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Bare spots, defined as uncoated areas on the steel surface, are the
most common surface defect and occur because of inadequate surface
preparation, welding slag, sand embedded in castings, excess aluminum
in the galvanizing kettle, or lifting aids that prevent the coating from
forming in asmall area. Only very small areas, less than 1 inch in the
narrowest dimension with a total of no more than 0.5%of the accessible
surface area, may be renovated using ASTM A 780. This means narrow,
bare areas may be repaired; however, if they are greater than one inchsquare areas, the product must be regalvanized. In order to avoid bare
spots, like those seen in Figure 24, the galvanizer must ensure the
surfaces are clean and no contaminants are present after pretreatment.
If the size of the bare spot or total surface area causes rejection, the
parts may be stripped, regalvanized, and then re-inspected for
compliance to the standards and specifications.
Clogged Threads
Figure 28: Clogged Threads
Delamination
Delamination or peeling creates a rough coating on the steel where the
zinc has peeled off. There are a number of causes for zinc peeling.
Many large galvanized parts take a long time to cool in the air and form
zinc-iron layers after they have been removed from the galvanizing
kettle. This continued coating formation leaves behind a void between
the top two layers of thegalvanized coating. If there are many voids
formed, the top layer of zinc can separate from the rest of the coating
and peel off the part. If the remaining coating still meets the minimum
specification requirements, then the part is still acceptable. If the coating
does not meet the minimum specification requirements then the part
must be rejected and regalvanized. If delamination, as seen in Figure
29, occurs as a result of fabrication after galvanizing, such as blasting
before painting, then the galvanizer is not responsible for the defect.
Distortion
Figure 30: Distortion
Drainage Spikes
Figure 31: Drainage Spikes
Drainage spikes or drips are spikes or tear drops of zinc along the
bottom edges of the product. These result when the surfaces of the
product are processed horizontal to the galvanizing kettle, preventing
proper drainage of the zinc from the surface as the product is withdrawn
from the kettle. Drainage spikes, as seen in Figure 31, are typically
removed during the inspection stage by a buffing or grinding process.
Drainage spikes or drips are excess zinc and will not affect corrosion
protection, but are potentially dangerous for anyone who handles the
parts. These defects must be removed before the part can be accepted.
Dross Inclusions
Figure 32: Dross Inclusions
Excess
Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath
Figure 33: Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath
Fish Boning
Figure 34: Fish Boning
Fish boning is an irregular pattern over the entire surface of the steel
part. This is caused by differences in the surface chemistry of a large
diameter steel piece and variations in the reaction rate between the steel
and zinc. These reaction differences cause the thickness of the
galvanized coating to vary in sharply defined zones across the surface.
Fish boning, as seen inFigure 34, has no effect on the corrosion
protection provided by the zinc coating and is not cause for rejection of
the hot-dip galvanized part.
Flaking
Figure 35: Micrograph of Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Figure 36: Flux Inclusion
Flux inclusion can be created by the failure of the flux to release during
the hot-dip galvanizing process. If this occurs, the galvanized coating will
not form under this flux spot. If the area is small enough, it must be
cleaned and repaired; otherwise, the part must be rejected. Flux spots
can increase if the flux is applied using the wet galvanizing method,
which is when the flux floats on the zinc bath surface. Flux deposits on
the interior of a hollow part, such as a pipe or tube, as seen in Figure 36,
cannot be repaired, thus the part must be rejected. Any flux spots or
deposits,picked up during withdrawal from the galvanizing kettle do not
warrant rejection if the underlying coating is not harmed, and the flux is
properly removed.
Oxide Lines
Figure 37: Oxide Lines
Oxide lines are light colored oxide film lines on the galvanized steel
surface. Oxide lines are caused when the product is not removed from
the galvanizing kettle at a constant rate. This may be due to the shape of
the product or the drainage conditions. Oxide lines, as seen in Figure 37,
will fade over time as the entire zinc surface oxidizes. They will have no
effect on the corrosion performance; only the initial appearance will be
affected. This condition is not a cause for rejection of the hot-dip
galvanized parts.
Products in
Contact
Figure 38: Products in Contact
Rough
Surface Condition
Figure 39: Rough Surface Condition
Runs
Figure 40: Runs
Runs are localized thick areas of zinc on the surface. Runs occur when
zinc freezes on the surface of the product during removal from the zinc
bath. This is more likely to occur on thinner sections with large surface
areas that cool quickly. In order to avoid runs, as seen in Figure 40,
adjustments of the dipping angles can be made, if possible, to alter the
drainage pattern to a more acceptable mode. If runs are unavoidable
and will interfere with the intended application, they can be buffed. Runs
are not cause for rejection.
Rust
Bleeding
Figure 41: Rust Bleeding
Rust bleeding appears as a brown or red stain that leaks from unsealed
joints after the product has been hot-dip galvanized. It is caused by pretreatment chemicals that penetrate an unsealed joint. During galvanizing
of the product, moisture boils off the trapped treatment chemicals leaving
anhydrous crystal residues in the joint. Over time, these crystal residues
absorb water from the atmosphere and attack the steel on both surfaces
of the joint, creating rust that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding, as
seen in Figure 41, can be avoided by seal welding the joint where
possible or by leaving a gap greater than 3/32 (2.4mm) wide in order to
allow solutions to escape and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip
galvanizing. If bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned up by washing the joint
after the crystals are hydrolyzed. Bleeding from unsealed joints is not the
responsibility of the galvanizers and is not cause for rejection.
Sand
Embedded in Casting
Figure 42: Sand Embedded in Casting
Striations
Figure 43: Striations
Surface
Contaminant
Figure 44: Surface Contaminents
Touch
Marks
Figure 45: Touch Marks
Weeping
Weld
Figure 46: Weeping Weld
Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded connections on the
steel. They are caused by entrapped cleaning solutions that penetrate
the incomplete weld. In order to avoid weeping welds for small
overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the edges of the overlapping
area. For larger overlapping areas, the area cannot be seal welded since
the volume expansion of air in the trapped area can cause explosions in
the galvanizing kettle. To avoid weeping welds in large overlapping
areas, the best plan is to provide a 3/32 (2.4mm) or larger gap between
the two pieces when welding them and let the zinc fill the gap between
the pieces. This will actually make a stronger joint when the process is
complete. Weeping welds, as seen in Figure 46, are not the
responsibility of the galvanizer and are not cause for rejection.
Welding
Spatter
Figure 48: Welding Spatter
Zinc
Skimmings
Figure 50: Zinc Skimming Inclusions
Zinc Splatter
Figure 51: Zinc Splatter
Zinc splatter is defined as splashes and flakes of zinc that loosely adhere to
the galvanized coating surface. Zinc splatter is created when moisture on
the surface of the galvanizing kettle causes liquid zinc to pop and splash
droplets onto the product. These splashes create flakes of zinc loosely
adherent to the galvanized surface. Zinc splatter, as seen in Figure 51, will
not affect the corrosion performance of the zinc coating and is not cause for
rejection. The splatter does not need to be cleaned off the zinc coating
surface, but can be if a consistent, smooth coating is required.
Adherence
Test
Figure 52: Stout Knife Test
Testing of the zinc coating adherence to the steel is achieved using a stout
knife. The steps used in this test are listed below and a photo of the test
being performed can be seen in Figure 52. The coating shall be deemed
not adherent if it flakes off and exposes the base metal in advance of the
knifepoint. The test is not an attempt to pare or whittle the zinc coating. If
the coating is adherent the knife should put a slight mark in the zinc metal
surface, but should not cause any delamination of the coating layers.
Adhesion Test with a Stout Knife
Bending Test
The hot-dip galvanized coating on a steel bar must withstand bending
without flaking or peeling when the bending test is preformed in accordance
with the specifications in ASTM A 143. There are various tests used to
assess the ductility of steel when subjected to bending. One test may
include the determination of the minimum radius or diameter required to
make a satisfactory bend. Another test may include the number of repeated
bends that the material can withstand without failure when it is bent through
a given angle and over a definite radius.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel
reinforcing bars bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated
to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified value in ASTM A
767/A 767M. However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters
tighter than the specified values if they are stress relieved at a temperature
of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch (25mm) of diameter.
Chromating Test
The specification to determine the presence of chromate on zinc surfaces
is ASTM B 201. This test involves placing drops of a lead acetate solution
on the surface of the product, waiting 5 seconds, and then blotting it gently.
If this solution creates a dark deposit or black stain, then there is
unpassivated zinc present. A clear result indicates the presence of a
chromate passivation coating.
Embrittlement Test
Sampling
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality
products because the inspection of the coating thickness for every piece of
material galvanized in a project would not be practical. ASTM A123/A123M
states for a unit of products whose surface area is equal to or less than 160
in (1032 cm), the entire surface of each test product constitutes a
specimen. In the case of a product containing more than one material
category or steel thickness range, that product will contain more than one
specimen. In addition, products with surface areas greater than 160 in
(1032 cm) are multi-specimen products. There are four important terms
used in the ASTM specifications and each is defined below.
Sampling Terms
products whose surface area is greater than 160 in (1032 cm), they are
subdivided into three continuous local sections with equivalent surface
areas, each of which constitutes a unique specimen. In the case of any
such local section containing more than one material category or steel
thickness range, that section will contain more than one specimen.
In Figure 54, the separation of a lot into a sample and individual specimen
is shown.
No. of Specimens
3 or less
All
4 to 500
501 to 1200
1201 to 3200
3201 to 10,000
13
10,001+
20
Magnetic Thickness:
Microscopy Method:
Repair
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the requirements of the
specification, it must be repaired or rejected along with the lot it represents.
When repair of the product is allowed by the specification or bare spots are
present, the galvanizer is responsible for the repair unless directed
otherwise by the purchaser. The specifications allow for some retesting of
products that represent lots or retesting after the lot has been sorted for
non-conformance. The coating thickness of the repaired area must match
the coating thickness of the surrounding area. However, if zinc-rich paint is
used for repair, the coating thickness must be 50% higher than the
surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking
tends to result when the paint coating is too thick. The maximum sizes for
allowable areas that can be repaired during in-plant production are defined
in the specifications as summarized below.
No area given
Repair Methods
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements of
ASTM A 780, which defines the acceptable materials and the required
procedures. Repairs are normally completed by the galvanizer before the
products are delivered, but under certain circumstances, the purchaser
may perform the repairs on their own. The touch-up and repair materials
are formulated to deliver an excellent color that matches either brightly
coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized
products. Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zincbased solder, zinc-rich paint, and zinc spray metallizing, and are explained
in the following sections.
Zinc-Based Solder
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be wire
brushed, lightly ground, or mildly blast cleaned. In addition, if wire brushing
or light blasting is inadequate, all weld flux and spatter must be removed by
mechanical methods. The cleaned area also needs be preheated to 600 F
(315 C) and wire brushed while heated. Pre-flux may also be necessary to
provide chemical cleaning of the bare spot. Finally, special care should be
given to insure that the surrounding galvanized coating is not overheated
and burned by the preheating.
Application
The soldering method is the most difficult of the three repair methods to
complete. A high level of caution must be taken while heating the bare spot
to prevent oxidizing the exposed steel or damaging the surrounding
galvanized coating. Solders are typically not economically suited for touchup of large areas because of the time involved in the process and because
heating of a large surface area to the same temperature is very difficult.
When the repair has been completed, the flux residue needs to be removed
by rinsing the surface with water or wiping with a damp cloth.
Zinc-Rich Paint
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be repaired shall be blast cleaned
to SSPC-SP10/NACE No.2 near white metal for immersion applications
and SSPC-SP11 near bare metal for less aggressive field conditions.
When blasting or power tool cleaning is not practical, hand tools may be
used to clean areas to be reconditioned. The blast cleaning must extend
into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.
Application
This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as
possible after preparation is completed and prior to the development of any
visible oxides. The spraying or brushing should be in an application of
multiple passes and must follow the paint manufacturers specific written
instructions. In addition, proper curing of the repaired area must occur
before the product is put through the final inspection process. This repair
can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the job site and is the
easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is required. Zinc-
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be blast
cleaned to SSPC-SP5/NACE No.1 near white metal and must be free of oil,
grease, weld flux residue, weld spatter and corrosion products. The blast
cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized
coating.
Application
Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be completed by skilled
workers and should take place within four hours after preparation or prior to
development of visible oxides. Spraying should also be done in horizontal
overlapping lines, which yield a uniform thickness more consistent than the
crosshatch technique. The zinc coating can be sealed with a thin coating of
low viscosity polyurethane, epoxy-phenolic, epoxy, or vinyl resin. The
details of the application sequence and procedures can be found in
ANSI/AWS C2.18-93. The application of zinc spray can be done either in
the galvanizers plant or at the job site. In addition, if high humidity
conditions exist during spraying, adhesion may be degraded.
Galvanizing Standards
There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip
galvanizing in order to produce a high-quality coating. The most commonly
used specifications design engineers and fabricators should become
familiar with in order to promote a high-quality coating and ensure their
steel design is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing are:
ASTM A 153/A 153M: Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (HotDip) on Iron and Hardware
Fasteners and small products that are centrifuged after galvanizing to
remove excess zinc
Types of Inspection
In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized
steel will be discussed. The various inspections are used to verify the
necessary specifications for the galvanized product are met. These
techniques for each test method are specified in ASTM A 123/A 123M, A
153/A 153M, or A 767/A 767M, depending upon the type of product being
inspected. The most common inspections, listed below, range from a
simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine
embrittlement or adhesion.
Additional Tests
Sampling