MATERIAL SCIENCE

Knowledge of materials and material science plays an important role in an

Engineering Industries. Right type of material shall be selected for a
particular service to get required life of the equipment. The selection and
use of proper materials, cost effectiveness, minimum failure in the
designed life are the direct responsibilities of the Engineers in an Industry.
An engineer must have knowledge of nature and behavior of materials, its
limitations

for

manufacturing,

chemical

compositions,

mechanical

properties for fabrication and effects of its alloying elements for the
required service applications.
Materials are selected on the basis of service requirements and the ease
of its manufacturing/fabrication but simultaneously the economics is
always taken into consideration to limit the cost of the project. Thus the
selected material for a particular service must stand up to dimensional
stability and process of fabrication, service corrosion, required hardness,
strength & toughness, heat resistance, fatigue & creep, machineability,
weldability, heat treatments etc. All these properties depends upon the
chemical composition, macrostructure and microstructure of the material.
As per ASME, materials are divided in two major groups called Ferrous and
Non-ferrous material depending upon their alloying elements.
1) Ferrous materials are those in which main or base constituent is
Iron.
2) Non-Ferrous material may or may not contain iron at all.
FERROUS MATERIALS:
More than 50% of the industrial requirements are fulfilled by ferrous
materials in one form or other. Ferrous material, which contains Iron as
principal element, can be in two forms cast or forged. In casting, molten

metal of required composition is poured in the moulds to get the required

shape.
In case of forging, at first the metal is caste as raw working material and
then it is cold or hot worked to get the actual required shape with
improve mechanical properties.
Ferrous material can further be divided into following categories.

Cast Iron,

Wrought iron,

Carbon Steel,

Alloy Steels and

Stainless steel.

(Stainless steel is a special type of Alloy Steel which renders special

property of corrosion resistance.)
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS:
All materials other than ferrous material are known as non-ferrous
materials. They are equally important to industries and in many critical
services these materials are used. Many alloys in which iron is present in
form of alloying element only are also covered in non-ferrous materials
because the main category of that alloy belongs to Non-ferrous materials.
Nickle alloys, aluminum alloys etc are the example of non-ferrous
materials.
In Industries various type of materials are used in different services. These
materials are broadly divided into two main groups.
1)

Base metal
e.g. Iron, Copper, Aluminium etc.

2)

Alloy
e.g. Brass, Stainless Steel, Steel, CastIron etc.

Base Metals: - Base metals are used directly for the applications where
their property fulfills the requirements. They do contain some elements in

their composition but those are impurities which remains in their matrix
during manufacturing.
Alloy :-

An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metal

(which are called alloying elements) which are added in specific proportion
to get required physical properties. e.g. in Stainless steel nickel,
chromium, carbon, manganese, silicon are added in specific proportion to
get required properties. Every alloying element has its own properties and
effect on the properties of the Alloy. Most used alloy in various industries
is in forms is Steels.
Steel
Steel is an alloy of mainly Iron and Carbon, which contains carbon upto
1.5%. The percentage of carbon exerts the most influence on properties of
steel. Depending on the percentage of carbon in steel, its grades are
defined as low carbon, medium carbon or carbon steels. Other alloying
elements are further added to enhance its properties in different grades.
Classification of Steels
Steels can be classified into different groups by a variety of different
systems depending on:

The composition, such as carbon steels, low-alloy steels or stainless

steels.

The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen

process, or electric furnace methods.

The finishing method, such as casting, forging, hot rolling or cold

rolling

The product form, such as bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing or

structural shape

The de-oxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped or

rimmed steel

The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic

The required strength level, as specified in ASTM standards

Based on heat treatment, such as annealed, quenched and

tempered etc.

Quality descriptors, such as Industrial and commercial quality.

Carbon steel:
Carbon steel are classified according to variations in carbon which have
the greatest effect on mechanical properties. With increasing percentage
of carbon content hardness and strength of steel tends to increase. As
such, carbon steels are generally categorized according to percentage of
carbon content. Generally speaking, carbon steels contain up to 2% total
alloying elements and can be subdivided into low-carbon steels, mediumcarbon steels, carbon steels and high-carbon steels.
Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30% C. The largest category of this
class of steel is rolled products (sheet or strip), usually in the cold-rolled
and annealed condition. The carbon content for these high-formability
steels is very low, less than 0.10% C, with up to 0.4% Mn. Typical uses are
in automobile body panels, tin plate, and wire products.
Medium-carbon steels contains carbon from 0.30 to 0.60% and the
manganese from 0.60 to 1.65%. Increasing the carbon content to
approximately 0.5% with an accompanying increase in manganese allows
medium carbon steels to be used in the quenched and tempered
condition. The uses of medium carbon-manganese steels include shafts,
axles, gears, crankshafts, couplings and forge pipe fittings. Steels in the
0.40 to 0.60% C range are also used for rails, railway wheels and rail
axles.
Carbon steels contain carbon from 0.60 to 1.00% C with manganese
contents ranging from 0.30 to 0.90%. High-carbon steels are used for
making soft springs, wires for wire ropes etc.
As a group, carbon steels are by far the most frequently used steels. More
than 85% of the steel produced is carbon steel.
High carbon steels contain carbon more than 1.00% with manganese
contents ranging from 0.30 to 1.00%. High-carbon steels are used as
spring materials, shoes of crane crawlers and high-strength wires

Low-alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit
mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels as a result of
additions

of

alloying

elements

such

as

nickel,

chromium,

and

molybdenum. Total quantity of alloying elements can range from 2.07% up

to levels just below that of stainless steels, which contain a minimum of
10% Cr.
For many low-alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is
to increase hardenability in order to optimize mechanical properties and
toughness after heat treatment. In some cases, however, alloy additions
are used to reduce environmental degradation under certain specified
service conditions.
Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain 0.5 to 9% Cr
and 0.5 to 1.0% Mo. The carbon content is usually below 0.2%. The
chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance, and the
molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels are iron-based alloys containing at least 10.5% Cr. Few
stainless steels contain more than 30% Cr or less than 50% Fe. They
achieve their stainless characteristics through the formation of an invisible
and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. This oxide forms itself in
the presence of oxygen.
Other elements which are added to improve properties include nickel,
molybdenum, copper, titanium, niobium, aluminum, silicon, nitrogen, and
selenium. Carbon is normally present in amounts ranging from less than
0.03% to over 1.0% in certain martensitic grades.
The selection of particular grade of stainless steels may be based on
corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, availability, mechanical
properties in specific service conditions/temperature ranges and product
cost. However, corrosion resistance and mechanical properties are usually
the most important factors in selecting a grade for a given application.

Classification of Stainless Steels

Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:
1) Martensitic stainless steels,
2) Ferritic stainless steels,
3) Austenitic stainless steels,
4) Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels, and
5) Precipitation-hardened stainless steels.
Various grades of Stainless steels are in general available in the form of
plate, sheet, strip, shapes, foil, bar, wire, , pipes, tubes, pipe & Tube
fittings, semi-finished products in Forging, Casting etc.
Effect of alloying elements on steel
Chromium (Cr) :- Chromium is the single alloying element which renders
stainless properties to the steel. A minimum of 11% Cr is needed to be
added to steels, at which a continuous stable and inert (passive)
Chromium oxide film forms on the surface which is resistance to both wet
and dry corrosion. This increases the high temperature stability and
strength of material.
Carbon (C) :- Primary alloying element. It is essential for formation of
martensite during hardening. Carbon exerts the most influence on ferrous
material. It increases tensile strength and hardness and decreases
ductility and weldabitity. Generally without carbon no ferrous material
(except maragin steel) exists. Carbon has a major effect on steel
properties. Carbon is the primary hardening element in steel. Hardness
and tensile strength increases as carbon content increases. Ductility and
weldability decrease with increasing carbon.
Sulfur (S) :- Sulfer contents are considered as impurity. This reduces the
tensile strength at high temperature and improves the machinability.
Phosphorus (P):- Ii is also considered as impurity. It can cause brittleness
at low temperature.

Nickel (Ni) :-

Nickel is added to increase tensile strength, yield

strength, heat resistance & creep resistance. Addition of Nickle has effect
on Co-officient of thermal expansion also.
Molybdenum (Mo.) :- It increases strength at elevated temperature,
hardness at good strain. Molybdenum, when added to stainless steels, it
enhances the properties (passivity) of the passive film and thereby
increases the resistance to corrosion at high temperature.
Aluminum (Al):- Aluminum helps in controlling the grain size and it works
as deoxidizer.
Titanium(Ti) :-Titanium is an high temperature stabilising alloying
elements i.e. it is a strong carbide former which forms titanium carbide. It
helps in reducing chromium depletion at higher temperature. Titanium is
used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium is also used to
achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics.

Titanium causes sulfide

inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and

ductility in transverse bending.
Tungsten (W) :-It increases hardness by refining the grain structure and
forming tungsten carbide in the matrix.
Niobium(Nb.) (Columbium) :-Niobium is also a high temperature
stabilising elements. It helps in making sound forging of the stabilised
grade of stainless steels. Niobium increases the yield strength and, to a
lesser degree, the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small
amounts of Niobium can significantly increase the yield strength of steels.
Niobium can also have a moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Its
main contributions are to form precipitates above the transformation
temperature, and to retard the recrystallization of austenite, thus
promoting a fine-grain microstructure having improved strength and
toughness
Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon
steel. The addition of small amounts of Vanadium can significantly

increase the strength of steels.

Vanadium is one of the primary

contributors to precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels.

When

thermomechanical processing is properly controlled the ferrite grain size is

refined and there is a corresponding increase in toughness. The impact
transition temperature also increases when vanadium is added.
Nickel and chromium
Nickel steels are noted for their strength, ductility and toughness, while
chromium steels are characterized by their, corrosion resistance,
hardness and resistance to wear. The combination of nickel and chromium
produces steels having all these properties, some intensified, without the
disadvantages associated with the simple alloys. The depth of hardening
is increased, and with 4.5% nickel, 1.25% chromium and 0.35% carbon the
steel can be hardened simply by cooling in air.
Ni-Cr-Mo steels are widely used for ordinance, turbine rotors and other
large equipments and articles, since molybdenum tends to minimize
temper brittleness and reduces mass effect. Molybdenum is also a
constituent in some high-speed steels, magnet alloys, heat-resisting and
corrosion-resisting steels.
Manganese (Mn) :- Addition of Manganese improves the ductility and
hardness of the Steels. All commercial steels contain 0.3 - 0.8% of
manganese, to reduce oxides and to counter act the harmful influence of
iron sulfide. Any manganese in excess of these requirements partially
dissolves in the iron and partly form Mn 3C which occurs with the Fe 3C.
There is a tendency now a days to increase the manganese content and
reduce the carbon content in order to get a steel with improved ductility
having all other physical properties same.
The manganese content is also increased in certain alloy steels, with
reduction or elimination of expensive nickel, in order to reduce costs.
Steels with 0.3-0.4% carbon, 1.3-1.6% manganese and 0.3% molybdenum
have replaced 3% nickel steel for some purposes.

Silicon (Si) :-It increased elasticity and strength and decreases weldabilty
and forgeability, Silicon is added to casting to improve the fluidity of
molten metal.
Silicon and Manganise are introduced to de-oxidize the steel. These
elements combine with Oxygen of ferrous oxide and form their oxides in
preference and go over the slag in the form of oxides. This improves the
properties of steel. It is called killing and the steel thus produced is called
killed steel. Aluminum is also used as good de-oxidiser (Oxygen killer)
agent and to control the grain size. Addition of silicon in castings,
minimizes the possibility of porosities (Blow Holes).
Titanuim and Zierconuim are strong de-oxidiser and they can only be
used in fully killed steels. Niobium is one of the strong carbide formers
and stabilizers of ferrite in the matrix. It is also works as a grain refiner. At
high temperature where creep is a problem coarser grain materials have
advantages but at normal temp fine grain provides improved strength.

Cast Iron :The term cast iron, like steel, identifies a large family of ferrous alloys.
Alloys of carbon in iron, in which carbon content exceed 2.14% are called
Cast iron. Cast irons are multi component ferrous alloys. They contain
major (iron, carbon, silicon)and

alloying (>0.01%) elements. Other

alloying elements are added for getting the improved properties for
specific services.
Cast Iron is generally weak in tensile load and cannot be used for making
items like fasteners, shaft, rotor etc. It is brittle in nature. But cast iron has
good

compression

strength,

lubrication

retaining

properties

and

damepning properties. Therefore many machinery parts are made of cast

iron only which require vibration dampning, continuous lubrication etc.
Based on requirement, different grades of cast irons have been developed
which have improved properties.
Cast iron has higher carbon and silicon contents than steel. Because of
the higher carbon content, the structure of cast iron, as compared to that
of

steel,

exhibits

rich

carbon

phase.

Depending

primarily

on

composition, cooling rate and melt treatment, various grade of cast irons
can be made.
There are many grades of cast iron. e.g. white cast iron, Grey cast iron,
Nodulor cast iron and Maleable cast iron. Each cast iron has specific
properties and is used for specific requirement.
The cast iron contain greater percentage of carbon ( 2 ~ 5%) than in steel.
Carbon in cast Iron may be found in two different forms. One is in total
chemically combined form and another is in independent form.
When all carbon present in the matrix is in chemically combined condition
with iron forming (Fe3C) iron carbide in the form of cementite, it is called
white cast iron .
When all percentage of carbon is not chemically combined with Iron and
also exists as free carbon or graphite flakes, it is called grey cast iron.

Grey Cast Iron :- When all percentage of carbon is not chemically

combined with Iron and some percentage of carbon exists as free carbon
or graphite flakes, it is called grey cast iron. It is machineable and have
very good dampening property.
White Cast Iron :- When all carbon present in the matrix is in chemically
combined condition with iron, forming (Fe3C) iron carbide in the form of
cementite, it is called white cast iron.
The presence of cementite or iron-carbide makes this metal hard and
brittle and wear resistance. This is also machineable and it has high
temperature resistance property.
Ductile or Nodular Cast Iron :- When small quantity of Magnesium or
Cerinum is added to cast iron the graphite content gets converted into
nodular or spherodial form and gets dispersed throughout the matrix. This
improves the fluidity, and thus excellent castings are made. Nodular cast
iron has good strength, high toughness, wear resistance and good impact
strength.
Alloy Cast Iron:- Some alloying elements are added to cast iron to
overcome certain inherent deficiencies and to improve mechanical
properties more suitable for special purpose. To increase strength, wear
resistance,

corrosion

resistance,

hardness

etc.

Nickel,

Chromium,

Molybdenum , Vanadium etc. are added forming various grades of alloy

cast iron.
Cast Carbon Steels
Carbon steel is a generalized name given to steels containing only carbon
as the principal alloying element. Other elements are present in small
quantities.

Important

elements

added

for

de-oxidation

and

other

properties are Silicon and Manganese in cast carbon steels typically range
from 0.25 to about 0.80% Si, and 0.50 to about 1.00% Mn respectively.
Carbon steels can be classified according to their carbon content into
three broad groups:

Low-carbon steels: < 0.20% C

Medium-carbon steels: 0.20 to 0.50% C

High-carbon steels: > 0.50% C

Carbon steel castings are produced in different grades of properties

depending on the specific requirements. Accordingly composition and heat
treatment shall be selected to achieve specific combinations of properties,
which includes hardness, strength, ductility, fatigue resistance, and
toughness. Although there are certain other properties specific to
particular grades but it is important to recognize the inter relationships for
all grades for these general properties.
Cast Stainless Steels
Stainless steels are a class of chromium-containing steels widely used for
their corrosion resistance properties in corrosive environments and for
service at cryogenic and elevated temperatures. Stainless steels are
distinguished from other steels by the enhanced corrosion and oxidation
resistance created by chromium additions. Chromium imparts passivity to
ferrous alloys when present in amounts of more than about 11%,
particularly if conditions are strongly oxidizing. Consequently, steels with
more than 10 or 12% Cr are sometimes defined as stainless steels.
Stainless steel castings are usually classified as corrosion-resistant
castings or some times heat-resistant, used in the services where
temperature range from 450 to 650 oC. The usual distinction between heatresistant and corrosion-resistant cast steels is based on carbon content
and stablising element in the composition.
Forging
For Services in which parts are exposed to tensile strength or transmission
of torque etc then forging are used. Forging may be in carbon steel,
Stainless steel or Alloy Steel.
Forging is the direct compression-type process and it is probably the
oldest method of metal forming. It involves the application of a
compressive stress, either by impact or by pressure, which exceeds the

flow stress of the metal. The stress can be applied quickly or slowly. The
process can be carried out in hot or cold conditions, choice of temperature
being decided by factors such as ease and cheapness of formation.
Requirement

of

production

quantity,

imparting

certain

mechanical

properties or surface finish are the overriding factor.

There are two kinds of forging process, impact forging and press forging.
In the former, the load is applied by impact, and deformation takes place
over a very short time. Press forging, on the other hand, involves the
gradual build up of pressure to cause the metal to yield. The time of
application is relatively long. Over 90% of forging processes are hot.
Impact forging can be further subdivided into three types:

Smith forging,

Drop forging,

Upset forging.

Structure and Properties of Forgings

Forgings are invariably produced by the hot-working process and this
helps in controlling the resultant grain structure and hence properties of
the forgings. There are, however, important differences in forgings
produced by different techniques.
The fact that the impact forges applies a stress for a very short duration
compared to the press forge, results in totally different grain structures in
the product. In the case of impact forge, the mechanical working is
concentrated on the surface layers. Removal of the stress after the blow
results in metal relaxation before the effect of the blow could have
penetrated up to the center.
Impact forging of a large "as cast" piece of metal at high temperature will
result in a very inhomogeneous structure, the outside layers showing a
typical hot-worked structure whilst the center is still as cast. Any attempt
to achieve greater penetration by increasing the impact load usually leads
to internal cracking. Impact forging is therefore limited to relatively small
work pieces.

Press forging invariably results in total penetration of the effect of the

applied stress up to the center of the work piece. The process is generally
less severe on the metal than impact. The end result is a more
homogeneous product having very high quality. Since the process is much
slower and the equipment used is much larger, press-forged articles are
more expensive than impact forged components.
MARAGING STEEL :- Maraging steel is an iron based steel alloy which do
not contain Carbon. It is known for possessing superior strength without
loosing malleability. Iron with various proportions of alloying elements like
Cobalt, Nickel as strengthening agents are added with Molybdenum and
Titanium. It possess.
-

High strength and tonghness

Easy Machinable

Can be easily nitrided

Resist corrosion and crack propagation.

The common grades contain 17 ~ 19 % Nickel, 8 ~ 12 % Cobalt 3 ~ 5 %

Molybdenum and 0.2 ~ 1.6% Titanium.
HEAT TREATEMENT OF MATERIAL :The specific properties of steels or alloys (Ferrous or Non ferruns) may be
changed as required by following a heating and cooling cycle for that
material under definite conditions. Desired

results are obtained by

heating in a temperature range where a phase or combination of phases

are stable. This process of following a cycle of heating and cooling of
material to impart specific properties in the material is called heat
treatment. The structure of steel is composed of two variables.
1) Grain structure The arrangement of atoms in a metal
2) Grain size - the size of the individual crystals of the metal
Steels can exhibit a wide variety of properties depending on their grain
structure and grain sizes as well as the phases of its micro-constituents

present in its matrix. The matrix structures of materials depend on the

heat treatment cycle followed after the formation process. Some times a
minor addition of alloying element changes the entire cycle of heat
treatment as the matrix body structure gets changed. The basis for
consideration of heat treatment of steels is the iron-carbon (Fe-C) phase
diagram. During heat treatment of the metals, it is impossible to cool the
specimen at a uniform rate through out. The surface of the specimen will
always cool more rapidly than the interior region. Therefore the Austenite
will transform over a range of temperatures, yielding a possible variation
of microstructure and properties of the material within the shape. The
successful heat treatment of steels is to produce a predominantly
Martensitic microstructure throughout the cross section. This depends
upon following factors:
1) The composition of the alloy
2) The type and character of the quenching medium
3) The size and shape of the specimen
By way of various heat treatment cycles, internal stresses, which may
have been developed due to formation, can be removed, grain size may
be refined, hard and soft surfaces may be produced. In many cases it
helps in improving the tensile strength and toughness also. Final results of
heat treatment depends upon the rate of heating, final temperature of
soaking, period of soaking, rate of cooling, quenching media etc. Specific
cycles are designed by the metallurgist to get the best results in the
required services.
Generally heat treatment is done for the following purposes.
1.

To Impart hard surface

2.

To Improve machineablity

3.

To refine grain size

4.

To relieve internal stresses

5.

To improve wear resistance

6.

To improve tensile strength

7.

To Improve magnitic or electrical properties

8.

To Improve softness and mleability

Special heat treatments have been designed and named by the

metallurgist for getting the properties enhanced in the materials. These
are in general performed after some steps of forming.
ANNEALING: - Annealing is one of the most widely used process in the
heat treatment of Iron or steel. According to American society of Material
Testing (ASTM) annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that
consist of heating and holding at a suitable temperature followed by
cooling at a suitable rate in a suitable quenching medium primarily to
soften the material.
NORMALIZING :-This heat treatment is generally followed on the
materials which are formed by forging at high temperature. It consist of
heating ferrous alloys to a suitable temperature, keep it there for specific
time called soaking, followed by cooling at specific rate for refining grain
size of a steel. This heat treatment is must for all forging formations.
TEMPERING:- In the as quenched state the martensite formed is not only
very hard but also very brittle and can not be worked further in any
application. Also many internal stresses gets introduce during the
quenching operation. Temperring is used to enhance the ductility and
toughness of martensite and relieve the internal stresses. In tempering
steel is re-heated to specified low temperature below its critical
temperature for a certain period of time and then cooled at a prescribed
rate.
AUSTEMPERING:- Austempering is also known as Austeninting is the
heat treatment process in which steel or iron alloy is heated to a
temperature of 205C ~ 500C above the critical temperature and it is
kept at that temperature for sufficient time, un till it is all ferrite and
pearlite are converted into austenite and then cooling at a definite rate for
specific grades of steels.

HARDENING :- Hardening is the heat treatment for making the steel hard
at the outer surface while the core remains soft. The steel is heated above
the critical temperature and held at that temperature for considerable
time to ensure thorough penetration of the temperature in side the metal
and then cooled at a specific fast rate. Hardness of the surface achieved
depends upon the volume of the cooling bath, media of the cooling etc.
STRESS RELIEVING:- Stress relieving is the most frequently and widely
done heat treatment in any industry. A specific heating and cooling cycle
is designed to relieve internal stresses developed by forming, forging,
welding or any hot work. Rate of heating, temperature of soaking, time of
soaking, loading and un-loading temperatures depends upon the grade of
material and thickness of the job.
There are certain other heat treatment process also e.g. CARBURIZING,
CYANIDING, NITRIDING, FLAME HARDNING, which are done to obtain
various surface hardness for specific purpose. These heat treatments are
more related to manufacturing industries.
QUENCHING:- Quenching is the operation of rapid cooling of work piece
from high temperature to ambient in a liquid or gaseous media. In this
operation intermediate transformations are avoided by not giving
sufficient time at intermediate temperatures. For achieving this the
volume of the quenching media shall be sufficient with respect to the work
piece. There are various Specific gaseous or liquid medium used for
specific purposes. Media plays important role in achieving the specific
properties after the heat treatment.
Some important terms which are used frequently in industries:
GRAIN SIZE:- When material mass starts solidifying from molten state,
the solidification starts simultaneously at numerous locations. The grains
formed early in the solid mass gets sufficient time and heat from the
surrounding to grow in its vicinity and on completion of solidification the

material is composed of various sizes of grains. These grains are visible

under metallurgical microscope. The number of grains per unit area is
called the grain size of that material. According to American Society for
Testing Material (ASTM) the grain size of a steel is specified by the number
of grains per square area which are visible under magnification of 100
times.
More the grains per square inch area or higher grain no (ASTM 6 ~ 9)
means fine grain structure and less the grains per square inch area or less
ASTM grain No. (ASTM 1 ~5) means coarse grain structure.
Grain No or Grain size in steel is one of the most influential factors for
mechanical properties and application of service. Fine grain denotes good
strength and coarse grain indicates weak materials. For high pressure and
high temperature application grain structure is very important.
CREEP :- Material exposed to high temperature and pressure for long
time may develop permanent plastic deformation which can leads to its
failure. This permanent plastic deformation is called Creep. It is measured
in percentage as variation in size w.r.t. original size. Material used in this
type of condition should have high creep resistance. Some high
temperature resisting material are Inconel 600, Inconnel 800, HK4O,
IN519 etc in which percentage of Chromium ranges from 20 ~ 35% and
Nichel 25 ~ 70 % and Carbon 0.06 ~ 0.50%. There are certain other
alloying and micro alloying elements also as Silicon, Niobium, Cobalt,
Aluminum etc. which are added to enhance the specific properties as per
requirement.
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT :- Hydrogen embrittlement is a service
related failure or deterioration of material. It involves the ingress of
hydrogen atoms into the matrix occupies the space available in the
matrix. When large number of such ingress takes place the matrix become
densely occupied and thus hardness of the material gets increased. Atoms
ingress in the matrix starts forming molecules and thus the space
available in the matrix become more and more congested. The molecules

of the Hydrogen has tendency to get librated from the congetion and thus
they exert sufficient pressure on the grain boundries to generate fishers.
These

fishers

when

gets

accumulated

becomes

crack.

Hydrogen

embrittlement can seriously reduce the ductility and load bearing capacity
and can cause catastrophic brittle failure at stresses much below the yield
stresses. At high temperature the diffused hydrogen on the grain
boundaries combines with the carbon in the vicinity and in presence of
iron form methane gas (CH4). The molecule size of the methane is large
as compared to hydrogen atom. Thus the methane gas builds up
enormous pressure on the grain boundaries and thus fishers and cracks
are initiated. Hydrogen embrittlement does not affect all materials equally.
Some materials are suitable for the service while others are not. Nelson
curve gives the required help for selecting the materials for particularly in
hydrogen service.
Failures of Metal Components
In industries the failure analysis is equally important for the engineers.
This gives the idea for the maintenance engineers about the performance
of the designed part in the particular service. Root causes of the failure
shall be analyzed and shall be recorded for future use for the elimination
of similar mistakes. While designing modern equipments to operate in
severe environments, a designer is confronted with many complex
problems in selecting and evaluating materials, for expected loadings and
design stresses. Materials selection must not be confined to a small group
of metals for outstanding resistance in one characteristic, such as
inertness to the environment in chemical processing. However, many
other factors must also be considered such as strength, toughness, mode
of fabrication and wear resistance etc. before selection and design.
Many elements of fracture are used to describe and categorize the types
of fractures encountered in the laboratory and in service. These elements
include loading conditions, rate of crack growth, and macroscopic and
microscopic appearance of fracture surfaces.

Failure analysis often finds itself useful to classify fractures on a

macroscopic scale as ductile fractures, brittle fractures, fatigue fractures
and fractures resulting from the combined effects of stress and
environment. The last group includes stress-corrosion cracking and liquidmetal embrittlement, interstitial embrittlement, corrosion fatigue and
stress rupture.
Detailed analysis of failures encountered in developing a prototype (or in a
service component) is vital before appropriate changes can be made in
design or material to assure a reliable product.
Ductile Fractures:
Ductile fractures are characterized by tearing of metal accompanied by
appreciable gross plastic deformation and expenditure of considerable
energy during the failure.
Brittle Fractures:
Brittle fractures are characterized by rapid crack propagation with less
expenditure of energy than with ductile fractures and without appreciable
gross plastic deformation.
Fatigue Fractures:
Fatigue fractures result from cyclic loading, and appear brittle on a
macroscopic scale. They are characterized by incremental propagation of
cracks until the cross section has been reduced to where it can no longer
support the maximum applied load and fast fracture ensues.
Although all cares are taken while designing or manufacturing
equipments but failures do takes place. In general, service failures may
arise from many causes. For mechanical equipment, these causes might
be classified into three categories as follows:
Design inadequacies:- Many times while designing small things are
overlooked and these small things become the source of failure. Sharp
corners or abnormal stress-raisers, inadequate fasteners, wrong material
or heat treatment, unforeseen conditions of service, and lack of accurate
stress analysis may be such causes of failures.

Processing and fabrication:- About half of the failures are due to

metallurgical process, which are either not followed properly or not
performed at all while fabricating. Factors such as quench cracks,
improper

heat

treatment,

forging

or

casting

defects,

nonmetallic

inclusions etc are some examples; the other half failures are due to minor
mistakes done during fabrication such as Joint misalignments, weld flaws,
improper machining or assembly, grinding cracks, cold straightening etc.
Environmental and service deterioration:- These factors are part of
the service in which equipment is performing. These include overloads,
change of parameters, chemical attack, wear, corrosion, diffusion, and
improper maintenance.
A "failure" usually occurs as:
1.

Fracture (Breakage)

2.

Excessive deformation (over heating, bending)

3.

Material deterioration (Carburizing, metal dusting)

These facts are basic information for any engineer in an industry.