128

DOI: 10.1002/maco.201206626

Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

Local detailed inspection methods regarding reinforcement

corrosion of concrete structures
K. Reichling*, M. Raupach, J. Broomfield, J. Gulikers,
P. V. Nygaard, U. Schneck and G. Sergi
Full surface surveys which are likely to include e.g. a deterioration and potential
mapping as well as a cover depth survey, should be the base to identify critical
areas which are suspect to be suffering from reinforcement corrosion [1].
Localised assessment in these areas should give further information about
the type and extent of deterioration. It should include the determination of
the chloride profile beyond the cover depth, the depth of carbonation and
a direct visual assessment of the steel reinforcement by breaking away the
cover concrete at selected locations. Further valuable information may be
collected by determining the water content of the concrete or performing
corrosion rate measurements. Within this publication the essential methods
for local detailed inspections are discussed regarding the application and
interpretation of the results. An overview of the survey procedure is given
in ref. [2].

1 Introduction
Based on the recommended inspection strategy in ref. [2] local
inspections should always be carried out after the evaluation of a
full surface survey [1]. The aim of local inspections should be the
assessment of the type and extent of deterioration. Therefore
samples should be taken in critical and uncritical areas where the
focus should always be on the former. In ref. [2] a number of

K. Reichling, M. Raupach
Institute for Building Materials Research (ibac), RWTH Aachen
University, Schinkelstr. 3, 52062 Aachen (Germany)
E-mail: reichling@ibac.rwth-aachen.de
J. Broomfield
Consulting Corrosion Engineer, The Garage Loft, 30B Vine Road, East
Molesey, Surrey KT8 9LF (UK)
J. Gulikers
Research Department, Bouwdienst Rijkswaterstaat, P. O. Box 20.000,
3502 LA Utrecht (Netherlands)
P. V. Nygaard
EMPA Concrete/Construction Chemistry, Duebendorf, Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Du
bendorf (Switzerland)
U. Schneck
CITec GmbH, Dresdner Str. 42, 01156 Dresden OT Cossebaude
(Germany)
G. Sergi
Vector Corrosion Technologies, 17 Ribbesford Close, Halesowen, West
Midlands B632AR (UK)

2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

samples for different inspection methods are given as rough

reference values.
Regarding corrosion of steel in concrete the determination of
chloride concentration, carbonation depth, water content of the
concrete, loss of cross-section and the corrosion activity may
deliver valuable information about the corrosion condition of the
reinforcement. Recommendations of the corresponding methods
are given in the following sections.

2 Chloride concentration
2.1 General
The actual role of chlorides in corrosion of steel in concrete is
complex and still subject to research, but its effect is undisputed
and widespread. The chloride in the pore water within the
concrete de-stabilises the passive iron oxide film of the
reinforcement, allowing corrosion to proceed which is often
seen in actual practice.
The content of chlorides required to initiate corrosion is a
subject of much debate. It is dependent on many parameters such
as quality of concrete, porosity and void content, particularly at the
steel/concrete interface. It is also dependant e.g. on the chloride
binding capacity, pH and cement content, and is normally
expressed as mass percentage with respect to mass of cement of
the concrete. The likelihood of corrosion initiation of the steel
relates to the level of chloride concentration around the steel
in a probabilistic way with considerable scatter as expressed in
Fig. 1. The scatter is mainly due to the stochastic nature of the
influencing parameters mentioned above.

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Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

Local detailed inspection methods

Figure 1. Risk of steel corrosion with increasing chloride concentration

in uncarbonated concrete in the vicinity of the steel (schematic)

A proportion of the chloride in the concrete is combined with

the cement hydrates, the amount depending, e.g. on the
composition of the cement. In uncarbonated concrete these
chlorides remain essentially combined, mainly as chloroaluminates, and are then to a large extent unavailable for corrosion.
However, the reduction in alkalinity resulting from carbonation is
sufficient to destabilise the chloroaluminate compounds releasing chloride into the pore liquid. Thus, the combination of
carbonation and the presence of chloride can exacerbate the
corrosion risk relative to the effect of the individual factors.
2.2 Methodology
Chloride profiles may be determined by means of drill powder
samples or by drilling cores. Sampling can be done by drilling at
increasing depth ranges so that the concentration profile with
depth can be determined. As a minimum, depths of 530, 3055
and 5580 mm should be chosen for cover depths of over 35 mm
but shorter intervals and greater overall depths could be required
if greater accuracy is required or where cover depths are variable
or where a second layer of steel reinforcement at a higher cover
depth is expected. The drill powder samples may be taken by
using a drilling machine with a hollow driller and a system to
collect the powder samples (see Fig. 2).
Thus, chlorides are primarily located in the cement matrix,
the chloride concentration of a drilling sample depends from the
grain/cement ratio. To minimise this effect the amount of
bore holes depending from the diameter of the driller and the
maximum grain size of the concrete is recommended in ref. [3]
(see Table 1). The values are based on depth ranges of 10 mm.
Alternatively drilled cores may be extracted from the
structure which are thereupon divided into several slices in the
laboratory to obtain chloride profiles. During the drilling of a core
sample the use of water must be limited to minimise washing out
of chlorides. The powder samples must be transported in lockable
vessels or bags where the samples are protected against pollution.
The chemical analysis is typically carried out by potentiometric titration but also other methods may be used e.g. direct
potentiometry or photometry. Regarding the potentiometric
titration the samples must be dried and ground in advance. A
repeated determination is recommended.

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Figure 2. Drilling machine with an integrated system to collect the

powder samples

In order to determine the chloride content the powder

sample is typically digested with nitric acid to dissolve all
chlorides. Furthermore ions (e.g. carbonates, sulphides) are
eliminated which would influence the chemical analysis. The
solids are filtered out and the chloride containing solution is used
for the analysis. Silver nitrate solution with a known concentration is added computer controlled and drop by drop to the
digested solution. The potentiometric titration is based on the
formation of precipitated silver chlorides, as chloride ions react
with silver ions. The amount of silver nitrate solution needed to
bind all chlorides can be determined by measuring the potential
of an ion selective electrode. Based on the content of silver ions
the total chloride content can be determined by stoichiometric
calculations.
The procedures for chloride testing and analysis are detailed
in EN 14629 [4].
2.3 Interpretation
The risk of reinforcement corrosion may be evaluated by
considering the chloride concentration at the steel surface. This
may be done by comparing the concrete cover depth with the
chloride profiles (see Fig. 3). In ref. [2] an amount of chloride
Table 1. Amount of drilling holes according to ref. [3]

Maximum grain
size (mm)

8
16
32

Amount of drilling holes depending

on the diameter (mm)
20

26

32

40

1
2
5

1
1
3

1
1
2

1
1
1

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Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

essential) for the actual locations for chloride sampling to be at the

points chosen for potential readings.

3 Carbonation depths
3.1 General

Figure 3. Example of a chloride profile in the area of a tidal range

profiles is recommended for inspection purposes. The chloride

concentrations are evaluated in weight-% relative to cement. The
values from chemical analyses are typically given in weight-%
relative to concrete. If the cement content of the concrete is
unknown a factor of 78 may be used for estimation purposes. A
general critical threshold value of the chloride concentration does
not exist (see Fig. 1). Following a conservative approach at 0.4
0.6 weight-% chlorides relative to cement an expert should be
consulted. The chloride thresholds are currently discussed
extensively e.g. in ref. [5]. BRE Digest 444 [6] includes a
comprehensive table as well as a cloud data graph of chloride
concentration versus risk based on field data. Nevertheless the
assumption regarding the corrosion risk should always be
verified based on local visual examinations of the reinforcement
by inspection openings.
Figure 3 shows an exemplary chloride profile taken from the
area in the tidal range of a concrete structure. The higher amount
of chlorides should be found at the surface otherwise a washing
out of the chlorides could have been taken place or surface near
delaminations could exist.
The chloride analyses should primarily be carried out in
critical areas. However a good chloride survey should also include
locations where an intermediate risk and no risk of corrosion (i.e.
at the most noble potential areas) is apparent from the potential
maps. Chloride analysis should be a tool for determining with
reasonable accuracy the level of risk of corrosion of the steel
reinforcement. As the chloride analysis results are to be related to
the potential values of the steel, it is reasonable (although not

Carbonation is the neutralisation of the alkaline concrete by

gaseous carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. When the
carbonation front reaches the depth of the steel reinforcement,
the passive oxide film formed in the alkaline environment is no
longer stable and general corrosion of the steel can occur in the
presence of moisture. By the determination of carbonation depths
the risk for reinforcement depassivation can be investigated. By
means of the square root law the future ingress of the carbonation
front can be estimated.
3.2 Methodology
The depth of carbonation can easily be determined by spraying a
phenolphthalein solution on a freshly broken surface of the
concrete. Alkaline concrete results in a pink colouration (pH 9,410,0) which clearly differentiates it from the colourless
carbonated area (see Fig. 4).
The measurement of carbonation depth has been standardised by CEN in EN 14630:2007-01 [7]. The Concrete Society report
[8] is similar to the CEN standard. BRE Digest 405 [9] specifically
discusses carbonation and its measurement in Portland cement
concrete. BRE Digest 444 Part II [6] and BRE IP 11/98 [10] discuss
measurement in high alumina cement concrete.
The use of phenolphthalein can be harmful to health and
should be used with care and according to the standards.
3.3 Interpretation
By means of a combined assessment of the carbonation depth and
the concrete cover depths it can be evaluated if the reinforcement
is depassivated and, if the concrete resistivity is low enough,
corrosion could occur. Each area with a critical exposure must be
inspected individually. Structures with intermitting wet/dry
cycles (e.g. facades) are at particular risk.

Figure 4. Carbonation of steel determined by phenolphthalein solution applied to freshly exposed concrete

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Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

Local detailed inspection methods

4 Water content of the concrete

4.1 General
In this chapter an additional method is presented which may
provide useful information about the concrete. The water
content of the concrete has a significant influence on potential
measurement results and on possible corrosion activity of the
reinforcement. It may vary even across smaller areas. For a correct
interpretation of potential measurement readings and other data,
the water content should be considered with the same importance
as carbonation depths and chloride concentration when running
a corrosion survey.
4.2 Methodology
A quite easy and effective way to obtain concrete humidity values
is to dry powder samples taken for chloride analysis. This gives
the opportunity to obtain chloride and water content from the
same sampling location and provides useful information about
both chloride and water content depth profiles and helps to
understand the related non-destructive data readings (potential
values, surface resistivity).
Figure 5 shows how powder samples can be stored in glass
tubes for keeping the sample moisture. Of course, the weight of
the tubes should be measured and documented before going on
site. The question whether the heat caused by drilling would
distort the data can be denied by long term experience: certainly
there is some loss of water due to drilling, but this is minor
compared to the humidity contained in the powder samples.
Usually it takes 2436 h to dry the samples with about 15 g of
powder in the glass tubes down to a constant mass at a
temperature of 105 8C.
This humidity data are conveniently to obtain, because the
powder samples have to be dried anyway before dissolving them
for analysis.
4.3 Interpretation
Negative rest potential locations of a concrete surface may
wrongly be qualified as being suspect of reinforcement corrosion,
and rest potentials cannot be correlated with chloride concentra-

Figure 6. Corroded reinforcement sample

tions. This may be the case if the diffusion of oxygen is limited

due to a high water content of the concrete. The knowledge of the
latter parameter provides a sound understanding of the origin of
negative potential readings and the extent of the possible
corrosion problem.
In case of concrete slabs, areas showing very negative
potentials, uncritical chloride and humidity contents less than 3%
may indicate a corrosion problem on the opposite reinforcement
layer of the slab [11]. The information and interpretation is only
possible by knowing the humidity profile of the sampling
location. In many cases, the knowledge of the humidity profiles
helps to reduce the corrosion suspect areas by eliminating parts
from that list where the presence of wet concrete is the sole cause
of very negative potential readings. As a rough estimation, the
normal concrete water content ranges between 2 and 3%. Lower
contents indicate dry concrete, and higher contents wet
conditions.

5 Loss of cross-section of the steel

5.1 General
The determination of the loss of cross-section of the reinforcement (see Fig. 6) is absolutely essential if there is a risk for
corrosion. Based on this information the range of the critical
corrosion areas can be assessed and the load bearing capacity can
be revised.
At present, openings and visual inspections are currently the
only way to reliably determine the loss of cross-section of
reinforcement bars. According to the deterioration mechanism,
the critical areas are located by means of e.g. a potential map,
concrete cover depths, carbonation or chloride profiles.

5.2 Methodology

Figure 5. Powder sampling into glass tubes with known weight and a
cap to close the tubes tightly

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The concrete cover must be removed destructively until

approximately 1 cm behind the rebar to be able to investigate
the back side as well as the front side of the rebar. A small mirror
is a helpful tool for the inspection.
The size of the openings must be chosen in a way that the
relevant remaining cross-sections can be found. The concrete
cover is typically removed over a length of 2050 cm along a rebar.
If loss of cross-section is not detected within a critical appearing
area, an adjacent rebar should be investigated.
The rebar diameter is typically measured with a sliding
calliper at the point with the minimum residual diameter and
additionally in areas with no corrosion to determine the loss of
cross-section. The extent of the deterioration and the existence of

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cracks in the concrete cover should additionally be documented.

It is advisable to take photos before and after the concrete cover
has been removed.
5.3 Interpretation
The positions of the openings should be chosen in a way that the
spatial extent of reinforcement corrosion can be assessed. The
areas of repair must be adapted to this information.
A structural engineer should be consulted if critical
remaining cross-sections are determined over a relevant area.

6 Corrosion activity
6.1 General
Corrosion rate measurements may be used as a supplement to
achieve a more detailed assessment of the corrosion condition of
the steel reinforcement. The probability of corrosion in a concrete
structure may first be mapped using the relatively fast half-cell
potential technique. In areas where the potential mapping
technique indicates an uncertain corrosion activity, corrosion rate
measurements could then be performed to estimate roughly the
actual corrosion activity. In the case of heterogeneously
distributed active areas, which is typically the case of chloride
induced corrosion, the accuracy of the method reaches the limits.
In this case the interpretation of the readings must be carried out
very carefully. As with the half-cell potential technique corrosion
rate measurements do also not allow for interpretation of the
corrosion history (cross-section reduction) or future corrosion
conditions only a rough estimation of the corrosion rate at the
time of the measurement is obtained.
Despite the widespread and increasing use of corrosion rate
measurements for condition assessment of reinforced concrete
structures technical recommendations have so far only been
published; no standard describing the procedure to be followed or
guidelines for interpretation of measurements exist.
The techniques and methodologies described in the
following section are all based on the polarisation resistance
technique. All are considered suitable for on-site corrosion
measurements on (primarily carbonated) reinforced concrete
structures. More advanced techniques suitable for use in
laboratories on well defined systems exist but are not included.
Taking readings takes time, so that these techniques are not
suitable for full surface assessments.
6.2 Methodology
The corrosion activity may be expressed in three different ways:
(i) Thickness or cross-section reduction over time
(ii) Weight loss per unit area over time
(iii) Corrosion current density.
Of those, thickness or cross-section reduction is of largest
relevance for practical engineering, e.g. for estimation of the
residual service life or load bearing capacity of a reinforced

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Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

concrete structure. Weight loss per unit area over time has
previously been used within the field of corrosion testing, i.e. for
gravimetric measurements as described in e.g. ASTM G 1-03 [12].
Within the field of non-destructive electrochemical measurements, the corrosion rate is often expressed by the corrosion
current density, icorr, which corresponds to the amount of metal
ions that leave the metal substrate, i.e. reinforcement, given as an
electrical current, per unit area and time. RILEM TC 154-EMC
[13] published a detailed explanation of the method, thus the
theoretical background will be explained shortly in the following
section.
The relation between thickness reduction over time, ds/dt
and corrosion current density, icorr, is given by Faradays law
ds icorr M

cm=s

dt
zFr

or

Ds
icorr M
3268
mm=year

Dt
zr

(1)

where icorr is given in A/cm2, z the number of ionic charges (z 2

for Fe), M the molecular weight (M 56 g/mol for Fe), F the
Faraday constant (F 96 480 C/mol) and r is the specific density
of the metal (r 7.85 g/cm3 for Fe). The corrosion current
density, icorr, is most often expressed in mA/cm2. Thus, a
corrosion current density of 1 mA/cm2 corresponds to a thickness
reduction of 11.5 mm/year.
Nearly all non-destructive electrochemical techniques for
measuring the corrosion rate rely on the empirical relation
between corrosion rate and polarisation resistance, RP derived by
Stern and Geary (1957). The corrosion rate, expressed as the
corrosion current density, icorr, is determined by measuring the
polarisation resistance, RP, and using the SternGeary equation
given by
icorr

i
B h
mA=cm2
RP A

(2)

where B is a proportionality factor and A the polarised surface

area of the steel, i.e. the measurement area on the embedded
reinforcement. The proportionality factor B depends on the
anodic and cathodic Tafel slopes, ba and bc, respectively, and is
expressed by
B

ba bc
2:303ba bc

(3)

The value of B for steel in concrete has been investigated in a

number of experimental studies resulting in a wide range of
values being reported in the literature. However, for practical
measurements values of 26 and 52 mV are typically used for
actively corroding and passive steel, respectively. For on-site
corrosion rate measurements where the corrosion state of the
embedded reinforcement is unknown a constant B value of
26 mV is most often used for reasons of simplicity.
Several steady state and non-steady state (transient)
techniques for determining the polarisation resistance, RP, of
steel in concrete exist: galvanostatic, potentiostatic and potentiodynamic linear polarisation resistance techniques, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and galvanostatic potential transient

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Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

Figure 7. Measurement setup for determining the corrosion activity of

steel in concrete

techniques. Of the existing techniques only few have been

adopted in commercially available corrosion rate instruments.
Further information can be found e.g. in ref. [13].
In the case of galvanostatic pulse technique the measurement is carried out by using a three electrode setup according to
Fig. 7. The reinforcement serves as working electrode and is
connected to a potentiostat. At the concrete surface a ring-shaped
counter electrode and a reference electrode in the central point
are electrolytically contacted to the concrete. A galvanostatic pulse
is applied between the reinforcement and the counter electrode.
The resulting potential is recorded at a high frequency to resolve
the depolarisation.

Local detailed inspection methods

The polarisation resistance, RP, to be derived in order to

determine the corrosion rate, is defined as the slope of the
polarisation curve at the free corrosion potential, Ecorr, or
alternatively and more practice related as the ratio between
applied voltage, DE (shift in potential from Ecorr) and the step of
current, DI, when the steel is slightly polarised from the free
corrosion potential, Ecorr.
In Fig. 8 the potential response on top of an active
reinforcement bar embedded in wet concrete is shown. A
corresponding curve is given in Fig. 9 for a passive reinforcement
bar in dry concrete. It can be seen that the IR drop is significantly
influenced from the concrete resistivity. The polarisation/
depolarisation behaviour is controlled by the corrosion condition.
The potential response should ideally be measured at steady
state. However, from practice it is well known that the potential
response does not reach steady state even after very long
polarisation times and is therefore affected by the selected
measurement time.
6.3 Interpretation
As indicated above the determined polarisation resistance
should be related to a measurement area in order to calculate
the corrosion current density. Despite the apparent simplicity this
has proven to be the main difficulty when performing on-site
corrosion rate measurements. Instead of distributing uniformly
over the whole reinforcement surface area, the electrical signal
(voltage or current) applied by the measurement electrode placed
on the concrete surface, tends to spread laterally along the
reinforcement with increasing distance from the electrode. The
distance along the reinforcement over which the electrical signal

Figure 8. Exemplary galvanostatic pulse reading on top of an active reinforcement bar in wet concrete

Figure 9. Exemplary galvanostatic pulse reading on top of a passive reinforcement bar in dry concrete

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spreads out is primarily a function of the corrosion state of the

reinforcement and thus of the polarisation resistance to be
determined and the electrical resistivity of the concrete.
If the reinforcement is corroding at a fast rate the
polarisation resistance will be very low. In this case the applied
signal will only be distributed over a very small area, as the signal
follows the path of lowest resistance from the counter electrode
placed on the concrete surface to the embedded reinforcement.
On the other hand, if the reinforcement is passive and the
corresponding polarisation resistance is high the signal will
spread laterally over a much greater area of the reinforcement. As
a result, a calculation of the true polarisation resistance is
impossible when making corrosion rate measurements on real
size concrete structures due to the unknown polarised area, i.e.
measurement area. Only apparent polarisation resistances can be
determined by assuming or estimating the polarised length of
the reinforcement.
Through the years a number of approaches have been
suggested in the literature to solve this problem. Of these, the
current confinement technique has been adopted in commercial
instruments for on-site corrosion rate measurements. This
technique relies on the use of a so-called guard ring, i.e. an
additional counter electrode placed concentrically around the
primary counter electrode which in principle should control the
distribution of the electrical signal from the electrode assembly
on the concrete surface to the embedded reinforcement and
thus the polarised surface area, i.e. the measurement area on the
reinforcement should be determined. However, ideal current
confinement has never been clearly proven. In cases of
extensive corroding areas, e.g. carbonation induced corrosion,
these techniques may deliver valuable results. In case of chloride
induced corrosion, where localised corroding areas are typical,
the readings should be assessed with care.
The corrosion rates are strictly just valid for the time of
measurement and provide no information about the corrosion
behaviour under changed conditions. The methods should only
be applied and interpreted by experienced users.

7 Conclusions
Local detailed analyses are essential to underpin the assessment
results of a full surface survey. For reinforcement corrosion the
following tests are recommended to evaluate the extent and type
of deterioration:
(i) Determination of chloride profiles and water contents and
comparison with concrete cover depth readings from full
surface surveys

Materials and Corrosion 2013, 64, No. 2

(ii) Determination of carbonation depths and comparison

with concrete cover depth readings from full surface
surveys
(iii) Determination of the loss of cross-section of the steel
(iv) Evaluation of the corrosion activity.

8 References
[1] K. Reichling, M. Raupach, J. Broomfield, J. Gulikers,
V. LHostis, S. Kessler, K. Osterminski, I. Pepenar,
U. Schneck, G. Sergi, G. Tache, Mater. Corros. 2013, 64,
116.
[2] M. Raupach, K. Reichling, J. Broomfield, J. Gulikers,
U. Schneck, M. Serdar, Mater. Corros. 2013, 64, 111.
[3] R. Springenschmid, Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Ausschusses
fur Stahlbeton, Beuth Verlag, Berlin 1989, Nr. 401, S. 7-43.
[4] EN 14629:2007, Products and Systems for the Protection and
Repair of Concrete Structures Test Methods Determination of
Chloride Content in Hardened Concrete 2007.
[5] ACI 222R-01, Protection of Metal in Concrete Against Corrosion, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI
2010.
[6] BRE Digest 444, Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Part 2
Investigation and assessment, Building Research Establishment, Garston, UK, Publ CRC Ltd., London 2000.
[7] EN 14630:2007-01, Products and Systems for the Protection
and Repair of Concrete Structures Test Methods
Determination of Carbonation Depth in Hardened Concrete
by the Phenolphthalein Method 2007.
[8] Concrete Society Technical Report 60, Electrochemical Tests for
Reinforced Concrete A Joint Concrete Society/Institute of
Corrosion Report, Publ. The Concrete Society, Camberley,
Surrey 2004.
[9] BRE Digest Nr. 405, Carbonation of Concrete and Its Effects
on Durability, Garston Watford: Building Research Establishment, BRE, Digest Nr. 405, May 1995.
[10] BRE Information Paper IP 11/98, Assessing Carbonation
Depth in Ageing High Alumina Cement Concrete, Building Research Establishment, Garston, UK, Publ CRC Ltd.,
London 1998.
[11] U. Schneck, H. Grunzig, T. Winkler, S. Mucke, Proc. 1st
Concrete Solutions Conference, St. Malo 2003.
[12] ASTM G 1-03, Standard Practice for Preparing, Cleaning,
and Evaluating Corrosion Test Specimens 2011.
[13] RILEM TC 154-EMC, C. Andrade, C. Alonso, J. Gulikers,
R. Polder, R. Cigna, O. Vennesland, M. Salta, A. Raharinaivo,
B. Elsener, Mater. Struct. (RILEM) 2004, 37(273), 623.
(Received: April 12, 2012)
(Accepted: May 22, 2012)

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