adenine with a white Uracil peg.
5. Thread wool of a different colour through the holes in these pegs to represent a
strand of messenger RNA.
Translation on the ribosome6. To represent tRNA molecules, use another colour of wool again and thread it
through appropriately coloured pegs to represent the triplets CUC AAA and AUG.
7. On each of your three tRNA molecules attach a cardboard label with the amino acid
names glutamic acid, phenylalanine and tyrosine respectively.
8. Unclip your messenger RNA molecule from the original DNA strand and attach the 3
tRNA molecules to it according to the sequence of bases present.
9. Attach the amino acids together with sticky tape and remove all pegs and wool. You
should be left with a sequence of amino acids that represent a portion of a
polypeptide.
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Benefits of the model This model showed that DNA contained the code needed for polypeptide synthesis.
This model illustrated how mRNA is made using information in DNA and how the
information on mRNA is used to assemble amino acids.
This model illustrates the movement of the ribosome along the mRNA so that amino
acids could be formed.
It illustrates complementary base pairing in the two strands and complementary
base pairing between codons and anti-codons.
Limitations

It oversimplifies the process f polypeptide synthesis as the enzymes involved are not
shown.
This model only shows 3 amino acids being assembled whereas in reality a
polypeptide chain may have 300-400 amino acids joined together.

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Module 31. Identify microbes in waterAim- to examine a range of microorganisms found in water.
Materials- 4 sterile nutrient agar plates, sticky tape, marking pens, water samples from a
variety of sources (pond/river water, tap water and distilled water), methylated spirits, 3
sterile pipettes.
Method1.
2.
3.
4.

Sterilise the workbench area with methylated spirits.

Collect 4 petri dishes that contain nutrient agar.
Leave one plate unexposed, seal with sticky tape and label as control.
For each water sample place 0.5ml onto agar plate using a sterile pipette. Close the
lid gently and rock the water sample so that it spreads evenly over the entire plate.
5. Seal with sticky tape and label correctly.
6. Incubate all the plates for 3 days at 30 degrees Celsius.
7. Record results in table, identify, count and record number of colonies and types of
microorganisms in water.
VariablesIndependent variable: source of water.
Dependent variable: number of colonies/type of bacteria grown.
Controlled variables: time allowed for bacteria to grow (3days), temperature of incubation
(30 Degrees Celsius) and amount of water pipette into agar pate (0.5ml).
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. All microbes when grown in large numbers are potentially harmful therefore certain
precautions must be taken. All equipment should be placed in disinfectant after use.
2. Re-used items should be disinfected or autoclaved (pressure cooker).
3. Plastic equipment including used agar plates should be disinfected and autoclaved
before disposal.
4. Hands should be washed and dried before leaving.
5. Agar plates should never be opened after experiment has been setup as they may
contain pathogens.

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Results-

ConclusionLarge numbers of microbes were found in the pond water, whereas no microbes were found
in the distilled water. Sterile techniques are needed to prevent contamination from other
sources such as hands, air etc.

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2. Model of Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of microbes in decayAim- to repeat Pasteurs experiment concerning spontaneous generation of life.
Materials- 2 x 250ml conical flasks, clear broth (e.g. peptone dissolved in water or clear soup
or beef sock that has been added to boiling water and filtered), clear plastic tubing, rubber
stopper/ glass tube insert, hot plate.
VariablesIndependent Variable: presence or absence of coiled tubing.
Dependent variable: extent of contamination, observed as cloudiness in the broth.
Controlled variables: same volume of broth (100ml), same time for experiment (7days),
same room temperature, same time for experiment (7 days), same type of nutrient broth.
NOTE: Open flask is control, coiled tubing is experimental- must state in method.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Care should be taken when heating the broth as steam burns. Stay away from the
boiling broth when steam is being released.
2. Spitting broth can enter eyes and cause injury. Wear safety goggles to protect eyes
from spitting broth.
3. Care should be taken when handling hot plate and the hot flasks. Keep clear of hot
plate and hot flasks and dont touch with bare skin to avoid burns. Only handle them
once they have cooled.
Method1. Prepare a fresh, clear broth and place 100ml of the broth in each of the two conical
flasks (labelled A and B).
2. Place the rubber stopper with coiled rubber tubing on flask B (experimental flask).
Leave flask A open (control flask).
3. Gently boil the flasks on a hot plate for 5 minutes. Ensure that steam is escaping
from both containers. Take care as steam burns can be worse than hot water burns.
4. Allow the flasks to cool. Place them in a tray and leave them for 10 days.
5. Examine the broth in each flask. Look for the appearance of cloudiness in the
broth. This is indicative of the presence of microbes.
6. Record your observations.

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ResultsThe broth in the conical flask with the rubber stopper and coiled tubing remained clear and
there was no evidence of any contamination. The broth in the open conical flask turned
cloudy suggesting microbes had entered and contaminated the broth.
Microbes in the air were able to enter through the open neck of the flask and cause
contamination. In the flask which had the coiled plastic tubing (resembling swan necked
flask) the microbes got trapped in the coil therefore there was no contamination. This
investigation models Pasteurs famous experiment. It shows that the microbes are present
in the air and when they enter the nutrient broth they cause decay. This experiment
disproves the theory of spontaneous generation.

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3. Plant DiseasesAim- To examine plant shoots and leaves and gather information/ evidence of plant
pathogens, including insect pests, viruses or fungi.
Materials- leaves/stem from various plants, hand lens, scalpel.
Risk assessment/safety procedures1. Scalpel is very sharp and can cause cuts. While passing the scalpel it must be done
carefully and must be pointed downwards, away from the body.
2. Some plants may be toxic and there is a risk of allergic reactions to the plant. Hand
gloves must be worn to prevent any contact with the plants or allergens on plant.
3. Pests on plant may bite. Wear hand gloves to prevent contact.
Results/observations-

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Module 41. Model of DNAAim- to construct a model of DNA, identify the different components of a nucleotide and
understand the way in which bases pair up with each other.
Materials- polystyrene block, blue tack, two pieces if wire 60cm long, 42 pieces of Macaroni,
42 pipe cleaners (4 different colours), retort clamp and stand, food colouring, wooden
dowel, plasticine (play dough).
Method1. Obtained red food colour in a 50ml beaker.
2. Placed play dough at one of the open ends of the macaroni.
3. Dunked the macaroni in food colour to dye only half of the macaroni. The coloured
half represents the sugar and the uncoloured half represents the phosphate.
4. Placed the macaroni on paper with the play dough end facing down and sticking to
the paper in order to dry.
5. Obtained 4 different colours of pipe cleaners to represent bases: red to represent
adenine, yellow to represent thymine, blue to represent guanine and pink to
represent cytosine.
6. Cut 8cm of the pipe cleaners. Twist 2cm from one end of the pipe cleaners
(complementary bases) together e.g. red with yellow and blue with pink.
7. Inserted the other end of the pipe cleaners into the coloured ends (sugar) of the
macaroni. Ensured that the pipe cleaners were 8cm in length between the
macaronis- the same distance between the two wires in the polystyrene. The
macaronis coloured ends were assembled to show the anti-parallel nature of the
complementary nucleotides.
8. Attached a block of polystyrene on the base of a clap stand using sticky tape.
9. Inserted two pieces of wire into the polystyrene 8cm apart.
10. Threaded two macaronis of the assembled complementary nucleotides into the two
wires.
11. Completed the DNA by threading 10 complementary base nucleotides onto the
wires. There are 10 complementary bases in one turn of the DNA helix.
12. Attached the free ends of the wires to a wooden dowel and twisted the dowel to
show a turn of the double stranded molecule.

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Advantages of the model Helps to visualise the 3D structure of a DNA i.e. the double helix structure of the
DNA.
It shows the complementary base pairing (A-T and C-G) represented by red-yellow
and blue-pink pairing.
It shows that DNA molecule is the same width throughout i.e. purine always pairs
with a pyrimidine.
It shows 2 polynucleotide chains or strands running in opposite directions (anti
parallel).
Shows basic arrangement of molecules in a nucleotide (phosphate-uncoloured part
of macaroni, sugar-coloured part of macaroni and a nitrogenous base-pipe
cleaners).
Limitations

Hydrogen bond between bases is not shown.

Size of bases werent to scale.
Phosphodiester bond between phosphate and sugar of adjacent nucleotides is not
shown.
The protein histones, cores around which DNA molecule winds are not shown.
In actual molecule sugars and phosphates are connected by actual chemical bond
but in the model they are represented together as a single piece of macaroni half
dyed.

ConclusionDescribe structure of DNA and nucleotides.

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2. LinkageAim- To develop a model to illustrate linkage.

Materials- pipe cleaners, rubber bands (4 different colours, 2 of each).
Method

A heterozygote (GgDd) cell containing a pair of chromosomes with linked genes

(genes G and D are linked) was modelled.

1. Cut 4 pieces of pipe cleaners, each 10cm in length.

2. Twist two pipe cleaners together to represent 2 chromatids joined together at
centromere in a chromosome. Repeat this for the other two pieces of pipe cleaners.
3. Attach 2 different coloured rubber bands (green for G, yellow for g, red for D, blue
for d), 4cm apart on each of the chromatids on the 2 chromosomes. The same
colours on sister chromatids were used to represent identical genes. The rubber
bands represent alleles and the 2 rubber bands on the same chromatids means
linked genes.
4. The homologous pair of chromosomes was moved through the stages of meiosis and
the combinations of genes in the gametes were recorded.
5. Crossing over was modelled by cutting and rejoining pipe cleaners at the cross over
point. This was done at various positions to see the effects of linked genes being
close together or further apart. Meiosis was also modelled without crossing over and
with 2 pairs of chromosomes with non-linked genes.

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