Certificate Of Evaluation

College name: St.Josephs College of Engineering

Branch & Semester: Mechanical, VI Semester

S.NO Name of Students

Register No.

Title of Project

1. U.Gaspar

31710114035

Eddy Current

2. G.Jeffy Shannon

31710114046

Name of Guide

Mr.K.M.B.Karthikeyan

Braking

The report of the project works submitted by the above students in the partial
fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering
of Anna University were evaluated and confirmed to be the reports of the work
done by the above students.
Submitted For University Viva Examination on _______________

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are personally indebted to so many people for the successful

completion of our project.
Our sincere thanks and profound sense of gratitude goes to our respected
Chairman Dr.Jeppiar M.A., B.L., Ph.D., for all his efforts and
administration in educating us in his institution. I take this opportunity to
thank our Managing Director Dr. Babu Manoharan M.A., M.B.A.,
Ph.D., for their kind co-operation in helping us complete this project.

We would like to express our gratitude to our Director Jaikumar

Christhurajan B.E., MBA, for his continued support towards our
project.
We would like to express our gratitude to our Principal Prof. Jolly
Abraham M.E., Ph.D., who has been a source of constant
encouragement and support.
We would like to express our gratitude to our Head of the Department
Dr. Vaddi Seshagiri Rao M.E., Ph.D., and the faculty of Mechanical
Engineering for their guidance and advice through our tenure.

We

convey our sincere thanks to our internal guide Mr.K.M.B.Karthikeyan

M.E for his suggestions throughout the project duration.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO

TOPIC

PAGE NO

Abstract

What is Eddy Current

2.1

History of Eddy Current

2.2

Explanation of Eddy Current

2.3

Applications

11

Eddy Current Brake

14

Introduction to brakes

18

4.1

Characteristic of Brakes

20

4.2

Classification of brakes

22

Construction of Eddy current

24

brake
5.1

Calculations

25

5.2

Condition For Proper

26

Working
5.3

Component design and

31

orientation
6

Final looks of setup

34

Advantages & Disadvantages

35

Conclusion

36

1. ABSTRACT

When the magnetic flux associated with a magnetic material changes, a

current is produced that opposes the change producing it and is called
eddy current.
The setup consists of a metal drum which is fitted concentric with the
wheel hub and it rotates along with the wheel. An electromagnet is fitted
stationary around the rotating drum.
A variable current is applied to the electromagnet. The current charges
the electromagnet and magnetic flux is produced. As the drum rotates, the
flux associated with the drum changes. Hence the electric current opposes
the rotation of the wheel and hence braking is achieved.

2. EDDY CURRENTS
Eddy currents (also called Foucault currents) are currents induced in
conductors, opposing the change in flux that generated them. It is caused when
a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field due to relative motion of
the field source and conductor; or due to variations of the field with time. This
can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or a current, within the body of the
conductor. These circulating eddies of current create induced magnetic fields
that oppose the change of the original magnetic field due to Lenz's law, causing
repulsive or drag forces between the conductor and the magnet. The stronger the
applied magnetic field, or the greater the electrical conductivity of the
conductor, or the faster the field that the conductor is exposed to changes, then
the greater the currents that are developed and the greater the opposing field.
The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water when
dragging an oar breadth wise: localized areas of turbulence known as eddies
give rise to persistent vortices.
Eddy currents, like all electric currents, generate heat as well as electromagnetic
forces. The heat can be harnessed for induction heating. The electromagnetic
forces can be used for levitation, creating movement, or to give a strong braking
effect. Eddy currents can also have undesirable effects, for instance power loss
in transformers. In this application, they are minimized with thin plates, by
lamination of conductors or other details of conductor shape.
Self-induced eddy currents are responsible for the skin effect in conductors. The
latter can be used for non-destructive testing of materials for geometry features,
5

like micro-cracks. A similar effect is the proximity effect, which is caused by

externally-induced eddy currents.

2.1 HISTORY
The first person to observe current eddies was Franois Arago (1786-1853), the
25th president of France, who was also a mathematician, physicist and
astronomer. In 1824 he observed what has been called rotator magnetism, and
the fact that most conductive bodies could be magnetized; these discoveries
were completed and explained by Michael Faraday (1791-1867).
In 1834, Heinrich Lenz stated Lenz's law, which says that the direction of
induced current flow in an object will be such that its magnetic field will oppose
the magnetic field that caused the current flow. Eddy currents develop
secondary flux that cancels a part of the external flux.
French physicist Leon Foucault (1819-1868) is credited with having discovered
Eddy currents. In September, 1855, he discovered that the force required for the
rotation of a copper disc becomes greater when it is made to rotate with its rim
6

between the poles of a magnet, the disc at the same time becoming heated by
the eddy current induced in the metal. The first use of eddy current for Nondestructive testing occurred in 1879 when D. E. Hughes used the principles to
conduct metallurgical sorting tests.

2.2 EXPLANATION

As the circular plate moves down through a small region of constant magnetic
field directed into the page, eddy currents are induced in the plate. The direction
of those currents is given by Lenz's law, i.e. so that the plate's movement is
hindered.
When a conductor moves relative to the field generated by a source,
electromotive forces (EMFs) can be generated around loops within the
conductor. These EMFs acting on the resistivity of the material generate a
current around the loop, in accordance with Faraday's law of induction. These
currents dissipate energy, and create a magnetic field that tends to oppose the
changes in the field.
Eddy currents are created when a conductor experiences changes in the
magnetic field. If either the conductor is moving through a steady magnetic
field, or the magnetic field is changing around a stationary conductor, eddy
7

currents will occur in the conductor. Both effects are present when a conductor
moves through a varying magnetic field, as is the case at the top and bottom
edges of the magnetized region shown in the diagram. Eddy currents will be
generated wherever a conducting object experiences a change in the intensity or
direction of the magnetic field at any point within it, and not just at the
boundaries.
The swirling current set up in the conductor is due to electrons experiencing a
Lorentz force that is perpendicular to their motion. Hence, they veer to their
right, or left, depending on the direction of the applied field and whether the
strength of the field is increasing or declining. The resistivity of the conductor
acts to damp the amplitude of the eddy currents, as well as straighten their
paths. Lenz's law encapsulates the fact that the current swirls in such a way as to
create an induced magnetic field that opposes the phenomenon that created it. In
the case of a varying applied field, the induced field will always be in the
opposite direction to that applied. The same will be true when a varying external
field is increasing in strength. However, when a varying field is falling in
strength, the induced field will be in the same direction as that originally
applied, in order to oppose the decline.
An object or part of an object experiences steady field intensity and direction
where there is still relative motion of the field and the object (for example in the
center of the field in the diagram), or unsteady fields where the currents cannot
circulate due to the geometry of the conductor. In these situations charges
collect on or within the object and these charges then produce static electric
potentials that oppose any further current. Currents may be initially associated
with the creation of static potentials, but these may be transitory and small.
Eddy currents generate resistive losses that transform some forms of energy,
such as kinetic energy, into heat. This Joule heating reduces efficiency of iron8

core transformers and electric motors and other devices that use changing
magnetic fields. Eddy currents are minimized in these devices by selecting
magnetic core materials that have low electrical conductivity (e.g., ferrites) or
by using thin sheets of magnetic material, known as laminations. Electrons
cannot cross the insulating gap between the laminations and so are unable to
circulate on wide arcs. Charges gather at the lamination boundaries, in a process
analogous to the Hall Effect , producing electric fields that oppose any further
accumulation of charge and hence suppressing the eddy currents. The shorter
the distance between adjacent laminations (i.e., the greater the number of
laminations per unit area, perpendicular to the applied field), the greater the
suppression of eddy currents.
The conversion of input energy to heat is not always undesirable, however, as
there are some practical applications. One is in the brakes of some trains known
as eddy current brakes. During braking, the metal wheels are exposed to a
magnetic field from an electromagnet, generating eddy currents in the wheels.
The eddy currents meet resistance as charges flow through the metal, thus
dissipating energy as heat, and this acts to slow the wheels down. The faster the
wheels are spinning, the stronger the effect, meaning that as the train slows the
braking force is reduced, producing a smooth stopping motion. Induction
heating makes use of eddy currents to provide heating of metal objects.
2.2.1 Strength of eddy currents
Under certain assumptions (uniform material, uniform magnetic field, no skin
effect, etc.) the power lost due to eddy currents can be calculated from the
following equations:

For thin sheets:

9

For thin wires:

where: P - power dissipation (W/kg), Bp - peak flux density (T), d - thickness of
the sheet or diameter of the wire (m), f - frequency (Hz), - resistivity (m), D
- specific density (kg/m3).
It should be borne in mind that these equations are valid only under the socalled "quasi-static" conditions, where the frequency of magnetisation does not
result in the skin effect, i.e. the electromagnetic wave fully penetrates the
material.
Therefore, the following things usually increase the size and effects of eddy
currents:

stronger magnetic fields - increases flux density B

faster changing fields (due to faster relative speeds or otherwise) increases the frequency f

thicker materials - increases the thickness d

Lower resistivity materials (aluminium, copper, silver etc.)

Some things reduce the effects:

weaker magnets - lower B

slower changing fields (slower relative speeds) - lower f

thinner materials - lower d

Slotted materials so that currents cannot circulate - reduced d or

coefficient in the denominator (6, 12, etc.)

laminated materials so that currents cannot circulate - reduced d

Higher resistance materials (silicon rich iron etc.)

10

2.2.2 Skin effect

In very fast changing fields due to skin effect the equations shown above are not
valid because the magnetic field does not penetrate the material uniformly.
However, in any case increased frequency of the same value of field will always
increase eddy currents, even with non-uniform field penetration.

2.3 APPLICATIONS
I.

Repulsive effects and levitation

In a fast varying magnetic field the induced currents, in good conductors,

particularly copper and aluminium, exhibit diamagnetic-like repulsion effects
on the magnetic field, and hence on the magnet and can create repulsive effects
and even stable levitation, albeit with reasonably high power dissipation due to
the high currents this entails.
They can thus be used to induce a magnetic field in aluminum cans, which
allows them to be separated easily from other recyclables. With a very strong
handheld magnet, such as those made from neodymium, one can easily observe
a very similar effect by rapidly sweeping the magnet over a coin with only a
small separation. Depending on the strength of the magnet, identity of the coin,
and separation between the magnet and coin, one may induce the coin to be
pushed slightly ahead of the magnet - even if the coin contains no magnetic
elements, such as the US penny.
Perfect conductors allow lossless conduction that allows eddy currents to form
on the surface of the conductor that exactly cancel any changes in the magnetic
field applied to the object after the material's resistance went to zero, thus
allowing magnetic levitation. Superconductors are a subclass of perfect
11

conductors in that they also exhibit the Meissner Effect, an inherently quantum
mechanical phenomenon that is responsible for expelling any magnetic field
lines present during the superconducting transition, thus making the magnetic
field zero in the bulk of the superconductor.
II.

Identification of metals

In coin operated vending machines, eddy currents are used to detect counterfeit
coins, or slugs. The coin rolls past a stationary magnet, and eddy currents slow
its speed. The strength of the eddy currents, and thus the retardation, depends on
the conductivity of the coin's metal. Slugs are slowed to a different degree than
genuine coins, and this is used to send them into the rejection slot.
III.

Vibration | Position Sensing

Eddy currents are used in certain types of proximity sensors to observe the
vibration and position of rotating shafts within their bearings. This technology
was originally pioneered in the 1930s by researchers at General Electric using
vacuum tube circuitry. In the late 1950s, solid-state versions were developed by
Donald E. Bentley at Bentley Nevada Corporation. These sensors are extremely
sensitive to very small displacements making them well suited to observe the
minute vibrations (on the order of several thousandths of an inch) in modern
turbo machinery. A typical proximity sensor used for vibration monitoring has a
scale factor of 200 mV/mil. Widespread use of such sensors in turbo machinery
has led to development of industry standards that prescribe their use and
application. Examples of such standards are American Petroleum Institute (API)
Standard 670 and ISO 7919.

12

2.3.1 Electromagnetic braking

Braking forces resulting from eddy currents in a metal plate moving through an
external magnetic field
Eddy currents are used for braking at the end of some roller coasters. This
mechanism has no mechanical wear and produces a very precise braking force.
Typically, heavy copper plates extending from the car are moved between pairs
of very strong permanent magnets. Electrical resistance within the plates causes
a dragging effect analogous to friction, which dissipates the kinetic energy of
the car. The same technique is used in electromagnetic brakes in railroad cars
and to quickly stop the blades in power tools such as circular saws.
2.3.2 Structural testing
Eddy current techniques are commonly used for the nondestructive examination
(NDE) and condition monitoring of a large variety of metallic structures,
including heat exchanger tubes, aircraft fuselage, and aircraft structural
components..
2.3.3 Side effects
Eddy currents are the root cause of the skin effect in conductors carrying AC
current.

13

Similarly, in magnetic materials of finite conductivity eddy currents cause the

confinement of the majority of the magnetic fields to only a couple skin depths
of the surface of the material. This effect limits the flux linkage in inductors and
transformers having magnetic cores.

3. EDDY CURRENT BRAKE

An eddy current brake of a German ICE 3 in action.

An eddy current brake, like a conventional friction brake, is responsible for
slowing an object, such as a train or a roller coaster. Unlike friction brakes,
which apply pressure on two separate objects, eddy current brakes slow an
object by creating eddy currents through electromagnetic induction which create
resistance, and in turn either heat or electricity.

14

3.1.1 Construction and operation

i.

Circular eddy current brake

Circular eddy current brake on 700 Series Shinkansen

Electromagnetic brakes are similar to electrical motors; non-ferromagnetic
metal discs (rotors) are connected to a rotating coil, and a magnetic field
between the rotor and the coil creates a resistance used to generate electricity or
heat. When electromagnets are used, control of the braking action is made
possible by varying the strength of the magnetic field. A braking force is
possible when electric current is passed through the electromagnets. The
movement of the metal through the magnetic field of the electromagnets creates
eddy currents in the discs. These eddy currents generate an opposing magnetic
field, which then resists the rotation of the discs, providing braking force. The
net result is to convert the motion of the rotors into heat in the rotors.

15

ii.

Linear eddy current brake

The principle of the linear eddy current brake has been described by the French
physicist Foucault, hence in French the eddy current brake is called the "frein
courants de Foucault".
The linear eddy current brake consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils
positioned along the rail, which are being magnetized alternating as south and
north magnetic poles. This magnet does not touch the rail, as with the magnetic
brake, but is held at a constant small distance from the rail (approximately seven
millimeters). It does not move along the rail, exerting only a vertical pull on the
rail.
When the magnet is moved along the rail, it generates a non-stationary magnetic
field in the head of the rail, which then generates electrical tension (Faraday's
induction law), and causes eddy currents. These disturb the magnetic field in
such a way that the magnetic force is diverted to the opposite of the direction of
the movement, thus creating a horizontal force component, which works against
the movement of the magnet.
The braking energy of the vehicle is converted in eddy current losses which lead
to a warming of the rail. (The regular magnetic brake, in wide use in railways,
exerts its braking force by friction with the rail, which also creates heat.)
The eddy current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and
thus no wear, and creates no noise or odor. The eddy current brake is unusable
at low speeds, but can be used at high speeds both for emergency braking and
for regular braking.

16

Eddy current brakes at the Intamin roller coaster Goliath in Walibi World
(Netherlands)
Modern roller coasters use this type of braking, but utilize permanent magnets
instead of electromagnets, and require no electricity. However, their braking
strength cannot be adjusted as easily as with an electromagnet.

17

4. INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES
A brake is a device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch.
The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though
other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which
may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other
braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for
example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other
forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).
Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing
cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel
brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an
object traveling at 10 meters per second has 100 times as much energy as one
traveling at 1 meter per second, and consequently the theoretical braking
distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice,
fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises
quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and
shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing
aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also
feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples
include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter
18

aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a
safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed
undercarriage as an air brake.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.
When the brake pedal is pushed a piston pushes the pad towards the brake disc
which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder
pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also slows the wheel down.
Brakes

may be

broadly described as

using

friction, pumping, or

electromagnetic. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump
may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction.
Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or
"pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as
parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.
Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a
rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub
on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with
shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake",
although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating
disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but
less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is
clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating
drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs
19

with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and
expand laterally.
Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery.
For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply
stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking.
Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase
pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be
regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called an hydraulic
accumulator.
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is
already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric
vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and
also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the
electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and
dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have
an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a
generator with an internal short-circuit.
4.1 CHARACTERISTICS
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can
be obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the
tires, in which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail
when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power
(energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without

20

failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation

often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade.
Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are
relatively immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often
have a big effect on fade.

Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise

exerts varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad
wheels have little traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid
mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and
leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.

Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human

application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for
other brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate
to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake
may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet
have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal Feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake

power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by
the fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.

Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition

depending on design of the system to accommodate total system
compliance and deformation that exists under braking with ability to
retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake
condition.

Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed

periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the

21

brake disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface
that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.

Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other
function. Further, brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung
weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight"
may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support structure.

Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often
create squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION
1. According to the applications
i) Service or running or foot brake
ii) Parking or emergency or hand brake

22

2. According to the number of wheels

i) 2 wheel brakes
ii) 4 wheel brakes

3. According to the brake gear

i) Mechanical brake
a) Hand brake
b) Foot brake

ii) Power brake

a) Booster
b) Non-booster

4. According to the construction

i) Drum brake
ii) Disc brake

5. According to the location

i) Transmission brakes
ii) Wheel brakes

6. According to the method of braking contact

i) Internal expanding brakes
ii) External expanding brakes

7. According to the power unit

i) Cylinder brake
ii) Diaphragm brake

23

8. According to the power transmission

i) Direct acting brake
ii) Geared brake

9. According to the power employed

i) Vacuum brakes
ii) Air brakes
iii) Hydraulic brakes
iv) Hydrostatic brakes
v) Electric brakes

5. CONSTRUCTION OF EDDY CURRENT BRAKING

SYSTEM

Basically it begins with construction of the frame onto which houses

many parts like the motor (used to run the drum), metallic drum etc. The
metallic frame is properly welded using arc welding technique.
A motor capable of producing apt output power is fit onto the lower side
of the frame. The motor provides rotational motion to the metallic drum
depending upon its rating. The metallic drum acting as the wheel is fit
onto the top part of the frame.
An electromagnet is placed around the metallic drum. It is connected to
AC (optional) power source. When electric supply is given, the
electromagnet gets charged and produces magnetic flux which in turn
produces braking effect on the drum when it rotates.
24

CALCULATIONS
Coil windings: 7 turns per volt; 50 cycle per square
:> (7/2)=3.5*230v = 805 turns
Torque, T= pulley tension radius
Brake power, BP= 2NT
Brake thermal efficiency, = (BP/mf cv)
Bending stress, = (Ed/ D) = (0.8410^5 10/200) = 4.210^3 N/mm
Amount of wear, p= (2T/ d D)
Arc of contact= 180- (200-60/ 450) 60 = 161.3
Design Power = (Rated KW load correction factor/ arc of contact
Factor small pulley factor)
= (2 1.0/0.61.08) = 3.086 KW

25

5. CONDITIONS FOR PROPER WORKING

5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

a) TEMPERATURE

We were given a temperature constraint of the brake to operate

between -50 degrees Fahrenheit to 300 degrees Fahrenheit. This
constraint sets a design limitation that must take into consideration
the materials used for our design.

b) HUMIDITY

The brake has to function in an environment containing a range of

10% to 80% humidity.

This will obviously limit out choice of

materials because we do not want the material to deteriorate due to

moisture. Other than material choice we dont not believe this will
limit our design any more than material choice. The humidity may
even act as an aide in the cooling of a braking system.

26

c) BALANCE

Our design must be balanced to 0.005 oz. in. for all rotating parts.
This precedence was established so the rotating parts will not have an
effect on the operation of the generator. An imbalance will create an
additional stress in the rotating part as well. The effect an imbalance
will have on our design will be explained in the Final Design section
of this report.

d) OIL MIST

The Braking system will operate in an oil mist environment. This

will create a limitation for a couple of our design concepts, however
will create an advantage for one of the designs in the form of cooling
which will be discussed in the Final Design section of this Report.

e) ELEVATION

Our brake system design must function within an elevation range of

3000 feet below sea level to 70,000 feet above sea level. This will
simulate the broad application of the braking system as well as the
operable elevations of the generators. We cannot completely neglect
any effect the elevation will have and have considered the effect of
elevation with respect to our final design.

27

f) Pressure

The pressure range we have considered in our Final Design will work
within 0.75 to 1 atmosphere. The pressure range will also take into
account the elevation change as well as any differential pressure
between the pressure due to elevation and the pressure in which the
generator creates.

5.1.1 Operational Conditions

1) Angular Velocity

We must design a gracing system that will operate at a minimum

angular velocity of 400 rotations per minute and a maximum angular
velocity of 1600 rotations per minute. This constraint will have an
effect on each of the concepts in its own way and was a major factor
in determining a final design.
.
2) Power Source

Our design will operate with a limited power source of 230 volts DC.
This constraint operates with the power supply allowed by the
generator. On top of operation at this power input we must develop a
test rig that simulates the power supply.

28

5.1.2 Functional Conditions

a. Duty Cycle

Our braking mechanism should not deteriorate over time. We also

need it to last for the life of the generator. Due to the fact that this
activation system must act when triggered we cannot have any part
fail due to deterioration.

b. Design Envelop

Our Braking system design must fit into a design envelop of a 5 inch
Diameter and a 1.25 inch width. The free area of our disk will also
depend on the drive shaft diameter which will have an effect on one
of our proposed design concepts.

c. Hazardous Material

We may not have any hazardous material for unspecified reasons

stated. Fortunately for our Proposed Designs, we will not require the
use of any hazardous materials.

29

d. Reliability

Our final design and product must have a reliability of 99%

operational readiness. Our product must work when triggered. Late
activation or no activation may cause irreversible damage to the
gearbox, generator, or both. It has to work with NO uncertainty.

5.3 Component Orientation

a. Electromagnet Orientation

We will use a total of four pairs of electromagnets per request of

Honeywell. We will need to use four pairs or less in order to fall
under the weight limitation of our design. The pairs will be oriented
with the polarities aligning North to South and the brake spinning
between the pairs. We will build our own electromagnet coils using
materials defined in this report, later in this section. By building our
own electromagnets we may establish their polarity and when
orienting them in the housing we will alternate the directions of
polarity. Alternating the polarity will produce a greater force in our
final product. In addition to opposite polarity it may not make a
difference where we mount the electromagnets, so long as they are
mounted very close and perpendicular to the brake and not too close
to each other. We will optimize this property of our design with
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further testing and analysis. A study done has proved that a change
of polarity in electromagnets applied to eddy current brakes will
produce a higher force than only one direction of polarity. We will
likely mount the magnets depicted, however upon testing we may
conclude that having the magnets closer together may create the
maximum torque. Further testing will either prove or disprove this
concept.

b. Drum Orientation

The brake will have only one orientation.

It will mount

perpendicularly to the drive shaft and the electromagnets while

mounted in the middle of the paired coils. One major concern comes
in the form of how we will fasten the disk to the drive shaft. We will
most likely pressure fit a collar around the drive shaft thereby
attaching the brake by way of a pressure fit collar. If this is not
feasible, we will conduct further review and brainstorming for a new
way to fasten the brake to the drive shaft.

5.3 Component Design

5.3.1 Electromagnet Design

The electromagnets will be built and assembled by our team.

Building our own electromagnets gives us the ability to generate the
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magnetic field needed. We will use standard coated copper wire

coiled around a ferrous metal core. Coating the copper wire will
prevent corrosion and increase the life of the electromagnets and
maintain the efficiency of the overall braking system. The number of
turns of copper around our ferrous material will determine the
strength of the induced magnetic field. Upon further analysis with the
Faraday computer program we will determine how many turns are
needed per coil as well as the amperage needed to provide the needed
magnetic field, which determines the force generated. Building our
own to the needed specifications will also cut down on cost of the
product as well as give specifications to build their own, have
outsourced, or purchase.

After researching electromagnet design we determined a ferrous

material, such as 409 stainless steel or iron, ideal for a metal core for
electromagnets. When constructing the electromagnet components,
we will coat the copper wires and exposed core with a protective
epoxy coating as to not leave the electromagnets exposed to the
environment established earlier in this report. When mounting the
electromagnets we will mount them in pairs.

By pairing the

electromagnets and aligning north-south polarity we will direct and

concentrate the magnetic field to ensure a perpendicular magnetic
field with maximum possible magnitude. The magnetic pairs will
produce a similar magnetic field to the illustration in figure 3.

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Figure : Magnetic field lines of Coil Pairs

5.3.2 Conducting Brake Design

The design of the brake is fairly simple. We will use a highly

conductive material that will also keep its shape and material
properties over the lifetime of the generator. If the brake becomes
warped, looses conductivity or fails in some other manner results in
the overall failure of the ECBS.

Assuring the material used to

perform adequately is detrimental to the success of the ECBSs

function as an activation system.

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6. FINAL EDDY CURRENT BRAKE SETUP

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7. ADVANTAGES
It uses electromagnetic force and not mechanical friction.
Non-mechanical (no moving parts, no friction) contact so less friction and
consequently less wear.
Fully resettable
Can be activated at will via electrical signal.
Low maintenance
Light weight

DISADVANTAGES
Braking force diminishes as speed diminishes with no ability to
hold the load in position at standstill.
It can be used only where the infrastructure has been developed
to accept them.
It is applicable only for low speed objects.

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CONCLUSION
The ordinary brakes which are being used nowadays stop the
vehicle by means of mechanical blocking. This causes skidding
and wear and tear of the tire. If the speed of the vehicle is very
high, it cannot provide that much high braking force and it will
cause problems.
These drawbacks of ordinary brake can be overcome by
implying eddy current braking system.
It is an abrasion free method for braking of vehicles including
trains.

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