Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
In the previous chapters various aspects of the mineralisation associated with the
granites of the Bushveld were considered, in particular, the alteration of the
granites near mineralisation and the petrographic and geochemical features of the
alteration. Existing mineralised occurrences and deposits related to the Bushveld
granites were reviewed, as were examples of IOCG mineralisation from Olympic
Dam, Australia, and Salobo, Carajs mineral province, Brazil. New mineral
occurrences were documented.
Some of the considerations of the previous chapters will be revisited here in
greater detail. Other discussions are also presented here which may have been
outside the scope of previous chapters.
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Figure 7.1. Location of three major IOCG deposits at Olympic Dam, Carajs and Vergenoeg.
Proterozoic crust shown in dark grey, Phanerozoic rocks in medium grey and light grey (from
Groves, 2004).
Mineralisation may be both endogranitic and exogranitic, and tends to form subvertical breccia pipes. Mineralisation is generally concentrated in the zone of fluid
mixing between hotter, more saline magmatic fluids and colder less saline, more
oxidised meteoric fluids. Ores are dominated by iron oxide mineralisation, chiefly
hematite and/or magnetite, and are commonly accompanied by copper-bearing
sulphides, fluorite and a diverse range of other minerals including gold, uraniumbearing minerals and REE-bearing minerals.
Alteration of host rocks and country rocks appears to be a significant attribute of
mineralisation with characteristic styles of alteration observed in proximity to ore
deposits, notably sodic alteration, K-metasomatism, sericitic and silicic alteration,
carbonate alteration, chloritisation and hematisation. The patterns of alteration
appear to be consistent between deposits.
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Vergenoeg
Olympic Dam
Salobo
Deposit Size
178 Mt 28.1 %
CaF2
195 Mt 42 % Fe
2 000 Mt 2.5 % Cu
1 200 Mt 0.86 % Cu
Age
Palaeoproterozoic
1
2054.2 + 2.8 Ma
Palaeoproterozoic
1
2054.2 + 2.8 Ma
Mesoproterozoic
2
1588 + 4 Ma
Palaeoproterozoic
3
2573 + 2 Ma
Central Margin
Anorogenic
Central Margin
Anorogenic
Craton Margin
Anorogenic
Craton Margin
Continental Rift
Basin
Coarse-grained
A-type granite
Rhyolites
Coarse-grained
A-type
syenogranite
Metagreywackes
amphibolites
Granite
Relationship
Endogranitic
Exogranitic
Endogranitic
Exogranitic
Orebody
Morphology
Sub-horizontal
mantos in breccia
pipe
Steeply-dipping to
vertical breccia pipe
Steeply-dipping to
vertical breccia pipe
Steeply-dipping
shear-bounded
duplex structure
Model
Fluid-mixing in a
medium- to highlevel environment
Fluid-mixing in a
high-level
environment
High-level
environment with
exhalative activity
and fluid mixing
Ore Host
Hematite-Quartz
breccia
Hematite-Fluorite
breccia
Hematite-Quartz
breccia
Amphibolite shear
zone
Ore Assemblage
F (-Cu-Au)
Fe-F (-Cu)
Fe-Cu-U-Au-AgREE
Fe-Cu
Late fluoritesiderite-sulphide
Late barite-fluoritesiderite-sulphide
Vein Assemblage
Fe minerals
Hematite
(magnetite)
Hematite
(magnetite)
Hematite
(magnetite)
Magnetite
(hematite)
Cu minerals
Pyrite,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite,
bornite, covellite
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite,
sphalerite,
molybdenite,
galena
Chalcopyrite,
bornite, chalcocite,
Ag, Au
Chalcopyrite,
bornite, chalcocite,
cobaltite Co, Au
U minerals
Not determined
Uraninite, coffinite,
brannerite,
pitchblende
Uraninite
REE minerals
Britholite,
bastnaesite
Xenotime,
monazite,
4
fluorcerite
Bastnaesite,
monazite,
xenotime, florencite
Other Significant
Phases
Fluorite,
ferroactinolite
Fluorite, fayalite,
apatite,
ferroactinolite
Fluorite with
sulphide in barren
core
Fluorite, fayalite,
Alteration Styles
K-metasomatism,
sericitic-silicic,
chloritisation,
hematisation
Hematisation,
K-metasomatism,
sideritic
K-metasomatism,
sericitic-silicic,
chloritisation,
hematisation
Na-metasomatism,
K-metasomatism,
sericitic-silicic,
chloritisation
Number of Fluids
No data
2 fluids
2 fluids
2 fluids
Fluid Temperatures
and Compositions
No data
1) 500 C
18
O = 7-8
2) 150-500 C
1) 400 C
18
O = 10
2) 200 - 400 C
18
O = 10
1) 360 C
2) 195 C
1) > 67 % NaCl
7-42 % NaCl equiv.
1) 58 % NaCl
equiv.
equiv.
2) 1-35 % NaCl
2) 1-29 % NaCl
equiv.
equiv.
1
Harmer & Armstrong (2000); 2 Creaser & Cooper (1993); 3 Machado et al. (1991); 4 Fourie (2000)
Salinity
No data
34
S = 0.2-1.6
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Figure 7.2. Schematic model of level of formation for some Bushveld-type Fe-F deposits (from
Crocker et al., 1988).
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the Nebo granite sheet and perhaps not as deep as intimated by Crocker et al.
(1988). It is not known whether the granite is domed, which may have influenced
the distribution of the mineralisation and locally concentrated fluids upwards. The
numerous mineralised occurrences extending from the Ruigtepoort mine
northwards into the overlying stratigraphy may support this (c.f. Figure 2.10).
Mineralisation at Salobo is also modelled to have been developed at some depth
(c.f. Figure 1.12). According to Skirrow et al. (2000), a high crustal level is
requisite for the formation of Cu-Au ores.
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mineralisation type compared with another may not fully appreciate the
continuum of assemblages that might occur. Differences between the occurrences
may simply reflect the degree of overprinting by subsequent mineralising
episodes.
The primary assemblage at Vergenoeg is considered to have been composed of
fayalite, ilmenite, titanium magnetite, fluorite and REE minerals (Borrok et al.,
1998; Fourie, 2000). A secondary assemblage of magnetite, titanium magnetite,
siderite, quartz, apatite, sulphides and REE minerals overprinted this. A late-stage
overprint of Fe-F completed the paragenesis, equivalent to the Type IV
assemblage proposed by Bailie & Robb (2004). The assemblage observed at
Blokspruit may most resemble the primary assemblage at Vergenoeg. The coarse
ferroactinolite that occurs as the vein fill in the granite mega-breccia, may
represent an alteration of a primary fayalite-dominated assemblage, such as that
found in the lowest parts of the Vergenoeg deposit. The subsequent alteration of
ferroactinolite to Fe-chlorite and quartz-hematite pseudomorphs is indicative of
the subsequent stages in the evolving paragenetic sequence. The similarities in
primary mineralogy between Blokspruit (and Ruigtepoort) and Vergenoeg lend
strong support to idea that all of these bodies formed under similar geological and
geochemical conditions.
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Figure 7.3. Generalised distribution of styles of alteration about a mineralised vein or body, with
intense chloritisation, hematisation and silicification (Fe Si) occurring closest to the vein (< 2 m),
sericitic alteration (H) in close proximity (< 5 m) which may possess an epidote and/or silicic
component, K-metasomatism (K) in a more broad pattern around the vein (100s of m), and
albitisation (Ca Na) occurring on a regional scale.
Figure 7.4. Schematic cross section representing proposed relationships of alteration zoning in
iron oxide (-Cu-U-REE-Au) deposits, drawn to represent examples in volcanic and plutonic host
rocks (from Hitzman et al., 1992).
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Table 7.2. Characteristics of deposits from systems dominated by magmatic fluid and nonmagmatic fluids (reproduced from Barton & Johnson, 2000).
units,
Nature of the metal traps is varied (mixing, wallrock reaction, boiling, cooling); good traps may
not
be
thus
many
well-developed
a)
b)
b)
Be
structurally
or
stratigraphically
chambers,
c)
present,
c)
metasomatism
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responsible for the generation of abundant Fe and K in the fluid (Figure 7.5). In
their model, fluids responsible for regional albitisation are coeval with the
intrusion of the granite batholiths and are derived, at least in part, from the
crystallising plutons. In order to produce intense albitisation, a highly saline fluid
is required. These fluids may have been derived by dissolution of evaporitic layers
in country rocks, or from the unmixing of a NaCl-H2O-CO2 + CaCl2 fluid derived
from the intrusive granitoids into hypersaline brine and CO2-rich gas (Pollard,
2001).
Figure 7.5. Schematic cross-section of the Eastern Mt. Isa Block Succession explaining the
distribution and generation of IOCG deposits and the likely chemical reaction paths between
source rocks, albitisation and ore deposits. Black arrows are inferred pathways of brines; white
arrows are speculated sulphur-bearing fluids. Fluid modification from albitisation indicated by the
variable grey shading (reproduced from Oliver et al., 2004).
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According to Oliver et al. (2004), the optimal conditions for ore genesis require:
a structural trap,
a sulphur source.
Barren ironstones will be produced along the modelled albitisation path where
sulphur is lacking. The availability of Cu is not necessarily a limiting factor, as all
pyrite-magnetite ironstones appear to contain chalcopyrite. The source of sulphur
in the system is postulated to have come from crystallising or leached gabbros (or
possibly mantle-derived fluids), which is constrained by 34S values of sulphides
from the deposits near 0 (Mark et al., 2000; Baker et al., 2001). Also, although
the data of Oliver et al. (2004) strongly support a major magmatic component to
the alteration and mineralisation (including Cu), the possibility of exotic NaCl
replenishment cannot be excluded. Their model supports the formation of ore by
the mixing between magmatic S-bearing fluids and saline brines.
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bornite and chalcocite (Requia & Fontbot, 1999). Accessory ore minerals are
hematite, molybdenite, ilmenite, uraninite, graphite, digenite, covellite and
sulphosalts. The suggestion of this is that whilst the hematite stage is an important
component of the formation of IOCG deposits, it may not be necessary for this
late-stage oxidation to be absolutely dominant in order to produce economic
mineralisation.
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Carbonatite Association
In some IOCG districts a spatial and temporal relationship between carbonatite
and other alkaline intrusions has been recognised (Harmer, 2000 b; Vielreicher et
al., 2000). The significance of this association, however, may not yet be fully
understood. It is likely that magmatism associated with mantle pluming involves
crustal melting of deep continental crust. This lower crust may be composed of
igneous rocks and carbonate sediments, resulting in peculiar magmatic
assemblages. The distribution of alkaline intrusives indicates that it is possible to
generate alkaline magmas in both intra-plate, anorogenic magmatic environments
and in extensional rift environments.
The Bushveld Complex is intruded by a conspicuous number of small carbonatites
and other alkaline intrusives. Incomplete or unreliable geochronology exist for
these intrusions, however two principal sets are defined one Bushveld-aged
(~2050 Ma) and the other Pilanesberg-aged (~1300 Ma). The distribution of the
known alkaline intrusives is shown on Figure 7.6.
The largest of these intrusions is the Phalaborwa Complex located to the east of
the Bushveld Complex. Although it does not lie within the limits of the Bushveld
Complex it has been shown to be coeval with Bushveld magmatism. The
geological and mineralogical characteristics of the intrusion, which appear
consistent with those of IOCG-type deposits, have drawn some authors to regard
it as such (Harmer, 2000 b; Vielreicher et al., 2000). The association made should
certainly warrant further attention. (See section 2.4 for a description of the
Phalaborwa deposit).
The Schiel Complex, also located in the Northern Province, South Africa, is
another large syenitic complex with subordinate carbonatite, foskorite, and syenogabbro. The deposit of apatite, associated with magnetite and vermiculite was
discovered in 1953. Subsequent exploration revealed ore reserves of 36 million
tonnes at 5.1% P2O5 in the weathered zone to a depth of 39.6 m (Verwoord 1986,
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Figure 7.6. Distribution of alkaline rocks and carbonatite around the Bushveld Complex (after Woolley, 2001; Crocker et al., 2001). Bushveldage alkaline intrusives shown in red, Pilanesberg-age alkaline intrusives shown in green and undated alkaline intrusives shown in blue.
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27o 45
o
27 30
25o 00
Nooitgedacht
Detailed
Study Area
Kruidfontein
Transvaal
Sediments
Lebowa
Granite Suite
Karoo
Sediments
25o 15
Tweerivier
Figure 7.7. Distribution of some carbonatite and alkaline intrusions near the study area. Base map is
taken from 1:250 000 Geological Sheet, South African Council for Geoscience.
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The evaluation of the farms near Ruigtepoort has provided insight into the
development
of
geological
characteristics
consistent
with
IOCG-type
mineralisation. The geological mapping has determined the distribution and extent
of mineralisation on the farms Ruigtepoort, Blokspruit, Slipfontein, Elandslaagte
and Doornfontein and characterised the morphologies, mineral assemblages,
alteration haloes and mineral potential of many of these deposits and occurrences.
These geological characteristics were compiled with regional results for
comparison and compliment the existing inventory of known mineralisation
A clear relationship between mineralisation and alteration has been established
from both petrographical and geochemical observations, and the distribution
patterns of alteration types around mineralisation may permit vectoring towards
mineralisation. Certainly, the styles of alteration are indicative of the mineralising
system in operation, such that the recognition of certain alteration types may be
sufficient to identify prospective terranes. In terms of IOCG deposits, this entails
the recognition of regional albitisation, broad but intense K-metasomatism, and
sericitisation, silicification and chloritisation in the immediate vicinity of
mineralisation.
The identified characteristics of the deposits and occurrences of the study area
appear consistent with those of IOCG deposits. On a regional scale, they are
related to anorogenic, A-type granite magmatism that is Palaeoproterozoic in age.
The bodies are strongly structurally-controlled forming veins, breccia-pipes, and
sub-horizontal mantos, which occur near or in the intersections of structural
elements that may be splays from regional structural features. Mineralisation is
dominated by a late-stage alteration assemblage of Fe-oxide (hematite and
magnetite)-quartz-fluorite. The primary assemblage is considered to have
comprised ferroactinolite-magnetite-fluorite-apatite (britholite) and is preserved in
the Ysterkop North deposit. This assemblage closely resembles the primary
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the first a high-temperature, high salinity magmatic fluid and the second a lowertemperature, lower salinity fluid with a meteoric component. Mineralisation is
modelled as having developed in the zone of fluid mixing.
The similarities between the occurrences of the study area and the Vergenoeg
deposit are convincing, and these deposits are regarded as having been formed
under similar conditions. Equally, the similarities that exist between Vergenoeg,
Ruigtepoort and the external examples of Olympic Dam and Salobo, indicate that
each of these deposits formed under similar geological and chemical conditions
with the capacity to form IOCG deposits.
The proposed model for Ruigtepoort and related deposits is illustrated in Figure
7.8. The principal feature corresponds to the level of formation. Vergenoeg
exhibits features of exhalative activity, whereas Ruigtepoort exhibits only
extensive fracturing, consistent with a deeper level of formation. The local
stratigraphy near Ruigtepoort is understood and indicative of a lower level of
formation, with ascending stratigraphic units occurring northwards from
Ruigtepoort towards Rooiberg. The recognised alteration patterns and the fluid
characteristics are consistent with the magma-derived fluid model of Barton &
Johnson (2004) (c.f. Figure 1.3). In this model, early magmatic fluids are only
capable of producing low-level, barren ironstones. Regional albitisation is
apparent but may be removed from the sites of mineralisation. Cu-Au
mineralisation is developed in high-level zones, in particular, in the zone of fluid
mixing between the original magma-derived fluids and surface waters. An
external sulphur source is required to concentrate metals. In this respect, the
sulphur-poor granites represent a poor prospect for significant metal
accumulations. The volume of ore contained in the Vergenoeg deposit indicates
that the Bushveld granites are indeed prospective for IOCG-type mineralisation of
economic proportions. The surrounding Transvaal sediments and sedimentary
inliers may present more suitable metal trap sites, in particular, sulphur-rich
lithologies.
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Figure 7.8. Schematic model of level of formation for some Bushveld-type Fe-F deposits in
conjunction with alteration and fluid characteristics of an IOCG model where magmatic fluids
dominated (c.f. Figure 1.3) (modified after diagrams of Crocker et al., 1988; and Barton &
Johnson, 2004).
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