THE DUTIES OF THE WELDING INSPECTOR

VISUAL INSPECTION - At any point in the course of welding, i.e. tacking (sujecin por puntos de soldadura), root pass, filler pass or capping
pass, but particularly for the root and cap, a detailed inspection may be required.
British Standard 5289: 1976 gives guidance on tools and responsibilities together with sketches of typical defects.
The inspector at this point must a) Observe, identify and perhaps record (measure) the features of the weld.
b) Decide whether the weld is acceptable in terms of the particular levels that are permitted; defect levels may be in-house or national codes
of practice.
When the defect size is in excess of the permitted level then either a concession must be applied for (from a competent person), or the weld
rejected.
AIDS OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Illumination: Good lighting is essential.
Inspection Lenses: The magnification should not exceed 2 - 2.5 diameters. If higher magnification is required use a binocular microscope.
Optical viewing can progressively develop from eyesight, to use of a hand torch and mirror, to the addition of a magnifier and light source.
* In order to achieve accessibility, remote probe units are available which must have the following properties.
a) Large field of vision
b) Freedom from distortion of image
c) Accurate preservation of colour values
d) Adequacy of illumination
CODE OF PRACTICE - A code of practice for an inspection department should take the form outlined below. (resumir, perfilar).
It is appreciated that full implementation of the code would be extremely costly and therefore it may be necessary to reduce the amount of
inspection to less than is theoretically required.
The inspector should be familiar with: All applicable documents - Workmanship standards - All phases of good workshop practice
- Tools and measuring devices.
INSPECTION BEFORE WELDING - Before Assembly you must check:
* All applicable documents.
* Quality plan is authorised and endorsed with signature, date and company stamp.
* Application standard is up to date with the latest edition, revision or amendment. (enmienda o correccin).
* The drawings are clear, the issue number is marked and the latest revision is used.
* Welding procedure sheets (specifications) are available, have been approved and are employed in production.
* Welder qualifications with identification and range of approval are verified and that only approved welders as required are employed in
production.
* Calibration certificates, material certificates (mill sheets) and consumer certificates are available and valid. (encuadernacin).
* Parent material identification is verified against documentation and markings. (sobre, respecto a ).
* Material composition, type and condition.
* Correct methods are applied for cutting and machining.
* Identification of welding consumables such as electrodes, filler wire, fluxes, shielding and backing gases and any special requirements (e.g.
drying) are met.
* Plant and equipment are in a safe condition and adequate for the job.
* Safety permits (licencia, pase) e.g. hot work permit, gas free permit, enclosed space certificate are available and valid. (sitio o lugar
cercado).
After Assembly you must check:
* Dimensions, tolerances, preparation, fit-up and alignment are in accordance with the Approved drawings and standards.
(colocacin de las partes entre s; gap= espacio entre alas adyacentes).

* Tack welds, bridging pieces (unin de puntales por travesao), clamping and type of backing - if any used are correct.
* Cleanliness of work area is maintained.
* Preheat in accordance with procedure.
NOTE. Good inspection prior to welding can eliminate conditions that lead to the formation of defects. (llevar, ocasionar).
INSPECTION DURING WELDING
* The welding process must be monitored.
* Preheat and interpass temperatures must be monitored.
* Interpass cleaning - chipping, grinding, gouging, must be monitored. (desportillar); excavar, escoplear con gubia o formn.
* Root and subsequent run sequence.
* Essential variables such as current, voltage, travel speed to be monitored.
* Filler metals, fluxes and shielding gases are correct.
* Welding is in compliance with weld procedure sheet and application standard.
INSPECTION AFTER WELDING
* Visual inspection to be carried out to ascertain acceptability of appearance of welds. (esclarecer, descubrir).
* Dimensional accuracy to be ascertained.
* Conformity with drawings and standards requirements.

* Post weld heat treatment, if any, monitored and recorded.

* NDT carried out and reports assessed.
* Assess defects as to either repairing, or application for Concession - is an agreement between the contracting parties to deviate from the
original code requirements. (according to BS 5135 process of arc welding carbon and carbon manganese steels).
(Otorgamiento, Accin y efecto de ceder en una posicin ideolgica o en una actitud adoptada.
* Carry out any necessary repairs.
* Control of distortion
REPAIRS

* Repair procedure and welding code should be authorised.

* Defect area should be marked positively + and clearly.
* Check when partially removed and fully removed (visual and NDT).
* Re-welding should be monitored.
* Re-inspect completed repair.
Collate all documents and reports. Pass the document package on to a higher authority for final inspection, approval and storage. (intercalar;
cotejar, examinar los pliegos y sus signaturas para comprobar su orden).
THE WELDING INSPECTOR RESPONSIBILITIES are:
Ensure compliance with standard or code.
Ensure workmanship. (habilidad).
Ensure welding criteria by policing work and documentation. (vigilar, mantener el orden).
ATTRIBUTES are:
Honesty and integrity.
Literacy.
Fitness - physical and eyesight.
DUTIES are:
Observe.
Measure.
Identify.
CODES AND STANDARDS
CLASS OF WORK - There are many types of work which require engineering materials to be joined by welding, for example:
Pressure vessels Bridges require welds, which can withstand the stresses and high temperatures experienced in operation. (resistirse,
aguantar).
Oil rigs are designed to withstand the effect of wave formation and wind loads.
Earth moving equipment has to accommodate differences in terrain and earth conditions and is subject to fatigue loading.
Aero-engines
Ventilation systems
Storage tanks
Heavy vehicle chassis
Car bodies
Food processing plant welds must withstand corrosion by hot acidic liquors.
The quality requirements of the joints in these fabrications depend on their fitness-for-purpose and differ significantly from one application to
the next. Below are listed some typical codes of practice and standards which cover various types of constructions fabricated by welding.
Code
Class of Work
BS 5500
Unfired fusion welded pressure vessels
ASME VIII
American boiler and pressure vessel code
BS 2633
Class 1 arc welding of ferritic steel pipe work for carrying fluids
BS 4515
Process of welding steel pipelines on land and offshore
BS 5950
Structural use of steelwork in building
AWS D1.1
Structural welding code (American)
BS 5400
Steel, concrete and composite bridges
BS 6235
Code of practice for fixed offshore structure
API 1104
Standard for welding pipelines and related structures
These documents can also provide a useful source of data for applications where codes do not exist. It should be remembered, however, that
the principal criterion in the codes listed is the quality of the joint in relation to the service conditions. There are other applications where
success is judged by different criteria, such as dimensional accuracy.
Another important consideration is controlling the cost of welding. Variations in weld times and quantities of consumables can readily result if
the method of making a weld is left to the welder to decide. (facilmente, de buena gana) adversely.
The continuous and satisfactory performance of weldments made to various codes requires that specific guidelines are laid down to cover all
variables. These guidelines are usually grouped under the general heading of a Weld Procedure.
CODE OF PRACTICE - A code of practice is a set of rules for manufacturing a specific product. It should contain:
Design Requirements
e.g. fit-up, preparation and type of joints
Materials
e.g. types, thickness ranges
Manufacturers Working Practice
Inspection Criteria
e.g. 100% visual, percentage other NDT
Acceptance Criteria
e.g. defect size, limits, etc.
Welding Process
e.g. type, consumables
Types of Tooling
e.g. use of strongbacks (larguero, arbotante)
Contractual Information
Informacin derivada de un contrato
The difference between a code and a standard is that a code states how to do a specific job and does not contain all relevant information,
but refers to other standards for details.
A code or standard generally mentions three parties - the customer or client, the manufacturer or producer and the inspection authority.
In a code the term shall means mandatory - must be done, and the term should means recommended - not compulsory.
MATERIALS INSPECTION - A great variety of materials may require to be inspected with a view to satisfactory welding. The main topics in
material inspection are Size, Type and Condition. (asunto, tema).
Specification - It is not, in general, safe for the inspector to identify materials by composition from a mill sheet, since very small variations or
additions to the metal may give rise to significant changes in properties and weldability. However limited selectivity is permissible, such as
percentage carbon maximum etc.
The procedure is for the mill sheet to be submitted for approval and then the inspector records and transfers the reference number.
Supplier - This can be found on the Goods Inwards documents (registro de aduana) or the receipt documents, or occasionally on packaging or
even marked on the metal.
Quantity - The quantity being inspected should always be noted as well as the sample size if 100 % inspection is not being employed.
Size - Sizes must be checked for secondary identification as well as conformance = conformidad del lote con las especificaciones.
The inspector will, as appropriate, be given tolerances on size that are permissible.
Check length, breadth ( ext.), thickness and diameter ( int.). (Size from side to side, anchura, extension).
Distortion - A check is often required on the degree of distortion, i.e. Flatness (planeidad, uniformidad), Squareness (escuadra,
ortogonalidad), Straightness (rectitutd), Ovality, Consistent wall thickness. - Se efectuar la inspeccin visual a cada tubo para constatar
el estado del revestimiento (simple, doble, etc.), biseles, ortogonalidad y ovalizacin de los extremos de los tubos.
La tensin del holliday detector debe ser de 10.000 Voltios.
Condition - Rust, paint and grease on the surface of the metal are all harmful (detrimental) to welding and must usually be removed, at least
near to the actual weld. (nocivo, perjudicial, daino). Guidance is normally given to the inspector regarding acceptable levels or the treatment
that is required.
An inspector should be alert to gradual changes, such as increased corrosion (see Unit V-9 surface condition).
Carefully maintained specimens showing acceptable conditions are often the best method.

Heat treatment condition, annealed, normalised etc., should all be recorded.

Defects - In wrought products the most common defects are laps and laminations that will appear as a narrow black line parallel to the
surface. (Also porosity and segregation bands). These will normally be subsurface so, unless NDE is employed, only the edges of the plate,
and particularly cut edges, can be inspected.
Storage - After inspection and approval for use it is essential that the metal is stored in such a way as to maintain its good condition.
Protect from corrosion and mechanical damage.
MATERIALS INSPECTION CHECK LIST INSPECTION OF:
SIZE
TYPE
CONDITION
thickness
Composition
physical
mechanical
length
grade
surface
heat treatment
width
carbon equivalent
scale oil/grease paint
annealed
diameter
trade name
rust moisture
quench tempered
ovality
identification mark
distortion
thermo-mechanical treatment
flatness
hard stamp/paint/etch
Defects
normalised
against mill sheet/material certificate
acceptable?
quantity
acceptable
acceptable?
tolerances?
QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED:
1. Do the markings on the material match those on the procedure sheet or drawing?
2. Are the dimensions correct?
3. Is the surface condition satisfactory for welding?
THE FOUR ESSENTIAL FACTORS FOR ESTABLISHING A WELD - Welding is usually regarded as a joining process in which the work pieces
are in atomic contact often with a filler metal with broadly similar properties. (generally, in general). Hence soldering and brazing are excluded
but both solid state and fusion welding are included. (Soldadura con aleacin de cinc y cobre o con una aleacin de plata).
Solid state processes include: Forge welding and Friction welding.
Fusion welding processes include: Oxy-acetylene, (MMA), (MIG/MAG), (SAW), (ESW) Electro-slag welding.
FUSION WELDING FACTORS:
1. Fusion. The metal must be melted which requires a high intensity heat source.
2. Atmospheric protection. Contamination from the atmosphere must be avoided.
3. Surface protection. The process must remove any oxide and other contamination from the joint faces.
4. Adequate properties. The welded joint must possess adequate mechanical, metallurgical and physical properties.
Examples of the four factors:
TIG
fusion source
Electric arc between wire and workplace.
atmospheric protection
Argon gas.
surface protection
Deoxidants in wire, mechanical cleaning.
Adequate properties
From filler wire (possibly pre/post weld heat treatment).
MMA
fusion source
Electric arc between electrode and workplace.
atmospheric protection
Gaseous shield from flux. (gaseoso).
surface protection
Mechanical cleaning, slag, fluxing (cleaning) action.
Adequate properties
Alloying elements in flux, baking electrodes, Pre and PWHT.
In general, the term weldability of materials can be defined as: "The ability of a material to be welded by most of the common welding
processes, and retain the properties for which it has been designed'.
The weldability of steels can involve many factors depending on the type of steel, the process and the mechanical properties required.
Welding engineers involved only with the welding of C/Mn structural steel could probably define weldability as carbon equivalent, however
this is a narrow application of the term.
Poor weldability or limited weldability - generally results in the occurrence of some sort of cracking problem, though most steels have a
degree of weldability. When considering any type of weld cracking mechanism, three elements must be present for its occrurence:
l) Stress - Residual stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion & contraction.
2) Restraint - may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded to others. (Restriccin, sujecin, rigidez, detencin)
3) Susceptible microstructure - is often made susceptible to cracking by the process of welding.
The types of cracking mechanism prevalent in steels in which the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector should have some knowledge
are:
Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking. (C/Mn steels)
Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking. (HSLA steels)
Solidification cracking (All steels)
Lamellar tearing (All steels)
Inter-crystalline corrosion (Stainless steels)
Additionally a CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector should have further knowledge of the above and other types of steels and
any inherent cracking mechanisms i.e. Hydrogen induced HAZ and Weld metal cracking in Q/T steels ; Re-heat cracking in creep
resistant steels.
WELDABILITY - BS 5135 states that weldability is the ability of a material to be joined by most of the weld processes and still maintain
most of the physical/mechanical properties for which it was originally designed.
Good weldability - low risk of HICC, but solidification cracking risk due to poor grain structure.
Limited weldability - may risk hardening effects through welding / cutting and (HICC) Hydrogen induced cold cracks.
Lamellar tearing - poor through thickness ductility and plate defects.
Avoidance of the above risks should lead to an acceptable weld.
As a result of the heat input to which the steel is exposed in any form of welding the material undergoes certain changes, some of which are
permanent. Sufrir, pasar (por). Amongst these changes are structural transformations during heating and cooling and changes in shape or size
due to the thermal stresses.
A steel, which can be welded without any dangerous consequences resulting from these changes, is said to possess good weldability. If, on
the other hand, the changes due to a normal welding process are in serious danger of causing failure in a welded component, or if actual
defects such as cracking occur during welding, the steel is said to possess limited weldability and can in most cases be welded, without risk,
provided certain precautions are taken or certain pre- or post- welding treatments are carried out.
The term unweldable steels is unrealistic. Any steel can be welded provided correct metallurgical conditions are chosen. Sometimes,
however, these conditions may be impossible to realise in practical production work.
WELDABILITY OF STEEL - Weldability is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be summarised as:
1. Process and technique.
2. Composition of parent plate.
3. Joint design and size.

INFLUENCE OF PROCESS - Each process will give a characteristic intensity of power. Processes that offer the higher power intensity offer
advantages in fusion welding because the essential melting can be obtained without excessive heat inputs with the consequent thermal
expansion of the parent metal.
Successful welding often depends on feeding into the weld pool a filler wire which carries a deoxidant (or ferrite forming elements) hence
processes which do not use filler wire are limited in application.
HEAT INPUT - Heat input is a combination of voltage, amperage and travel speed.
Heat Input = voltage x amperage/travel speed; for example:
Weld
pass

process

Root

SMAW

Filler Metal
Class
E7010

Brand
Pipe Liner 7P+

3.2mm

Polarity

Current
(AMPS)

DCEP

Range
58 - 105

Volts
Range
(V)
17-35

Travel Speed
(mm/min)

Direction
of Welding

Heat Input range

46 - 190

Uphill

1.28 1.16 KJ/mm

Higher heat Input gives a larger grain size and better Bead Penetration, (With hardness, the higher the number, the harder the material e.g.
475, 450, 300, 275)
As heat input increases:
grain size increases
toughness decreases
brittleness increases
hardness decreases
incidence of cracking decreases
Toughness - resistance to bending and impact
Hardness - resistance to penetration
PREHEATING - There are four general factors that must be assessed to determine the level of preheat.
1. Material type.
2. Combined thickness.
3. Heat input potential (welding process).
4. Joint type.
INFLUENCE OF COMPOSITION - The composition of the steel and its effect on weldability may be divided into two parts:
1. Segregation effects, particularly that of sulphur - When a steel solidifies, there is a tendency for the iron to solidify fast and for the
alloying elements to be accumulated in the centre of the ingot. This configuration is retained even after prolonged and severe rolling and results
in high concentrations of sulphur in the central layers of the plate. These layers have little strength and are likely to crack if stressed.
2. The tendency of the steel to harden - The hardening characteristics of steel are mentioned in the heat treatment section. As the carbon
or alloy content of the steel increases, the likelihood of low ductility and hardened microstructures forming also increases and should stresses
exist, cracking will result.
WELD AND HAZ CRACKING - These are the main causes of cracking:
a. High levels of carbon and other alloy elements result in brittle zones around the weld.
b. High cooling rates after welding increase the hardness, which increases the susceptibility to cold cracking.
c. Joint restraint prevents contraction after welding, which can lead to internal cracking. (impedir).
d. Hydrogen in the weld bead can lead to hydrogen induced cold cracking.
e. Contaminants like sulphur and phosphorus cause segregation or solidification cracking.
f. Lamellar tearing caused by inclusions layering during rolling resulting in deterioration of the through-thickness properties. (Proceso de
laminado).
Cracking usually occurs in the unmelted areas adjacent to a weld bead (in the HAZ). This zone is made up of an area that has been heated to
above about 800C (to become austenite), and an area heated above 723C (partially transformed zone). The fully austenitic region
just adjacent to the fusion zone is often the most brittle area of the weld due to the grain growth that has occurred while the metal was at this
temperature. The grain size gradually decreases moving away from the fusion zone to the partially transformed region. Grain refinement
occurs here, which is considered beneficial, the grain size being smaller.
The composition of the steel, particularly the carbon level, determines the hardness and brittleness of both the weld and the HAZ.
On cooling, austenite transforms to ferrite. Carbon is soluble in austenite, but less so in ferrite. Iron carbides are precipitated when this
transformation takes place. These can be arranged in lamellar form (as pearlite), which gives the structure reasonable strength and ductility.
The HAZ can be the region where the highest cooling rates occur, particularly in thicker section plate. High cooling rates tend to lock the
carbides in a solid solution, forming martensite. This leads to high internal stress and hard brittle structures.
HEAT TREATMENT - Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after welding. The inspectors function is to ensure that the
treatment is given, and given correctly, to the details supplied.
5.3.2.13 Pre- and Post-heat Treatment - The methods, temperature, temperature-control methods, and ambient temperature range for
pre- and post-heat treatment shall be specified. (See 7.11) - The procedure specification shall specify the pre- and post heat treatment
practices to be followed when materials or weather conditions make either or both treatments necessary.
PREHEATING - There are four general factors that must be assessed to determine the level of preheat.
1. Material type.
2. Combined thickness.
3. Heat input potential (welding process).
4. Joint type.
The types of heat treatment available are given below. (The temperatures mentioned are for steel).
Annealing process at 920 C hold in furnace cooling: Annealing is a recrystallization that improves (softens) ductility. However when very slow
cooling is applied: decreases toughness, makes bending, etc. (easier) and lowers yield stress.
Normalising process at 920 C hold in air cool: increases toughness and improves mechanical properties. However when slow cool is applied:
relieves internal stress.
Quench, harden process at 920 C hold in quench cool: hardens carbon steels and prevent precipitation in austenitic stainless steels.
However when fast cooling (in oil or water) is applied: prevents temper brittleness, cooling after tempering and prepares metal for tempering.
Temper process at 550 C to 700 C hold in slow air cooling: increases toughness of quench steels.
Stress relief process at 500 C to 700 C hold in air cool: relief residual stresses by plastic deformation, reduces yield point and reduces
hydrogen levels. However when slow air cooling is applied: improves stability during machining and prevent stress corrosion cracking.
Pre-heating for welding is performed at 50 C to 250 C
Hydrogen soak process at 150 C holding.
When temperature is above 920 C: the grain structure and size of grain are affected. Not so below 920 C where the zone is partially
transformed and the grain structure is not affected.
The soak time is related to thickness, usually 1hr/25mm thickness.
Differing cooling rates give different properties to the metal, so the cool down rate is also critical (Possibly monitoring at a stand off from the
weld being treated). (relacin).
For preheating and hydrogen soak oxy-acetylene is not to be used due to a heat source too localized, but propane is to be used.
MONITORING THE HEAT TREATMENT The method and location of the heat treatment are important, for example in a workshop furnace or
on site using electro-blanket (cooper-heat type) equipment.
The temperature is measured with thermocouples and recorded on a chart. The main points are:
- controlled heat rise
- soak time
- temperature
- cool down rate to unrestricted

- The last test is a hardness test after cooling.

Typical heat treatment chart recording. The inspector should ensure that:
a) Equipment is as specified and calibrated.
b) Operators are qualified.
c) Procedure as specified is used. i.e. method of application, rate of heating and cooling, maximum temperature, soak (holding) time,
temperature measurement.
d) All documentation and records are in order.
GENERAL TECHNIQUES FOR TYPICAL REPAIRS
Metal Removal: The defect may be in a single run fillet weld requiring only a small amount of metal to be removed or it may be a large crack
extending deep into parent metal.
For removing metal rapidly the most convenient method is arc-air gouging in which the metal is melted by a carbon arc and is blown out of
the cut by a stream of compressed air, which passes through holes in a specially designed electrode holder. (corriente).
Arc-air gouging can be used on both ferrous and non-ferrous metals but the surface finish is generally not as good as obtained by
oxyacetylene gouging and the gouged surface finish allows the use of non-destructive testing by Dye Penetrant or Magnetic Particle
inspection to check if defects have been completely removed.
Other thermal methods of metal removal, less commonly used, are oxygen-arc or oxyacetylene gouging.
Mechanical methods include: pneumatic chisels, high-speed rotary tungsten carbide burrs and grinding wheels. (piedra molar; amoladora)
Groove shape: The minimum amount of metal should be removed for economic reasons but is necessary to produce a groove wide enough
for access and manipulation of the welding electrode or filler wire. Widths may have to be increased if a repair involves welding in the
overhead position or if the surface of the groove has to be buttered with a layer of weld metal of one composition before filling the groove with
weld metal of a different composition to prevent weld metal cracking.
While it is more common to carry out repair with weld metal of one composition only, it may still be advantageous to use the buttering
technique particularly in large grooves to reduce the effect of shrinkage across the joint.
Each layer of weld metal has a larger free surface than it would if the weld consisted of horizontal layers as in normal fabrication practice and
this allows contraction to take place freely with minimum strain on the parent metal. This reduces the risk of cracking in the weld or
the HAZ and also reduces the tendency for distortion of the component.
Shrinkage groove is a shallow groove along each side of a penetration bead caused by contraction of the metal along each side of the bead
while in the plastic condition. (encogimiento)
RESIDUAL STRESS - Metals contract during solidification and subsequent cooling, but if this contraction is prevented or inhibited, residual
stresses will develop. During normal cooling smaller grains develop first towards the edges of the weld and larger grains develop in the
middle of the weld as it cools.
Most material products contain residual stresses, often up to yield point. Pipe products, for example, are usually very highly stressed.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the heating and cooling are localised.
So welding with its very localised heating and the presence of liquid and solid metal in contact can be expected to induce very high levels of
residual stresses.
Residual stresses are a combination of unequal expansion/contraction coupled with restraint.
Residual stresses can be difficult to measure with any real accuracy, but a rough (approx) guide is that when the weld metal exceeds two cubic
inches (fourteen cubic centimetres) then the total residual stress is about yield point in magnitude. (Propiedad fsica que puede ser
medida; ej., la temperatura, el peso, etc.)
Normal welds develop the following residual stresses:
1. Residual stress along the weld - Longitudinal residual stress. That is to say, parallel to the axis of weld.
Consider the two plates A and B joined by the weld metal C. The weld metal and the HAZ want to contract, but this is resisted by the plates. So
the weld metal and the HAZ are pulled out (placed in tension) and the plates are pulled in (placed in compression).
2. Residual stress across the weld - Transverse residual stress. That is to say, in the direction of the parent metal.
3. Residual stress through the weld - Short transverse residual stress. That is to say, through thickness.
Again consider plates A and B joined by weld metal C. The effect is like that of the longitudinal residual stresses if the weld is a single pass.
For multipass welds the condition is more like the transverse residual stresses and we find tensile stresses at the surface and compressive
stresses at the centre.
In practice the three directions in which the residual stresses develop combine to give a resultant or total residual stress.
EFFECT OF RESTRAINT - (may be a local restriction) Ceir, ajustar, reducir a menores lmites, circunscribir=Formar una lnea cerrada o
superficie que envuelva exteriormente a otra figura, por contener todos sus vrtices o por estar compuesta de lados o caras tangentes todos
ellos a la figura interior o inscrita.
For any given welded joint the level of residual stresses tends to increase as the restraint on the joint increases. Therefore
reducing restraint (with gap) will reduce residual stress and reduce the chance of cracking.
DISTORTION - The action of residual stresses in welded joints is to cause distortion. Consider a simple weld with a single V preparation.
The following movements can be detected:
1. Contraction in the weld metal and HAZ transverse to the weld.
2. Contraction in the weld metal and HAZ along the length of the weld.
3. Bowing (in parent metal), due to the greater volume of metal at the top of the weld. (arco longitudinal)
4. Ripple (in sheet) away from the weld. (fluctuacin longitudinal)
5. Peaking (opposite edges) due to the V angle.
Control of distortion is achieved in one or more of three main methods:
Presetting
So that the metal distorts into the required position.
Clamping
To prevent distortion, but this increases the level of residual stresses.
Welding sequence
i.e. balanced, for example back-skip welding.
Other methods of distortion control include:
Preheating
Change of prep to a more open prep (e.g. from V to U prep)
Lower heat input
Pulse welding
Weld metal cracking
Causes
Highly rigid joint
Excessive dilution
Defective electrodes
Poor fit-up
Small weld bead
High sulphur base metal
Angular distortion
Crater cracking

Remedy
Preheat, relieve residual stresses mechanically, minimise shrinkage stresses using back-step or block welding
sequence. Also known as back-skip welding.
Change welding current and travel speed, weld with covered electrode negative, butter the joint faces prior to welding.
Change to new electrode, bake electrodes to remove moisture (when use Basic).
Reduce root opening (root gap), or build up the edges with weld metal.
Increase electrode size, raise welding current, or reduce travel speed.
Use filler metal low in sulphur.
Change to balanced welding on both sides of joint.
Fill crater before extinguishing the arc, use a welding current decay device when terminating the weld bead (drooping

characteristic).
Base metal cracking
Causes
Hydrogen in welding atmosphere

Remedy
Use low hydrogen welding process, preheat and hold for two hours after welding or PWHT immediately
(Hydrogen soak at 150 C holding).
Hot cracking
Use low heat input; deposit thin layers; change base metal.
Low ductility
Preheat, anneal the base metal (at 920 C, hold in furnace cooling).
High residual stresses
Redesign the weldment (change joint design), change welding sequence, apply intermediate stress relief
heat treatment (at 500-700 C. hold in air cool).
High hardenability
Preheat, increase heat input, heat treat without cooling to room temperature.
Brittle phases in the microstructure
Solution heat-treat prior to welding (temper till 500-700 C).
THE WELDING PROCEDURE - A welding procedure is a way of controlling the welding operation. Purpose of procedure:
1) To prove a joint can meet design procedure - consistency coherencia,consistencia).
2) Instruction for welder
3) Ensure repeatability
Weld procedures are approved to ensure they are functional and fulfil the physical and mechanical properties necessary to reach the required
standard (to establish the essential variables for contractual obligations). (to carry out or perform a task; Cumplir, satisfacer).
Welders are approved to ensure a particular welder is capable of welding to a procedure and obtaining a result that meets specification.
The task of collecting the data and drafting the documentation is often referred to as writing a weld procedure. (esbozar=bosquejar).
In many ways this is an unfortunate term as the writing of documents is the last in a sequence of tasks.
Producing a weld procedure involves:
Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use or for trial. (prueba, ensayo).
Making test welds
Evaluating the results of the tests
Approving the procedure of the relevant code
Preparing the documentation
In each code reference is made to how the procedures are to be devised and whether approval of these procedures is required. (concebido).
In most codes approval is mandatory and tests to confirm the skill of the welder are specified. Details are also given of acceptance criteria for
the finished joint. The approach used depends on the code, for example: (propuesta, proposicin).
BS 2633 (Class 1 arc welding of ferritic steel pipe work for carrying fluids) provides general comments on various aspects of a suitable
weld procedure.
AWS D.1.1 (Structural welding code - steel) favours more specific instructions for different joints and processes that are, in effect, prequalified procedures. (Apoyar, aprobar).
Other codes do not deal specifically with the details of the weld procedure but refer to published documentation, e.g. BS 5135 process of arc
welding carbon and carbon manganese steels.
COMPONENTS OF A WELD PROCEDURE - Items to be included in the procedure can be some of the following:
1. Parent Metal
a. Type
b. Thickness (for pipe this includes outside diameter)
c. Surface condition
d. Identifying marks
2. Welding Process
a. Type of process (MMA, TIG, SAW etc.)
b. Equipment
c. Make, brand (marca), type of welding consumables
d. When appropriate, the temperature and time adopted for drying and baking of electrodes and/or consumables
3. Joint Design
a. Welding position
b. Edge preparation
c. Method of cleaning, degreasing etc.
d. Fit up of joint
e. Jigging or tacking procedure (punteo)
f. Type of backing
4. Welding Position
a. Whether shop or site weld
b. Arrangement of runs and weld sequence (disposicin, arreglo).
c. Filler material, composition and size (diameter)
d. Welding variables - voltage, current, travel speed
e. Weld size
f. Back gouging (excavar, escoplear con gubia o formn)
g. Any specific features, e.g. heat input control, run-out length
5. Thermal Treatment
a. Preheat and interpass temperatures including method and control
b. Post weld treatment including method and control
ESSENTIAL VARIABLES - An essential variable is a variable that will influence or change the mechanical or metallurgical properties of the
welded joint - changes affecting the procedure approval. Any change in an essential variable requires a new WPS.
Essential variables include: wall thickness, joint design, process, materials, consumables, welding position, direction, heat input (voltage,
amperage, travel speed), heat treatment.
APPROVING THE PROCEDURE - When the data has been collected, the procedure must be validated by producing and testing a trail weld.
If the procedure is to be used on a fabrication, which has been designed to meet the requirements of a code, the test weld is done under the
supervision of an independent witness. The detailed arrangements for the test are subject to agreement between the contracting parties.
A number of British Standards make cross-reference to another standard which covers approval testing.
Other codes of practice include their own weld procedure/welder approval information. In general they include a standard format, which can be
used to report the results of an approval test. e.g. API figure 1
Range of approval - extent of approval - scope of approval - Provides a working range over which certain variables may alter without
requiring a new welding procedure/welder approval.
Variables include thickness (e.g. 1/2 down to 2x above), diameter (e.g. = down to above) materials (different materials can be
covered), position, process, parent plate group, and consumables.
Re-approval of a welding procedure is necessary if there is a change of any of the essential variables or considerable defect re-occurrence.
ABBREVIATIONS

WPS
PQR
WAC
WATC
WAR
WPAR
WQT
* pWPS

welding procedure specification - an approved and accepted welding procedure; an authorised document.
procedure qualification records - proof the procedure works - record of tests undertaken to qualify procedure. (emprender)
welder approval certificate - required to ensure a particular welder is capable of welding to a procedure.
welder approval test certificate.
welder approval record.
welding procedure approval record.
welder qualification test.
preliminary WPS - unauthorised (contains all essential variables and, after welding the test piece and all NDT and destructive
tests have been accepted, then the WPS can be approved).
* pWPS and WPAR give final WPS (various WPS can derive from one pWPS).
3.2.11 qualified welder A welder who has demonstrated the ability to produce welds that meet the requirements of Sections 5 or 6.
3.2.12 qualified welding procedure A tested and proven detailed method by which sound welds with suitable mechanical properties can be
produced.
DOCUMENTATION - The objectives of a procedure or welder approval test are:
a. to prove the procedure meets the necessary requirements with reference to feasibility, mechanical strength etc. (factibilidad).
b. to prove the welders are competent to work on a particular job.
If a customer queries it, evidence can and would be supplied to prove validity. (preguntar, cuestionar, poner en duda).
Approval Test Specifications call for a paper record, which can be known as:
Procedure/welder approval certificate (WAC)
Procedure/welder approval record (WAR)
Procedure/welder approval report
The following records should also be kept:
NDT reports
Records of visual examination or mechanical testing
Test pieces from destructive testing
Other records that are equally important are proof of regular employment on a job for scheduling re-tests to avoid duplication on procedure
approval. (empleo); programar, fijar.
7. Design and Preparation of a Joint for Production Welding - Piping shall be welded by qualified welders using qualified procedures.
The surfaces to be welded shall be smooth, uniform, and free from laminations, tears, scale, slag, grease, paint, and other deleterious
(residuals) material that might adversely affect the welding. The joint design and spacing between abutting ends shall be in accordance with the
procedure specification used.
5.3.2.4 Joint Design the specification shall include a sketch or sketches of the joint that show the angle of bevel, the size of the root face, and
the root opening or the space between abutting members. The shape and size of fillet welds shall be shown. If a backup is used, the type shall
be designated.
7.2 ALIGNMENT - The alignment of abutting ends shall minimize the offset between surfaces. For pipe ends of the same nominal
thickness, the offset should not exceed 1/8 in. (3 mm).
Larger variations are permissible provided the variation is caused by variations of the pipe end dimensions within the pipe purchase
specification tolerances, and such variations have been distributed essentially uniformly around the circumference of the pipe. Hammering of
the pipe to obtain proper lineup should be kept to a minimum.
7.3 USE OF LINEUP CLAMP FOR BUTT WELDS - Lineup clamps shall be used for butt welds in accordance with the procedure specification.
When it is permissible to remove the lineup clamp before the root bead is completed, the completed part of the bead shall be in approximately
equal segments spaced approximately equally around the cir-cumference of the joint. However, when an internal lineup clamp is used and
conditions make it difficult to prevent movement of the pipe or if the weld will be unduly (excessively) stressed, the root bead shall be
completed before clamp tension is released.
Root-bead segments used in connection with external clamps should be uniformly spaced around the circumference of the pipe and shall have
an aggregate length of at least 50% of the pipe circumference before the clamp is removed.
3.2.16 root bead: The first or stringer bead that initially joins two sections of pipe, a section of pipe to a fitting, or two fittings.
Generally internal lineup clamp is used for pipe to pie and pipe to pipe tie-in.
Pipe to pipe tubo con otro tubo, osea una soldadura normal sin mayor concentracin de esfuerzo en los dos tubos.
Pipe to pipe tie-in empalme, es una soldadura entre dos secciones de tubera o empalme de un tubo con una seccin de tuberas soldadas lo
cual requiere ms dedicacin y precaucin.
7.4 BEVEL
7.4.1 Mill Bevel - All mill bevels on pipe ends shall conform to the joint design used in the procedure specification.
7.4.2 Field Bevel - Pipe ends should be field beveled by machine tool or machine oxygen cutting. If authorized by the company, manual
oxygen cutting may also be used. The beveled ends shall be reasonably smooth and uniform, and dimensions shall be in accordance with the
procedure specification.
7.5 WEATHER CONDITIONS - Welding shall not be done when the quality of the completed weld would be impaired=deteriorado by the
prevailing weather conditions, including but not limited to airborne moisture, blowing sands, or high winds. Windshields may be used when
practical. The company shall decide if weather conditions are suitable for welding.
7.6 CLEARANCE - When the pipe is welded above ground, the working clearance around the pipe at the weld should not be less than
16 in. (400 mm). When the pipe is welded in a trench, the bell hole shall be large enough to provide the welder or welders with ready access
to the joint.
7.7 CLEANING BETWEEN BEADS - Scale and slag shall be removed from each bead and groove. Power tools shall be used when called for=
required in the procedure specification; otherwise, cleaning may be performed with either hand or power tools.
When semiautomatic or mechanized welding is used, surface porosity clusters, bead starts, and high points shall be removed by grinding before
weld metal is deposited over them. When requested by the company, heavy glass deposits shall be removed before weld metal is deposited
over them.
7.8 y 3.2.10 POSITION WELDING - welding in which the pipe or assembly is not rotating while the weld is being deposited
7.8.1 Procedure - All position welds shall be made with the parts to be joined secured against movement and with adequate clearance around
the joint to allow the welder or welders space in which to work.
5.3.2.16 Speed of Travel - the range for speed of travel, in inches (millimeters) per minute, shall be specified for each pass.
7.8.2 y 7.9.2 Filler and Finish Beads - for position (fixed) welding, and for roll welding the number of filler and finish beads shall allow the
completed weld a substantially uniform cross section around the entire circumference of the pipe. (escencialmente, considerablemente)
5.3.2.5 Filler Metal and Number of Beads - the sizes and classification number of the filler metal and the minimum number and sequence of
beads shall be designated. At no point shall the crown surface fall below the outside surface of the pipe, nor should it be raised
above the parent metal by more than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
Two beads shall not be started at the same location. The face of the completed weld should be approximately 1/8 in. (3 mm) wider than the
width of the original groove. As the welding progresses, the pipe shall be rolled to maintain welding at or near the top of the pipe. The
completed weld shall be thoroughly brushed and cleaned. (cepillado, pulido)
7.9 y 3.2.15 ROLL WELDING - welding in which the pipe or assembly is rotated while the weld metal is being deposited at or near the top
center.
7.9.1 Alignment - At the companys option, roll welding shall be permitted, provided alignment is maintained by the use of skids (deslizantes)
or a structural framework with an adequate number of roller dollies to prevent sag in the supported lengths of pipe. (doblz, combarse)
5.3.2.16 Speed of Travel - the range for speed of travel, in inches (millimeters) per minute, shall be specified for each pass.
7.10 IDENTIFICATION OF WELDS - each welder shall identify his work in the manner prescribed by the company.

7.11 y 5.3.2.13 PRE- AND POST-HEAT TREATMENT - the methods, temperature, temperature-control methods, and ambient temperature
range for pre- and post-heat treatment shall be specified. The procedure specification shall specify the pre- and post- heat treatment practices
to be followed when materials or weather conditions make either or both treatments necessary.
9.2 RIGHTS OF REJECTION - All nondestructive test methods are limited in the information that can be derived from the indications they
produce.
Fuentes de Radiacin, Rayos Gamma Ir 192.
Actividad de la fuente en Produccin. Mxima: 100 Ci y Mnimo: 40 Ci
Dimensiones Mximas de la Fuente. Diagonal: 4.2 mm
Capacidad de Contenedor: 100 Ci
Ci = curio, unidad de radioactividad. cantidad de cualquier nclido radiactivo en el que el numero de desintegraciones por segundo es 3,7 x 10
elevado al 10 becquerels.
Pantallas intensificadoras:
Material: Plomo
Espesor: Frontal 0.15 / 0.10 mm
Espesor: Posterior 0.15 / 0.10 mm.
Pelcula Radiogrfica - Se utilizara una pelcula por cada pantalla intensificadora tanto delantera como trasera.
Pelcula radiogrfica industrial AGFA- Structurix D 4 o Kodak Industrex MX de 70 mm o 100 mm. de ancho o equivalente.
Condiciones Geomtricas de la Exposicin
(DWE/SWV) Doble pared imagen simple
La fuente ser ubicada en el exterior del tubo separada (13mm) del mismo como mximo.
Se realizar 3 exposiciones por junta a 120 cada una.
La desviacin entre la fuente y la soldadura no ser superior a 5 .
El traslape ser como mnimo de 2 in (50mm). (Normalmente se deja un marco o traslape en cada extremidad de la pelcula para que la
soldadura aparezca completa).
Localizacin del (IQI) Lado de la pelcula en contacto con el tubo (4 IQI situados a 90 una de otra ).
Para el caso de calificacin de procedimientos de soldadura se podr utilizar la tcnica panormica (SWE/SWV) pared simple vista simple.
La fuente ser ubicada en el interior del tubo y en el centro.
Se realizar 1 exposicin.
Localizacin del (IQI) Lado de la pelcula en contacto con el tubo.
when the film length to be interpreted is to 5 in. (130mm), one IQI shall be placed on the film side, across the weld and located at the center
of the length to be interpreted.
Distancia mnima fuente objeto.
La distancia mnima (FFD) a radiografiar esta determinado por la siguiente frmula: D = S. t/k
Donde:
K = (geometric unsharpness factor) 0.02in. (0.5mm), para espesores de 2 in (50.8mm) o menores.
S = Tamao efectivo de la fuente (mm) size (in inches) of the effective source or focal spot.
t = Espesor de la soldadura incluyendo refuerzo ms la distancia entre la cara de la soldadura del lado de la pelcula y la pelcula.
Including reinforcement, plus the distance between the film side of the weld and the film.
- When t is determined for SWE/SWV and DWE/SWV procedures, the thickness of the single wall and its weld reinforcement shall be used.
- When t is determined for DWE/DWV procedures, the outside diameter of the weld (the OD of the pipe plus twice the average height of the
weld crown= not more than 1.6 mm) shall be used.
D = Distancia mnima (in inches) entre la fuente y el objeto, desde el lado de la fuente.
Minimum distance between the source or focal spot and the source side of the object being radiographed.
Exposicin - El clculo del Tiempo de Exposicin se determinar por formula matemtica o por el uso de reglas de clculo.
ESPESORES MXIMOS QUE PUEDEN PENETRARSE CON RAYOS X
TENSIN
TIEMPO DE
PENETRACIN (mm)
FILAMENTO
EXPOSICIN
ACERO
COBRE/LATON
BRONCE
150 KV
1 hora
50
30
20
300 KV

100
65
40
1 000 KV

200
150
150
2 000 KV

300
250
250
Densidad - La mnima densidad ser de 2.0 H&D en la soldadura y la mxima ser de 3.5 H&D en la zona de inters.
Para determinar esta densidad se utilizar un densitmetro calibrado.
11.1.10 Film Density except for small localized areas caused by irregular weld configurations:
The transmitted H&D density in the area of interest of transparent-based film shall not be <1.8 nor > 4.0.
The reflected H&D density for opaque-based film shall not be < 0.5 nor > 1.5.
Transmitted H&D densities through small localized areas may exceed these limits.
However, minimum densities shall not be less than 1.5 and maximum densities shall not exceed 4.2.
Reflected H&D density shall not be < 0.25 and shall not exceed 1.8.
Si existiese una variacin de densidad en cualquier parte del rea de inters -15% +30% de la densidad medida a travs del penetrametro
(IQI) o adyacente al alambre designado, ser necesario colocar un indicador de calidad adicional.
Radiacin secundaria - Cuando sea necesario detectar radiacin secundaria, se colocar una letra B en la parte posterior del cassette. Si una
imagen clara sobre un fondo oscuro aparece la proteccin es insuficiente y la radiografa se considera inaceptable. Una imagen oscura de la B
sobre un fondo ms claro no es causa de rechazo de la radiografa.
Definicin de imagen - La imagen en el rea de interpretacin de la radiografa estar libre de imperfecciones que alteren u oculten los
defectos. El hilo o agujero del penetrmetro que correspondan segn las Tablas I o II de este procedimiento, debe distinguirse claramente en la
imagen.
(IQI) Penetrametro son como hilos de diferente grosor que se ponen en la pelcula para saber si la radiacion que pasa es aceptable y si la
soldadura se puede ver bien; son alambres que definen la densidad de la placa radiografica; dependiendo del espesor del tubo o material de
acero se usan segn el mnimo grosor que puede ser como un cabello hasta el mayor grosor como el de una aguja grande.
En caso de radiografas de doble pared imagen simple (DWE/SWV), al menos 2 (IQI) penetrametros deben ser usados del lado pelcula, uno a
1 (25mm) antes del final o 1 al comienzo de la longitud interpretable y otro en el centro de la pelcula.

When the film length to be interpreted is > 5 in. (130 mm), two IQI placed across the weld and located on the film side shall be used.
One shall be within 1 in. (25 mm) of the end of the film length to be interpreted and the other shall be at the center of the film.
Cuando la toma sea panormica (SWE/SWV) se usarn 4 indicadores uno por cuadrante. When a complete weld is radiographed in a single
exposure using a source inside the piping, at least four IQI placed across the weld and spaced approximately equally around the circumference
shall be used.
Para radiografas de soldaduras reparadas se colocar un penetrametro en la zona de inters
When a repaired weld is radiographed, an additional IQI shall be placed across each repaired area.
Espesor de Soldadura
Pulgadas
Milmetros
0 - 0.25
> 0 - 6.4
> 0.25 0.375 > 6.4 - 9.5
> 0.375 0.50 > 9.5 -12.7
> 0.50 0.75
>12.7 - 19.10
> 0.75 - 1
>19.10 - 25.4
>1- 2
>25.4 - 50.8

Dimetro esencial del hilo

Pulgadas
Milmetros
0.008
0.20
0.010
0.25
0.013
0.33
0.016
0.41
0.020
0.51
0.025
0.64

Penetrametro ASTM
Set
N Hilo a ver
1-A
5
1-A o 1-B 6
1-B
7
1-B
8
1-B
9
1-B
10

TABLA I (IQI) Seleccin de Indicadores de calidad de hilos

Weld Thickness Versus Diameter of ASTM E 747 and ISO Wire Type IQI
Weld Thickness
Essential Wire Diameter
Lead letters
Lead numbers
Inches
Millimeters
Inches
Millimeters
ASTM Set Letter
ISO Wire Identity
0 0.250
0 6.4
0.008
0.20
A
13
> 0.250 0.375
> 6.4 9.5
0.010
0.25
A or B
12
> 0.375 0.500
> 9.5 12.7
0.013
0.33
B
11
ETAPA
REVELADO
ENJUAGUE
FIJADO B
LAVADO 10 BAO FINAL
> 0.500 0.750
> 12.7 19.1
0.016
0.41
Tipo
Rendol>o19.1
equivalente
Agua comn
Fixer o equivalente
Agua comn
> 0.750 1.000
25.4
0.020
0.51
B
9 Driwel PhotoFlow
Cambio
20Lts. > 25.4 50.8
Todos los das
20Lts. B
Todos los das
> 1.000 2.000
0.025
0.64
8 Por cada uso
2
2
168 metros o dos meses
168 metros o dos
de uso
meses de uso
Temp Tiempo
15 min.
C
Min.
Mx.
Doble de tiempo de
18
6
8
agua: a igual
Tiempo
4 minutos
revelado a igual
De a 1 minuto
20
5
6
temperatura
temperatura
21
4
5
22
3.5
4
24
3
3.5
condiciones de procesamiento de las pelculas.
11.1.11 Image Processing When requested by the company, film or other imaging media shall be
images are interpretable for at least 3 years after they are produced.

Procesamiento de pelcula - El proceso

ser en forma manual, la temperatura
ideal de revelado ser 20 C., con una
variacin mxima de +/- 2 C. En caso
que no se consiguiere, los tiempos de
procesamiento se harn de acuerdo a la
TABLA de Determinacin de las
processed, handled, and stored so that the

11.1.12 Image Processing Area The image processing area and all accessories shall be kept clean at all times. El cuarto oscuro contar con
dos reas de clima apropiado una seca y otra hmeda donde se procesarn las pelculas adems dispondr de un Negatoscopio para lecturas
de placas hasta de 4.0 H&D. La luz roja ser filtrada para impedir el velo de las pelculas.
Marcas de posicin. Para el marcado de posicin se usarn nmeros de plomo. El candado o inicio de la Soldadura se lo marcar con el 0 en
el tubo y tambin este ser en inicio de la cinta con nmeros de plomo distribuidos en pulgadas o centmetros dependiendo de coordinacin con
la supervisin, con letras de tamao de al menos de 6 mm.
Identificacin de las Soldaduras. Para las soldaduras que hayan sido reparadas se debe volver a tomar la radiografa y al nmero de junta
se le anexara una letra R.
Cuando se trate de tiein la radiografa se identificar con una letra T.
Cuando haya existido un corte se colocar las letras CT para identificar que es nueva soldadura.
Evaluacin de las Pelculas Radiogrficas. (ASME T-238.1) La visualizacin de las placas ser realizada con iluminador de luz regulable o
negatoscopio, suficiente para lograr las densidades utilizadas e intensidad aproximada 2100 Lmenes, toda placa radiogrfica debe estar libre
de manchas e irregularidades del proceso que puedan interferir con la imagen de discontinuidades reales.
11.1.10.2 Film Viewing Equipment (illuminator or negatoscopio) shall be of the variable high intensity type and shall be capable of
viewing film densities within the range specified in 11.1.10 (film density). It shall be equipped to prevent light, coming from around the outer
edge of the radiograph or through low density portions of the radiograph, from interfering with interpretations.
11.1.10.3 Film Viewing Facilities Viewing facilities shall provide subdued background lighting of an intensity that will not cause troublesome
reflections, shadows, or glare on the radiograph.
Calificacin del procedimiento radiogrfico - Se realizar una radiografa de calificacin del procedimiento para cada uno de los sistemas
(interno y externo), colocando un indicador de imagen en el lado film y otro en el lado fuente, concordando los parmetros de observacin con
la inspeccin y registrando densidad, sensibilidad obtenida, pelcula usada, condiciones de revelado, identificacin y todos los datos
relacionados.
El procedimiento es considerado aprobado cuando las radiografas tomadas presentan:
Densidad requerida
(IQI) requerido e imagen perfectamente definida
Orificio esencial visible o Alambre visible
Libre de manchas de revelado
Sistema de identificacin perfectamente visible.
Se debe emitir un registro de la calificacin del procedimiento radiogrfico generado.

The following criteria shall be used to evaluate images:

a. An acceptable image quality that is free from fog and from processing irregularities that could mask the image of actual imperfections.
b. The prescribed (IQI) and the essential wire diameter.
c. A satisfactory identification system.
d. An acceptable technique and setup.
e. Compatibility with acceptance standards.
All requirements that refer to the quality of the resulting images shall apply equally to x-rays and gamma rays.
The use of radiographic inspection and the frequency of its use shall be at the option of the company.
Proteccin Personal Todo personal que desarrolle labores directas con fuentes radioactivas, deber estar autorizado e incluido en el Listado
de Radilogos Calificados; igualmente deber protegerse el radilogo y ste deber proteger a los dems trabajadores, utilizando los factores
de tiempo, la distancia y el blindaje.
11.1.13 Radiation Protection The radiographer shall be responsible for the protection and monitoring of every person working with or near
radiation sources. The protection and monitoring shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local regulations.
Tiempo: El tiempo de exposicin personal deber ser el mnimo compatible con el trabajo.
Distancia: La distancia fuente - persona deber ser la mxima razonable.
Deber limitarse claramente la zona restringida, colocndose las seales luminosas y los avisos que indiquen el peligro de radiacin.
El rea no restringida deber tener un nivel de radiacin menor a 2.0 millirems/hora.
Como medida adicional, al Contenedor de trabajo se le har la prueba de fuga (Leak-Test)
Bolsas con municiones de plomo, granalla o blindajes de concreto acero son los mas efectivos para reducir la radiacin emergente.
Limites de dosis - Los lmites permisibles para operarios y dems personales circundantes son los siguientes:
CATEGORA
Personal ocupacionalmente
Expuesto (POE)
Pblico

LIMITE ANUAL
2 Rem
0.10 Rem

Delimitacin de reas - En funcin de la carga de trabajo estimada para el mismo, la delimitacin para trabajadores ser hecha con 2
mRem/H. Se emplearn colimadores (material de tugsteno o plomo) para disminuir la radiacin.