INTRODUCTION

Research in education and in social sciences has become basic requirement of

any academic programme at any level. The days are gone when it was offered
optional against any subject or subjects. The recent trend in research
development is towards skill-orientation than knowledge orientation, towards
more on application of the skill than mere interpretation of theory. This book is
hoped to provide both knowledge and skill to our students and research
workers and also develop their critical attitude towards understanding and
seeking solution of educational and social problems. The purpose of writing of
this book is to enable our students to become "good researchers" and for
becoming "good researchers" they need to acquire both knowledge and skill in
the fields they are expected to work and produce significant results.
Good books in educational and social research have been produced and are
available only in libraries of elite institutions to which access of every student
and a faculty member is difficult if not possible. Moreover, such books have
been written in the specific ideological, social, economic and educational
situations of their own countries. Dealing with our own specific situation in
research matters, will need extra efforts. Such consideration has been taken in
view while making this humble attempt.
Two broad fields as observed from the title of this book education and social
sciences have been integrated in this document with specific objective of
meeting the knowledge and skill needs of educational as well as of social
sciences research. It will not be an unnatural discussion, because the basic

concepts in education and in social sciences are common and are interlinked so
far as the goals and ideals of a particular society or a community is concerned.
Educational research aims at to develop new scientific tools, techniques,
concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behaviour in teaching-learning situation in the school or in the classroom, while
the social research aims at to develop new scientific, tools, techniques and
theories which would facilitate reliable, and valid study of human behaviour in
the street i.e. society or social life. Social research like educational research
adopts a systematic method of explaining, analyzing and conceptualizing social
life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge. Basically there is no
difference in the concept, approach and in the spirit of these two approaches.
The difference is if any, may be relating to the situation i.e. inside the
classroom and outside the classroom. If an educational researcher seeks to find
explanation to an unsolved educational problem, the social worker strives to
find out explanation to an unexplained social problem in the society. The
educational ideals are inspired by the ideals of the society for the achievement
of which institutions are established and these institutions are influenced by
social, cultural values and differences of the society. So, there is no 'dichotomy'
in education and social sciences. They are infact. two sides of the same coin.
Mahatma Gandhi once rightly said, "School is the replica of society" Schools
are established for preservation and promotion of ideological, social, cultural,
and also economic and political ideals of the society. Therefore, the mutual
discussion on educational and social problems and seeking their solution
through scientific methods will not be out of place for which the writing of this
book has been attempted.

The content of the book spreads over thirteen units, which are briefly stated:
Unit-1:

This unit describes the concept of educational and social

research. Important issues like the need and importance of
research,

areas

of

educational

and

social

research,

interrelationship of educational and social research, educational

and social research defined by educationists and social scientists.
Unit-2:

This unit focuses on the concept of "social reality", the

characteristics of physical and social phenomena, the problems
and complexities in social reality, which may have serious
implications for research. What challenges are faced by social
and educational researchers, have also been pointed in this unit.

Unit-3:

This unit is mostly concerned with scientific method,

characteristics of scientific research and research process,
comparison of qualitative and quantitative approaches in
research. Various stages of research process have been stated in
detail in this unit.

Unit-4:

This unit describes the classification of research by purpose. Four

kinds of research, basic, applied, action and evaluation research
have been discussed in this unit.

Unit-5:

This unit is devoted to a wide and exclusive discussion on

hypotheses, definitions, importance, characteristics, types and
examples of formulating, testing hypotheses.

Unit-6:

This unit relates to critical discussion on "historical research".

Scope and method of historical research, sources, their selection,

formulation

of

historical

problems,

historical

criticism,

weaknesses identified and difficulties encountered by researchers,

the nature of historical hypotheses and the manner a historical
research report is presented, have been described in this unit.
Unit-7:

This unit explains the nature and scope of "descriptive research".

The concept of descriptive research, types of descriptive research,
comparison between social surveys and social research, kinds of
survey studies with reference to educational problems, ex-post
facto or causal comparative studies, correlation studies,
developmental studies, growth studies, trend studies, case studies
and statistical method of educational and social research etc have
been described in this unit.

Unit-8:

This unit concentrates on another important type of research that

is "experimental research". The concept of experiment and of
experimental research, experimental process, components of
experiment, variables, techniques of controlling extraneous
variables, and types of experimental validity etc have been
discussed in this unit.

Unit-9:

This unit highlights various "experimental designs. Ten

experimental designs from simple to complex have been
described which are mostly relevant to be applied in experimental
studies.

Unit-10:

This unit focuses on the nature and use of various tools of

research. The popular types of tools used in educational and

social research like sampling, questionnaire, interview schedule,

observation and tests etc have been described in this unit.
Unit-11:

This unit is devoted to discussion on preparation of "research

plan or proposal". Its need and importance major components of
the proposal, various steps taken in formulation of the plan, have
been discussed.

Unit-12:

This unit reflects the general nature of the research report, chapter
wise content of the research report, other characteristics relating
to the presentation of the research report in appropriate manner,
have been described in this unit.

Unit-13:

This unit is exclusively devoted to highlight the important but the

critical issues relating to the organization of the content of the
thesis and dissertation. The discussion is divided into four
sections. All these sections explain the pros and cons' of writing a
thesis in a more applied and skillful manner. The main purpose of
writing of this unit is to develop knowledge, and skill in our
students of writing a research report which observing all the
required standard formalities. Important examples have been
given in the form of Appendices at the end of this book. These
include specimens of preliminary pages and research proposals or
synopsis for our perspective researchers.

As the writer is associated with Allama Iqbal Open University for supervising
its M.Phil and Ph.D students for a long time, the material support extended to

the writer for this purpose, has greatly facilitated to enrich the content of this
book, for which the writer is highly indebted.
The important feature of this book is that it is written according to the courses
in research techniques, offered almost in all departments of Arts and Social
Sciences. More particularly the contents are related to the courses in research in
vogue in the Institute of Education and Research, Sociology and Anthropology
Department, University of Peshawar who have kindly collaborated in the
provision of material for the preparation of this book.
Time and resources were constraints facing the writer. Selection of content
appropriate to the subject was an other problem. Consequently, large margins
have been left for improvement of this document in future. Therefore, readers
are requested to kindly examine the book critically, identify weaknesses and
forward valuable suggestions for improvement and revision of the book so that
it could be reproduced in a more meaningful and acceptable manner in future.
The writing of this book is mainly attributed to the encouragement and
assistance of the writers colleagues and friends Prof. Arbab Khan Afridi, M.
Arshad Ali, Mohammad Rauf IER and Dr. Rashid Khan, Sociology and Social
Anthropology Department, University of Peshawar.

UNIT-1:
THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL
RESEARCH
1.1 THE NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is a purposeful activity. It creates new knowledge and expands the
frontier of the existing knowledge. If research adds to the existing knowledge,
it is done in an orderly and systematic manner. It is tested, validated and
generalized and utilized when need arises.
Research and progress are correlated, interrelated and interdependent. Research
is an essential tool in leading man towards progress and prosperity. Research
infact,

has

stimulated

socio-economic,

scientific

and

technological

development in the world over. Information Technology (IT) once benefited by

research, is now revolutionizing and innovating research activities. Research
and development (R&D) are now synonymously used by the policy makers and
planners particularly in developing countries like Pakistan. Even the secret of
our cultural development lies in the promotion of research, which breaks away
the boundaries of ignorance and superstition and open avenues of enlightment,
truth and better ways of life. The "blessings" of research are evident in the form
of countless discoveries and inventions, which have dramatically changed our
individual and social life. If the goal of research is progress and prosperity,
happier and fuller life, then it must be accorded top priority in the national
plans of development and must be adequately supported by `political will' and
liberal financial resources. The discriminatory policy as has been pursued

between basic sciences research and social sciences research, should be given
up. 'Human development' as a human being is more important than the
development of physical infrastructure.
1.2 AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
Education system in our country is beset with multifarious problems and issues.
These problems are diverse, social, political, ideological, economic,
geographical and demographic which need clarification of their objectives,
their goals and their relevance to life and to evolve a realistic and workable
strategies for their solution. The system is particularly plagued with specific
issues like low enrolment of school age children, particularly of girl child, high
dropouts, repetition and failure of children at lower level, unattractive school
environment, unprepared teachers, lack of instructional materials and basic
amenities, ineffective supervision, and defective evaluation system and
inefficient management. These are such problems which need an objective and
purposeful investigation and immediate action for improvement of the
situation.
Other areas of educational research are to bring about qualitative improvement
along with quantitative expansion at any level such as modernization of
curriculum, innovation of teaching strategies, consolidation of higher
educational institutions and research organizations, rationalization of physical
and financial resources, development of human resources and vocationalization
of education at elementary and secondary levels. These are such problems,
which arrest the attention of any person concerned with development of
education. These problems cannot to be solved through assumptions, but

through intensive, rigorous, systematic scientific approach to be adopted by

competent researchers.
Quite earlier in the First International Conference on Education and Research
1956, the role and the importance of research has been highlighted in the
following words.
"Every one has the right to education. Education shall be free at least at the
elementary and foundational stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and
higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
To realize these goals the nations of the world will have greatly to expand their
educational efforts, more facilities must be provided, more teachers must be
trained, new curricula must be developed and more teaching materials must be
provided. It is inconceivable that this can be done efficiently or intended that it
can be done at all without detailed guidance from the "facts" collected and the
"principles" established through educational research" (UNESCO Paris 1956
p.16)
From the above quotation, it is revealed that through systematic research in
education we can solve these problems and avoid failures and frustrations in
future.
Like education, what are social issues to be addressed in social research by the
social scientists is a relevant question to be answered. Like education, our
society too is groaning under the burden of social problems. These problems
are not only damaging the very fabric of our society but also sometimes lead it
to the point of no return. Problems and issues relating to social disintegration,

cultural

disharmony,

social

injustice,

inequality,

insecurity,

gender

discrimination and exploitation, violation of human rights, child labour, drug

addiction,

crimes,

rapid

urbanization

and

the

problems

of

slums,

unemployment, ignorance and diseases, and the new phenomena of terrorism

etc have arrested the attention of every individual and have also become serious
concerns of the government. Such problems are complex, diverse and unlimited
which need deep insight, wide horizon, realistic approach and equitable
solutions.
1.3

INTER RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATIONAL AND

SOCIAL RESEARCH

Research is a scientific activity, which is directed towards the development of a

science of behaviour in the educational situation as well as in social setting and
developing a scientific attitude towards the solution of respective problems.
Basically, there is no difference in the concept, approach and in the spirit of
educational and social research. If there is any difference, it is in the context.
The educational researcher is interested in the problem of children in the
classroom while a social researcher is more concerned with the problems, of
children facing to them in the street outside the classroom. `Classroom' cannot
be isolated from the home or street. Research studies in both cases, are
generally empirical, employing systematic methods of exploring actual
persons, groups and to understand and classify the behaviour of man and the
social environment in which he lives. Moreover, if an educational researcher
aims at to development scientific tools, concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour in teaching-learning
situation, the social researcher also aims at to develop new scientific tools,

concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behaviour in the society or in social life. Social researcher like an educational
researcher adopts a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and
conceptualizing a social phenomenon in order to extend, correct, or verify the
knowledge, so obtained.
In short, educational ideals are inspired by the ideals of society. Teachinglearning situation cannot be isolated from the sociocultural environment of
children. Schools serve the society and schools exist for the society. Mahatma
Gandhi once rightly said "school is the replica of the society". Socio-cultural
difference in children have serious implications for teaching-learning situation
in the classroom.
To make the concept of interrelationship of educational and social research
more clear, some problems of common nature are listed which are of equal
concern for educationists, working teachers and for social workers.
Problems like social adjustment, individual differences, social stratification,
delinquency, handicapped,

conflicts, insecurity, tension,

heterogeneity,

demographic pressure, financial constraints illiteracy, child exploitation, rural

women, rural transformation, migration, urbanization, broken homes, economic
dependency, maladjustment, distortion of values, disintegration, lack or
absence of cultural harmony, media impact, students unrest, student
indiscipline, unproductive and aimless education, educated and uneducated
unemployment and poverty which is the mother of all evils, are commonly
addressed by educational researchers as well as by social researchers. What is
needed at such moments are concerted and sustained efforts and ideal

coordination between the educational and social research experts and in their
activities.
Research is therefore, to be considered in the area of education as well as of
social sciences, a more formal, systematic, purposeful and an intensive process
of carrying out scientific method of analysis of the problems and arriving at
dependable conclusion.
1.4

EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH DEFINED BY

EDUCATIONISTS AND SOCIAL SCIENTISTS

In the succeeding section various definitions of educational and social research

forwarded by experts have been briefly stated.
Infact, research irrespective of its nature as educational or social, is a very
broad and comprehensive concept, which cannot be defined by a single person.
Any definition, so framed, will be limited to its certain feature. However, these
definitions are valuable in their own place. They indicate the nature, purpose
and importance of research, its scientific spirit, and its ultimate objective of the
solution of a complicated problem.
All researchers, as reflected from their meaning of research, agree that
educational as well as social research involve application of the main principles
of scientific research to the solution of educational and social problems.
The definitions forwarded by educationists and social scientists are not
inclusive in individual case as observed earlier, they however indicate some
important features, which characterize the nature of research. By studying all
these definitions thoroughly, students would be able to arrive at themselves at
an inclusive and comprehensive statement out of diverse views of the experts

on the subject. They should therefore, formulate their own view, their own
concept and their own definition about research with the help of these
definitions.
Similarly, in the next unit, the main features or the main characteristics of
research have been briefly described.
Understanding of these characteristics is important because they enable the
student to differentiate the very concept, nature and scope of research from
other disciplines and they would be in a better position to understand what is
expected of the research in educational and social fields. After thoroughly
studying the characteristics, students would be able to answer these questions
in meaningful manner.

What is research?
What is the scope of research?
What is scientific method?
How is research related to scientific method?
How does research involve scientific process?
What are the elements of scientific research?

To arrive at a common package of common elements in these characteristics,

students will have to identify such common elements and to formulate them
into a comprehensive statement reflecting the multifarious dimensions of
educational and social research.
1.4.1
Educational Research Defined by
Educationists
As noted earlier, various definitions made by educationists and social scientists
are forwarded in this section.

a. According to Kabir Singh, Sindu (1987) research is an endless quest for

knowledge. It is an unending search for truth. It brings to light new
knowledge or correct previous errors and misconceptions and add in an
orderly way to the existing body of knowledge. The knowledge obtained
by search is scientific and objective and is a matter of rational
understanding, common verification and experience. He further says that
research is a deliberate effort to collect information to sift it, to analyze
it to put it together and to evaluate it. It works with a high degree of
organization, on a rather well defined problem and pursues it hopefully
to a successful conclusion. It is a careful search for solution to the
problems that plague and puzzle the main kind.
b. P.M. Cook is of the view that research is an honest exhaustive,
intelligent searching for facts and their meaning or implications with
references to a given problem. It is the process of arriving at dependable
solutions to problems through a planned and systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data. He further argues that research is that
which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so that it could provide
authentic information in which we have confidence.
c. John W. Best (1992) defines research as a more formal, systematic,
intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It
involves a more systematic structure of investigation usually resulting in
some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of outcome or
conclusion.
d. In the words of Crawford research is a systematic and refined technique
of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures in
order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be
possible under ordinary means.

e. Travers says that research is that activity which is directed towards

development of a science of behaviour in educational as well as social
institution. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge
that will permit the educator and social scientists to achieve their goals
by the most effective methods.
f. J. Francis Rummel defines research as an endeavour to discover,
develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has
developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in purpose and form
and always searching for truth.
g. According to Clifford Woody research is careful inquiry or examination
in seeking facts or principles, a diligent investigation to ascertain
something.
h. R. M. Hutchins maintains that research in the sense of development,
elaboration and refinement of principles together with collection and use
of empirical material to add these processes, is one of the highest
activities of a university and one in which all its professors should be
engaged.
i. Rusk says that research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a
frame of mind. It asks questions which have hither to not been asked and
it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure. It is not
a more theorizing, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them
once they have been assembled.
j. According to George G. Mouly research is a systematic and scholarly
application of the scientific method, interpreted in its broad sense to the
solution of educational and social problems.
k. W.S. Manrue defines research as a method of studying problems whose
solutions are to be derived partly on wholly from facts. The facts deal
with in search may be statements of opinions, historical facts, those

contained in record and reports, the results of tests, answers to

questionnaire, experimental data of any sort and so forth. The final
purpose of educational and social research is to ascertain principles and
develop procedures for use in the field of education and social sciences,
therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles and procedures.
The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not enough though it may
be preliminary. to it or even a part thereof.
l. Sukhia says that research has proved to be an essential and purposeful
tool in leading man towards progress. There would have been very little
purpose as one finds it to day without systematic research.
m. In view of Francis Bacon research is a power of suspending judgment
with patience of mediating with pleasures, of asserting with caution and
of correcting with readiness, and of arranging thought with scrupulous
pain.
n. According to W.M Zaki educational research may be defined as a
systematic attempt to gain better understanding of the educational
process generally with a view to improving its efficiency.
o. L.R. Gay (1992) defines research as a formal systematic application of
the scientific method to the study of problems. The goal of educational
research follows from the goals of all sciences namely to explain,
predict and or control educational phenomena.
p. McAshan views research as a careful, critical and exhaustive
investigation to discover new facts which will test hypotheses, revive
accepted conclusions or contribute positive values to society in general.
q. Van Dalen (1985) defines research as a scientific method of acquiring
knowledge.
r. Camel observers that research is the activity of collecting information in
an orderly and systematic fashion.

s. According to Entwistle educational research is a systematic attempt to

gain a better understanding of the educational process, generally with a
view to improving its efficiency. Research proceeds from step to step in
caution, systematic manner according to certain clearly defined rules,
using well-trained techniques and procedures.
1.4.2

Social Research Defined by Social Scientists

As indicated earlier, education and other social sciences cannot be kept in

watertight compartment. Their relevance is just attributed to the specific
situation, the classroom or the street. However, some specific definitions
forwarded by social scientists are recorded in this section.
a. According to P.Y. Young social research is the systematic method of
discovering the new facts or verifying the old facts, their sequences,
interrelationships, casual explanation and the natural laws, which govern
them.
b. Redmour Morey observes that social research is a systematic efforts to
gain new knowledge.
c. Stephenson views social research as manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct and verifying
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory
or in the practice of an art.
d. F.A Ogg says that research may or may not come to success, it may or
may not add anything to what it already known. It is sufficient that its
objective be new knowledge or at least a new mode or orientation of
knowledge.
e. According to Clifford Moody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, or suggested solutions,

collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and

making conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypotheses.
f. In view of Bernard Mchel research is perhaps the only assurance we
have that a discipline or a profession will not decay into meaningless
scraps of dogmatic utterances.
1.5 CONCLUSION
In short, research may be defined as scientific understanding which by means
of logical and systemized techniques aims at to discover new facts or verify
and test old facts, analyze their sequences, interrelationship and causal
explanation to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour and seeking the solution
of problems in social life.
Research means explaining the unknown. It must provide new knowledge and
that knowledge must be universally valid and its ultimate purpose should be to
create a general theory. Research is essentially an intellectual and creative
activity. It is directed towards the solution of a problem.
Research is not only confined to classroom or to a social institution but it is
closely related to the implementation of educational and social policies of the
government.

Research

provides

guidance

to

decision

makers-

and

administrators on how best to formulate and implement educational and social

policies and programmes. The emphasis of such research is not only so much
on highlighting the weaknesses of the system but also upon visualizing the
debate on educational and social policies and practices.

UNIT-2: THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL REALITY

In this section the concept of "social reality" in comparison with "physical
reality" is discussed.
2.1 UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL REALITY
We are living in two types of "realities" or phenomena i.e. physical reality or
physical phenomena and social reality or social phenomena. Both these
realities possess individualistic and unique characteristic. Physical phenomena
relates to `nature' and social phenomena focuses on 'man'. The concept of social
reality is also derived from the man's nature of life, the essence of which is
dynamism and progress. It has onward march and forward look, however,
influencing and being influenced by physical or natural factors and forces.
For better understanding of the concept of social reality, some questions need to
be answered.
a.
b.
c.
d.

What is social reality?

How does the social phenomena reflects this reality?
How is it different from physical phenomena or physical reality?
What problems a social scientist faces while interpreting this

phenomena?
e. Why is the job of social scientist more difficult in the field of research
than that of physical scientist?
f. What are the indications of disintegration in our society? And
g. What are the formidable challenges faced by social and educational
researchers?
The concept of social reality as indicated earlier, infact, attributed to the human
nature and human behaviour, which is highly complex and its physiological,

social and psychological elements are inextricably interwoven. The man, his
behaviour and his mode of life involve large number of "overriding variables"
and which are to be studied in entirety. This is a formidable challenge for a
social scientist.
The social phenomena or the social reality can better be understood in
comparison with physical or natural phenomena. Moreover, by comparing the
unique characteristics of physical and social sciences and more importantly by
comparing the problems and difficulties encountered by physical and social
scientists, the concept will be brought into more limelight.
In the first instance the nature and characteristics of physical phenomena or
physical sciences will be briefly stated so that a demarcation line between these
two phenomena could be clearly drawn.
2.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL
PHENOMENA/PHYSICAL SCIENCES

These characteristics are briefly stated.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Physical phenomena is stable

Physical phenomena is constant
Physical phenomena maintains definable and definite characteristics
Physical phenomena can be explained, predicted and controlled
The subject matter of physical sciences is simpler
Direct observation of the phenomena is not difficult
Physical phenomena is impersonal
The phenomena of physical sciences is highly uniform and recurrent
The subject matter of physical scientist is not influenced by the will and

human decision
j. The natural scientist can easily achieve detached and objective attitude
towards natural phenomena

These characteristics are unique to physical sciences. These are not only prerequisite for advancement of science but without these there would have been
no science.
2.3

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL REALITY OR

SOCIAL
PHENOMENA

As already observed natural phenomena and social phenomena are two

different concepts. The physical phenomena relates to physical world and the
social phenomena reflects the human world. The characteristics of physical
phenomena have been briefly stated in the preceding section, now important
features of social phenomena are briefly described so that the difference
between the two "realities" could be made clear and the nature of complexities
of social reality could be better comprehended.
a.

The Social Phenomena is not static

The social phenomena unlike physical phenomena is less static. It is dynamic.

It always undergoes rapid changes. The traits of human personality change
considerably as an individual reacts to certain kind of experience. Society may
enjoy relatively long era of peace and tranquility and then suddenly experience
upheaval, devastation, strifes and conflicts etc which not only destabilize but
tear into pieces the whole fabric of social life. The cases of Afghanistan and
Iraq are in point.
b.

The Impact of Science and Technology on Society

The Scientific and technological explosion or industrialization of the 20th

Century have not only drastically changed the physical aspect of the world but

have also altered the entire social, political and demographic patterns of life of
the people.
It has brought with it both "joys and sorrows" "Comforts and shocks" to human
life. Now a days the "Infonnation Technology" (IT) and media explosion
tightening their grips on the nerves, beliefs, thoughts and feelings even of the
common man. Urbanization, for example, has deserted the rural community.
They are becoming more poor and helpless, "Slum culture" has been developed
under the shadows of huge urban structures. The migrants have not only lost
their "hearts and hearths" of their ancestors but they have also lost their
customs, traditions and values of their rural society.
c.

Social Phenomena is Difficult to be Explained,

Predicted and Controlled

Social Phenomena is difficult to be explained, predicted and controlled, as

compared to physical phenomena. Though considerable improvement has been
brought about in social, political and economic fields of our country but still
there are crises like political instability, social disintegration, cultural
disharmony, economic stringency, demographic pressure, rising poverty, crimes
and other internal dangers and external compulsions. Such situation has been
posing serious challenges to social scientists and educationists.
d.

The Subject Matter of Social Scientist is Complex

The subject matter of the social scientist is very much complex and difficult to
explain. For example, the teaching-learning process is complex. The social
environment in the classroom is fluid. Individual difference are posing
problems to effective teaching for the teacher. The instances of maladjustment
of children in the classroom is a common phenomena. The situation when a

child is sitting in the last bench of the classroom "hand folded down with head"
cannot be easily explained by the teacher. If a teacher punishes a child, he
cannot explain his reaction. There is always human interaction between the
teacher and the taught, which is socially and emotionally oriented, and so many
social, cultural, physiological and psychological factors are involved in such
interaction.
As the social scientist, a psychologist or an educationist is concerned with man
as an individual and as a member of the group, they present a much more
complex situation. In short, understanding of social problems, involves a large
number of "overriding variables".
e.

Problems of Society are Complex and Multidimensional

The problems of society are complex and multi-dimensional and will have to
be studied in their totality. For example, if a social scientist investigates
problems like crime, poverty, or the state of terrorism, he will have to take into
considerations innumerable social, political, religious, cultural, geographical,
demographic, economics biological and psychological factors, all of which are
interrelated, and inseparable. The global influence will also be not out of place
in such analysis. In individual case how a social scientist will be able to explain
or interpret the human behaviour, the indication of which are motives, dreams,
anxieties, fears, preferences and so many others relating to his 'inner state' of
his personality or consciousness.

f.

Direct Observation is Difficult in the Study of Social

Problems

Direct observation for a physical scientist as already indicated is not difficult

but for a social scientist, it is very difficult. A physical scientist can repeat his
experiment but a historian cannot repeat an event for direct observation.
Various factors will be involved in the interpretation and observation of human
behaviour some of which have been indicated above.
g.

Social Phenomena is Personal

As observed earlier, a physical phenomenon is impersonal while social

phenomena is personal. It is humanized and it is emotionalized. Its subject
matter is influenced by human will, ideals, error and human decision. It is
constantly changing as a result of decision taken by the human being. We have
noticed that our political policies, our economic strategies and our social
priorities are constantly changing in view of the changing situation in the
country and the changes being taking place at global level. Infact, we have put
in the back burner our softy ideals of preserving and promoting ideology and
brining about social integration and cultural cohesion but always thinking in
terms of 'maintaining security' and acquiring `economic stability.
As man is a purposeful creature, therefore, he seeks certain desirable ends, he
possesses the capacity to make choices, which enable him to modify his
conduct and make adjustment to the changed environment. "Bullock Cart"
"Persian wheel" are rarely seen in the rural areas. They may be, however,
mentioned in the old textbooks of children. People as a society is fast moving
forward and making adjustment to the changed situation, however, with

"painful feelings" that such revolutionary changes have been brought about at
the cost of their "fine social, cultural tradition, values and ideals".
2.4

CHALLENGES FACED BY SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCHERS

Take the example of our education system in Pakistan. It has not been able so
far to develop a unified intellectual outlook and consistent system of ideals and
moral values. It is still lacking a unifying purpose and has been unable to
develop a sound social and personal philosophy. Such confusion is perhaps the
result of a wider and deeper confusion in our social, moral and intellectual
perspective. Such social crisis is growing from the so called the "modernization
of the society". The underlying factors of which are industrialization, amazing
advancement in science and technology, competitive environment, the grave
social, economic and regional disparities and the dilemmatic situation how to
cope with such emerging and powerful situation, we with our inherited beliefs
and habits are not fully prepared to accept, comprehend, control, and adjust to
such dramatically changed environment. The tragedy of the 20`11 Century was
the failure to solve these deep routed social problems, conflicts, and confusion,
which are still hovering over the horizon of present millennium.
Every student of education and social science feels the state of social
disintegration in our society. The common indicators are the loss of ethical and
intellectual

standards,

contradictions,

confusion,

conflicts,

suspicion,

disintegration in family life, loss of communication, flight from season,

personal disintegration, and more seriously the confusion and chaos of values
in the larger social order. It seems that not only our society but the entire world
is "intellectually muddled" and morally "bedeviled".

These are social realties. These are challenges to be faced boldly by an

educationists and social workers, and warrant to probe deep into these
problems and issues. Their approach like a physical scientist should be
scientific logical, purposeful, objective and systematic. A tremendous progress
has been made in the solution of social and educational problems through
scientific methods but in view of the gravity of the situation, more
sophisticated methods are needed to be applied. The educational and social
scientists are expected to attack the human problems with renewed energy and
with strong "will and commitment". In view of the changing situation we
urgently need dedicated educationists, psychologists, sociologists, economists
and social workers to extend such kind of service to the mankind.

UNIT-3:
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, CHARACTERISTIC
OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, AND REARCH
PROCESS
In the previous section the concept of social reality has been discussed. This
section is devoted to discussion on scientific method, characteristic of scientific
research, comparison of qualitative and quantitative approach in research, and
research process.
3.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3.1.1

Assumptions and Postulates

The scientific method has been evolved out of strenuous efforts by scientists
for the solution of problems. There are assumption on which the conceptual
framework of scientific method is based. These assumptions directly, influence
researcher's activity. They form the basis for his procedures, influence the
methods of executing them and affect the interpretation of his findings. For
example, there is uniformity in the nature, the nature is not a chaotic mass of
isolated factors. In nature, there are objects, events, processes and having
stricking likeness or similarities. There is relative permanency and orderliness
in nature and that all natural phenomena are detennined. All these assumptions
have facilitated the work of a scientist and are playing indispensable role in
research.

3.1.2

Scientific Method

Gone are the days when people acquired knowledge by 'trial and error' method
and when authority, traditions, opinions of scholars and of experts, deductive
and inductive reasoning were the main source of acquiring knowledge. Now
the modem method of acquiring knowledge is based on observed facts and on
the combination of inductive and deductive thought process.
In scientific method, purposeful facts are collected, premises are tested and
reflective thinking are engaged. According to John Dewey five stages are
involved in the act of problem solving.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

A felt difficulty
Location and definition of the felt difficulty
Suggested solution of the problem/hypothesis
Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the suggested solutions
Testing the hypotheses by action

The scientific method of reflective thinking is a tool that investigators use to

solve diverse types of problems. For example, a pure research worker will try
to find out new knowledge about the mysteries of the universe. An applied
researcher will seek to develop a new product that can immediately improve
some existing condition. A classroom teacher will intend to solve certain
practical problem through undertaking action research.
Man had made tremendous progress in developing better methods of seeking
knowledge down through the ages and thus revolutionary advances have been
made by scientists in the past century. The tentative solutions to problems
forwarded by scientific method are accepted with greater confidence. Scientific
method is a purposeful and practical "torchlight for men to use in lighting the
way to the discovery of new truth".

3.1.3
Application of Scientific Method in Education
and Other Social Sciences
As already stated research is a formal, systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of the problems. Educational and social research is thus a
formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of
educational and social problems. However, there are differences between
educational and social research and other scientific research. The difference is
of the phenomena studied. It is considerably more difficult to explain, predict
and control situations involving human beings as the most complex of all
organisms. There are so many variables known and unknown operating in any
educational or social environment that is extremely difficult to generalize or to
replicate findings. The kinds of controls that can be established and maintained
for example in a biochemistry laboratory are virtually impossible in an
educational or social setting. Observation is also more difficult in educational
and social research. Perhaps it is precisely the difficulty and complexity of
educational and social research that make them such a challenging and exciting
fields.
The main steps involved in conducting research look familiar since they are
directly parallel those of the scientific method such as there are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Selection and definition of a problem

Execution of a research procedure
Analysis of data and
Drawing and stating conclusion

3.1.4

Limitations of Scientific Method

There are certain limitations in scientific method, which are briefly stated.

a. Despite the improvements man has made in searching for knowledge, he

has not yet arrived at a perfect method for seeking answers to his
questions. Authority, experience, inductive and deductive reasoning
have certain limitations as research tools. The scientific method has
proved to be specially useful means of seeking knowledge in the method
of sciences and it has also been helpful to educators and social workers
to probe into problems but a scientific method is not suitable instrument
for seeking answers to certain type of questions. James B. Conant once
declared, "Only an occasional brave man will be found now a days to
claim that the so called scientific method is applicable to the solution of
almost all the problems of daily life in the modern world".
b. Authorities have not reached a common agreement concerning the
breadth of the applicability of the scientific method.
c. Some critics contend that scientific method cannot be used except in the
natural sciences. Other question whether the scientific method follows a
simple method of investigation. They believe that no right set of logical
rules can be established for physical scientist, psychologists and
educationists and historians to follow in their respective investigations.
Some critics argue that since science differs from one another, each
science requires a different method.
Controversy exists concerning the nature and use of the scientific method, but
most scholars regard this intellectual tools as one of the most promising
instruments that man possesses for pushing forward the frontier of human
understanding and increasing the accumulation of tested and verified
knowledge.

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Research is a scientific process. It enjoys all the characteristics of science and
scientific method. These characteristics can be derived from various definitions
described in the preceding section, however, these are stated separately in the
following lines.
a. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem. The ultimate
goal is to discover 'cause' and 'effect' relationship between variables.
b. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
c. Research is based upon observations, experiences or on empirical
evidence.
d. Research demands an accurate observation and description.
e. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources
or using existing data for a new purpose.
f. Research is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that
apply rigorous logical analysis.
g. Research requires expertise.
h. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems and
pushing back the frontiers of ignorance.
i. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. It is rarely
spectacular and researchers sometimes will face disappointment and
discouragement when they pursue the answers to difficult questions or
dealing with complicated situation.
j. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Each important point is
defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described in
detail, references are carefully documented, results are objectively
recorded and conclusions are drawn with scholarly caution and restraint.
k. Research requires courage and steadfastness.
l. Research involves the elements of observation and description and
analysis of what happens under certain circumstances.

m. Research places emphasis upon development of sound theories and

more upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrences.
n. Research is more than compiling, collecting and tabulating data. It
involves deducing the consequences of hypotheses through careful
observation and application of rigorous logic.
o. Research is about establishing facts. It is objective. It is scientific and it
is always policy oriented.
p. Research involves an analysis of the relationship between causes and
effects, which imply the possibilities of an empirical testing.
q. The research is highly purposive because it is directed towards the
solution of a problem; it originates from the researcher's need to find an
answer to a question.
r. The research is systematic in the sense that a researcher identifies and
defines the problem, formulates hypotheses, collects, analyzes and
interprets data and draws conclusion or makes generalizations.
s. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed, data collected and the conclusion
reached. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feelings and bias.
The emphasis is on testing matter rather than providing the hypotheses.
t. Research is a systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observation that may lead to the development of a
generalization, principles or theories resulting in prediction.
u. The basic characteristics shared by all types of research are that they are
to be planned, cautions, systematic and reliable ways of finding out the
solution of problems or deepening understanding of the phenomena
under investigation.

Summary or Key-Points
The characteristics of scientific research described, are summarized below.
A Scientific research is:

3.3

Highly purposive
Systematic
Critical, logical and objective
Accurate
Involving formulation and testing of hypotheses
Recording and reporting data in quantitative terms
Discovering general principles or arriving at generalization
Requiring expertise
Future and policy-oriented
A strenuous and pains taking job
Follows through carefully designed procedure
Discovering 'cause' and effect relationship
Directed towards the solution of a problem
It expands the frontiers of knowledge

COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

APPROACHES IN RESEARCH

As indicated at several instances that educational and social problems need

solution. For solution of such problems different methods or approaches are
adopted. A researcher must be aware of such methods or approaches. There are
different approaches such as qualitative, quantitative, field study, library,
experimental etc. In this section, only qualitative and quantitative methods or
approaches will be discussed. It is better to be comparatively described so that
their need, importance, nature and the manner researchers are conducted
through these modalities could be comprehended by research students.
Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research Approaches
Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Approach
a. Qualitative approaches involve the
collection of extensive narrative
data in order to gain insights into
phenomena of interest. The data
analysis includes the coding of the
data and production of a verbal
hypothesis.
b. Qualitative approach involves
primarily induction
c. If hypothesis are involved a
qualitative study is much more
likely to generate them
d. In qualitative approach there is no
such thing as value free inquiry
e. At operational level qualitative
researchers are more holistic and
process
f. Qualitative researchers typically
study many variables intensely
over a period of time in order to
find out the way things are, how
and why they come to be that way
and what it all
measure?
Qualitative researchers are more
concerned with the meaning of
their findings
g. Qualitative researchers do not want
to intervene or to control anything
they want to study phenomena as
they are in natural settings
h. Quantitative researchers conducted
to promote greater understanding
of not just the way things are but
also why?

Approach
a. Quantitative approach involves the
collection of numerical data in
order to explain, predict and
control phenomena of interest. The
data analysis is mainly statistical
b. Quantitative approach primarily
involves deduction
c. If hypotheses are involved a
quantitative study is much more
likely to test them
d. In quantitative research the
researchers try to be totally
objective i.e. value free
e. Quantitative approaches are more
focused and outcome oriented
oriented
f. Quantitative researches conversely
typically concentrate on one or
small number of variables in order
to describe current conditions or to
investigate relationships including
cause and effect relationships. They
are more concerned with the
generalizability of their findings
then with the meaning of their
findings
g. Quantitative researchers on the
other hand often intervene and
attempt to control as many variables
as possible
h. Qualitative research is are not just
concerned with describing the way
things are but also gaining insight
into how things got to be the way
things are, how people feel about
the way things are, what they
believe and what meaning they
attach to various activities?

3.4 RESEARCH PROCESS

In the preceding discussion on the meaning and definitions of research in
education and social sciences, it has been observed that research is a process of
enquiry and investigation. It is therefore, essential that before it is conducted, a
research should be carefully planned and each step of it should be clearly laid
down.
Designing a research is very much like preparing a blueprint of a building,
which has to be prepared before starting construction. In order to conduct
research economically and meaningfully, it is essential that certain steps in
research process should be carefully followed. In this section the nature of
these steps are briefly stated. These steps are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.

Selection of the area for investigation

Acquaintance with the current theory and knowledge in the area
Identification and definition of the problem for research
Review of the literature
Development of hypotheses or formulation of key questions
Preparing an action plan
Delineation of the sources of data
Preparation of research instrument
Preparation of dummy tables
Pre-testing of the instrument
Formal acquisition of data
Analysis of data
Formal writing of the research report

These steps are briefly described.

Step-a:

Selection of the Area for Investigation

The researcher should select an area for investigation from his field of interest
or in an area in which he has studied special courses. Some degree programs as
M.A (Ed) M.Ed and M.Phil/Ph.D (Ed) offer specialized courses such as

specialization in Primary, Secondary, Administration, Curriculum Development

etc. However, in any area, a researcher is interested for undertaking a study,
should be related to his/her programmes. The area is always broad, therefore,
for the identification of the of a research problem, the area intended should be
sufficiently trimed or delimited to serve effectively as source of specific
problem for investigation.
Some areas are listed.

Education and Manpower Planning

Problems of the Educated Un-employment
Education and Rural Transformation
Wastage in Primary Education in Pakistan
Universalization of Basic Education in Pakistan
Innovations in Education in Pakistan
Improving learning Environment in Class Room

Step-b:

Acquaintance with Current Theory and

Knowledge in the Area

Once the researcher has sufficiently narrowed down the area of concern, he
should familiarize himself with all available and the current theories in the area
which he intends to select for study. This includes variety of material such as
books, journals, research reports, seminar, conferences and workshop reports,
research abstracts and other official documents. The review of the related
literature will be helpful for researcher in both selection of the area as well as
the delineation of the resources for the study.
Step-c:
Identification and Definition of the Problem
for Research
The researcher has to be specific and clear in his mind about the problem,
which he selects for research purpose. In identifying a problem for research, it

is advisable to follow a "convergent approach". Research students are always

ambitious to attempt to answer so many questions and find the solution of so
many problems. If a problem is too general and include many variables, it will
be too difficult for researcher to manage. On the other hand, if a problem is
well defined and manageable, will result in a well-defined study. Therefore, the
problem should be relevant to the area of study, is of particular interest to the
researcher and is manageable. In short, the problem should be sufficiently
narrowed down, pinpointed, and focused so that to make it a researchable
problem in real sense.
Identification and definition of a research problem is very important component
of the research process. After it is identified, selected, and delimited, it is
defined or stated in meaningful manner. What is a clear statement of the
problem or how a problem can be meaningfully defined, need to be considered
by the researcher.
In the words of L.R Gay (1990) "a well written statement of the problem
generally indicates the variables of interest to the researcher and the specific
relationship between these variables which is to be investigated and ideally the
subjects involved".
Step-d:

Review of the Related Literature

A separate section is written on this requirement. However, its need,

importance is briefly described in this section.
After identification and definition of the problem and before formulation of
hypotheses, a critical review or analysis of the related literature is essential for
researcher, because without such exercise, a researcher cannot form the basis

for a final statement of research hypotheses or objectives of the study. This

stage should not be ignored in the process of research.
The review of the literature is very important in the sense that it involves the
systematic identification, location, and analysis of the documents containing
information related to the research problem. In fact, the review determines
what has already been done that relates to the problem. Such knowledge not
only avoids unintentional duplication but also provides the understanding and
insight necessary for the development of logical framework into which the
research problem fits. The review not only provides a rationale for the research
hypotheses but also provides a justification for the study. Moreover, it helps the
research to evolve strategies, procedure and measuring instrument for the study.
In short, a research, which is not based on a thorough review of relevant
literature, may remain a deficient and an isolated study.
Step-e: Development of Hypotheses or Formulation of
Key Questions
Once the problem has been related, and the review of the literature has been
conducted, the researcher will be able to formulate hypotheses, which appear to
have a reasonable chance of explaining the problem. The hypotheses according
to Best (1978) clearly establish the nature of the problem and a logic
underlying the investigation and give direction to data gathering process.
Moreover, the research design, the gathering of data, and the analysis of data,
are all geared to test the hypotheses and the key questions which emerge from
the purpose of study.

Step-f:

Preparing Plan of Action

At this point, the researcher prepares a plan of action for conducting the
research and deteimine such things as sample and sampling procedure, sources
of data review of the literature methods and preparation of instrument to be
used for collection of data, use of statistical method, and design of research
report. All such activities be brought under time schedule and should be strictly
followed so that a researcher is able to complete the study in time. In short,
Plan of Action is a timetable according to which research activities are
followed.
Step-g:

Delineation of Sources of Data

As all types of researches are based on data collected from various sources, it is
essential that keeping in view the purpose and type of research, the researcher
identifies the sources of data. It is always desirable in research to use primary
sources. In case, primary sources are not available then authentic secondary
sources should be consulted, in research. The researcher should be adequately
familiar with the services offered by libraries in the form of written
computerized material and other video guides. These sources are of both
primary and secondary nature. Some of these are listed below:

Educational Index
Readers Guide to Periodical Literature Dissertation, Abstracts
Psychological Abstracts
Educational Resource Information Centres Reviews of the Educational

Researches Books, Journals, Encyclopedias

Seminar, conferences and Workshop Reports
Micro-films, film Strips
Video, Cassettes, CDs etc

Step-h:

Preparation of Research Instrument

Depending upon the nature of research, the researcher may need to use certain
instruments for collection of data for a study. These instruments may range
from highly sophisticated electronic and mechanical device to tests,
questionnaires and interview guides etc. Whenever, the instrument is selected
to be used by the researcher, it is essential that it is prepared after the researcher
has determined the problem of research, its objectives, hypotheses, or key
questions and the data needed for the study. Incase when a research instrument
specially a questionnaire is prepared as a first step in research process, chances
are that the data collected through the questionnaire may not be quite relevant
for the purpose of study and the researcher may have difficulty in organizing it
and gathering any thing out of it.
Step-i: Preparation of Dummy Tables
When an inexperienced researcher intends to submit "research proposal" for
approval to a committee, it is recommended that (thought it is a not a common
practice) dummy tables should be prepared before hand. These tables help plan
the organization and analysis of data in advance and facilitate the actual work
when research is initiated.
Step-j:

Pre-Testing of the Instrument

Whatever the research instrument a researcher uses, he should make sure that
they are standard instruments. In cases specially for the purpose of a certain
research study, it is essential to be pre-tested with a limited sample of subjects.
This pre-testing helps improve the administration, procedure and design of the
instrument. It will help the researcher to identify which questions are

ambiguous, which words or terms are difficult to be understood by the

respondent and which questions are not relevant for the collection of the
requisite information. After the pre-testing or trial of the instrument, it should
be refined and improved and necessary addition deletion should be made in the
instrument so that it could be launched in the field with convenience.

Step-k:

Formal Acquisition/Collection of Data

The step that follow follows the pre-testing of the instrument, is the collection
of requisite data from the field. Except where a researcher depends solely on a
documentary sources of data, it is essential that data for the study are collected
under standard conditions. Invalid data cannot be used for research purpose.
Step-I:

Analysis of Data

Depending upon the nature of the study, the data collected from various
sources, are organized in appropriate tables and given statistical treatment for
their analysis and interpretation. The researcher should always remember that
the purpose of giving statistical treatment to the data is to quantity the data and
presents the facts in mathematical term. Statistical methods, if properly used,
help scientific analysis and interpretation of data and increase the accuracy of
the findings of a research study.
Step-m:

Formal Write up of a Research Report

The formal presentation of a research report follows more or less the above
steps in research (a separate chapter has been written on this stage). For the
purpose of convenience in writing and presentation of information, a research
report is divided into a number of chapters. Depending upon the nature of the
problem of research, a research study may comprise at least five chapters.
Since educational research, as stated earlier, comprises the features of both a
social science research and a scientific research, it is essential that standard
style of writing a research report and typing it, are followed.

Several "manuals" or "styles" of typing of research thesis available in the

libraries. Each of them suggests something new from the other but they suggest
an acceptable standard of writing research reports. It is for the researcher to use
them to suit the specific need of his research study. Usually "Turabian Manual"
had been usually adopted for writing of the research report. Recently. Allama
Iqbal Open University Islamabad has prepared its own a Manual for writing of
the research report. APA (American Psychological Association Style is also
recommended. In short, a standard and an approved manual by the university
should be followed in the presentation of research report.

UNIT-4:
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH (BY PURPOSE)
Educational and social researches have been classified by research experts in
various categories. However, there is no clear-cut agreement on such types. The
common types of research (by purpose) which have been mentioned in research
documents; are:
Basic or Fundamental Research
Applied or Field Research
Action Research
Evaluation Research (mentioned by LR Gay)
These popular types of research are discussed in this section.
4.1 THE MEANING OF BASIC RESEARCH
This type of research is sometimes called 'pure' or `fundamental research'. It
aims at to discover the basic truth or principles, which are not concerned with
direct or immediate application in the field. Its emphasis is on 'control' and
`precision'. It is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge
and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. Basic
research is usually laboratory based for which a great deal of sophisticated
equipment and apparatus and ideally controlled environment, are needed for
experiment. Research is usually conducted on animals in laboratories as
researchers or scientists are concerned with the "fundamental principles of
behaviour" and research with animals facilitates such higher level of control
than is possible with human subjects. Lot of basic research bearing implications

on education has been conducted by psychologists. Moreover, basic researches

have also been conducted in other social or behavioural sciences like sociology.
Basic research

Applied research

a.

Basic research is concerned a.

with
establishing
general
principles of learning

applied research is concerned

with their utility in educational
setting

b.

basic research is conducted b.

with animals to determine
principles of reinforcement of
their effect on learning

applied research is testing

principles to determine their
effectiveness in improving
learning.

c.

basic research provide

the c.
theory that produces the
implications
for
solving
educational problems

applied research provides data

to support theory, to guide
theory, revise or to suggest the
development of new theory

d.

In basic research the researcher d.

attempts to control a situation
by use of laboratory techniques

in applied research, the

researcher is engaged in
conducing enquiries in the
complicated
psychosociological climate of ongoing
educational activities

e.

in basic research motivation is E

intrinsic and thee value of
research is in its contribution to
the advancement of knowledge

applied research is conducted in

real situation which provides
motivation to researchers

f.

Basic research is conducted f.

solely for the purpose of theory
development
and
reinforcement. It is not
concerned
with
particular
applicability and most closely
resembles
in
laboratory
conditions and controls which
are usually associated with
scientific research

Applied research as the

name
implies,
is
conducted for the purpose of
applying or testing theory
and evaluating its usefulness in
solving educational or social
problems

4.4 SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF BASIC AND APPLIED

RESEARCH
Both basic and applied researches have relevance for the solution of social
problems in society. They may provide theories that produces the implications
for solving social problems. Such theories are further supported, guided,
revised and developed as new social theories.
In basic research a social scientist may at times have its origin in the curiosity
or interest of the investigator but at later stage it may have its practical impact
and may prove to be socially useful. In social fields, it has been realized that
systematic data depicting current status for example demographic, could be
extremely useful for social researchers, for providing basis for comparison with
similar data from other countries or areas and for formulation of public policies
for its control in future. This realization leads to the development of theory and
practice of `sample survey' and the growing use of this research approach in the
development programmes of the country.
4.5 ACTION RESEARCH: CONCEPT AND
CHARACTERISTICS
(i)

Rationale for Introduction of Action Research

Teaching is a complex phenomena. The teacher is always confronting with

multifarious psychological problems of children and interacting with changing
social climate in the classroom. The problems of common nature faced by
teacher in everyday life in school and in the classroom for example the problem
of indiscipline, the problem of children's absenteeism, the problem of gifted
and slow learners, the problem of implementing new curriculum, the problem
of introducing innovative methods of teaching, the problem of using teaching

aids, and instructional material, the problem of dropouts of children and the
problem of decreasing retention and many other social, emotional and cultural
problems leading children to maladjustment in the school and in the classroom.
Teachers are not only sensitive to these problems but they are quite anxious to
solve them. similarly, the administrators who are concerned with the
implementation of policy of instruction, are feeling the need to solve such
vexing problems in schools.
Both teachers and administrators might be interested for seeking the "right
answers of these questions", which are agitating their minds.
What are the factors and forces responsible for the problems mentioned
above?
How to improve teaching-learning situation?
How to improve the quality of instruction?
How to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the changing
needs of children?
How to enrich teaching-learning process?
How to strengthen teacher's professional competence?
How to raise his morale?
How to improve evaluation system?
How to improve supervisory functions of the school'?
How to identify maladjusted children and how to treat them in individual
manner?
How to eradicate the causes of dropout?
How to buildup incentive system for the retention of children in school?
Now the question is are our teachers and administrators competent or in a
position to solve these problems effectively. In fact, they will not be able to do
so. They need to acquire the knowledge, the skill and the attitude of a
researcher who is solving the problem on scientific lines and in scientific spirit.
For this purpose, expert knowledge in research will enable teachers and

administrators to investigate their problems and forward suggestions for their

solutions. This type of research which is conducted in the school and in the
classroom is called "ACTION RESEARCH".
The need, importance and characteristics of action research is described in this
section. In the first place, various views forwarded by research experts,
educationists arid social scientists about action research, have been briefly
surveyed and main features of their views have been summarized at this end of
this section so that students could grasp the main points of it.
(ii)

The Meaning of Action Research as Viewed by

Research
Experts,
Educationists
and
Social
scientists

a. According to John Illiot (1991) 'action research' is a study of social

situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it.
b. Herbert Attrichter (1990) maintains that action research lies in the "will"
to improve the quality of teaching and learning as well as the conditions
under which teachers and students work in schools. Action research is
intended to support teachers and groups of teachers in coping with the
challenges and problems of practice and carrying; through innovations
in a reflective manners.
c. John W. Best views action research as the involvement of both research
spectilator and classroom teacher in the study and application of
research findings to educational problems in a particular classroom
setting. He further says that action research is focused on the immediate
application and not on the development of a theory, not upon general
action like basic and applied research. It places emphasis on a problem
here and now in a local setting. Its findings are evaluated in terms of

local validity. Its purpose is to improve school practices and at the same
time to improve those who try to improve the practices.
The purpose of action research is to combine the research function with
teacher growth in such qualities as objectivity, skill, and research
processes, habit of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others in
professional spirit.
d. Action research according to 'Good' is to secure evidence concerning the
existing conditions to identify standards or norms with which to
compare present conditions in order to plan the next step and to
determine how to take the next step.
e. J.C. Aggraval (1991) claims that action research is sometimes called "on
the job" research because it involves the application of the steps of the
scientific method to classroom problems.
f. Jane Franseth defines action research as a systematic examination
conducted by individuals or groups studying their own practices in
search of sound answers to the unresolved problems in their work and
aimed at in improving their own performance on their job.
g. Corey says that action research is one of the best way to enable people
to improve the curricular practices and to make possible for them to
study what they are doing to experiment with ideas that seem to be
promising and to get evidence to findout if they are better.
h. Lehmann & Mehren (1971) point out that action research is a type of
applied or decision oriented research but with the situation that the
researches is the same person as the practitioner who will make and live
with the decision.
i. L.R.Gay (1998) states that the purpose of action research is to solve
practical problems through the application of scientific method. The

primary goal of action research is the solution of given problem not

contribution to sciences whether the research is conducted in one or in
many classrooms. It is a means by which concerned school personnel
can attempt to improve their educational process at least with in their
environment. Action research provides immediate answers to problems
that cannot wait for theoretical solution.
j. Institute of - Basic Education has made its observation on the nature of
action research. According to it "action research is the research a person
conducts in order to enable him to achieve his purposes more
effectively". For example, a teacher conducts action research to improve
his own teaching. A school administrator conducts action to improve his
administration.
Action research represents an attempt to be more disciplined, more objective
and more scientific. It results in a more careful problem diagnosis and in a
more objective evaluation of the consequences of action. The customary
commonsense approach may lead to action but after wards the problem is still
there. After all, action research is a procedure that tries to keep problemssolving in close touch with 'reality' at every stage.
(iii) Characteristics/Features of Action Research
The preceding discussion on the meaning and nature of action research is
summarized in the form of listing its main characteristics or features. These
characteristics or features are also indication of the merit or the importance of
action research. Briefly these characteristics are:
a. Action research is the study of social situation with a view to improve
the quality of action.

b. In action research, the researcher is using imagination,

creativity to identify problems and practices that must be changed
to meet the needs and demands of modern life.
c. Action research supports teachers in coping with the challenges and
problems of practice they face in the classroom.
d. Action research supports teachers in carrying out innovations in
reflective and effective manner
e. It is collaborative process involving teachers, supervisors, and
administrators

to study their

instructional problems of the

classrooms.
f. It focuses upon the immediate application of the results obtained
from the study for the solution of the problem.
g. It findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms
of universal validity.
h. It strengthens the professional competence of teachers.
i. It raises the morale of teachers and confidence in their capacities for the
solution of their problem.
j. It develops scientific qualities in teachers like objectivity, skill in
research, habit of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others in
professional spirit.
k. It is more close to applied research.
l. Action research is rightly called "on the job" research because it
involves the application of systematic method to the solution of a
problem in the classroom.
m. Action research provides best opportunity for the teachers, supervisors,
counselor, administrators, to evaluate their practices and problems of
common nature to improve the situation.
n. Action research is not costly and time consuming.
o. In action research the teacher is a practitioner as well as a researcher.
p. Action research provides better opportunities for the teachers and others
concerned to experiment with new ideas that seem to be promising and
workable.

4.6

Comments

Action research in fact, is an ideal method for seeking immediate solution of

crucial problems facing to teachers, supervisors, and administration in school
or in classroom. The effectiveness of teaching and the efficiency of teachinglearning process depend upon removing the obstacles coming into their way.
Questions arise to what extent our teachers are well-prepared in undertaking
such imaginative activities? To what extent their pre-service education is
adequate to have equipped them with knowledge, skill and attitude in research
to investigate and solve their problems in the classroom in scientific manner?
To what extent they have resources in terms of money and material at their
disposal to carryout such activities successfully and effectively in the
classroom? And to what extent they would receive moral support and guidance
from their higher authorities for initiation of such activities in their institutions
and more importantly to what extent policy goals have provided the "will" to
the teaching community and the "commitment" to higher authorities to
coordinate their efforts and develop a "culture of research" in our ordinary
classrooms.
These questions though very important, are difficult to be answered in view of
the existing frustrating situation of our educational institutions and the
indifferent attitude of our higher authorities towards it. Let us hope for the
better in future.
4.7

Evaluation Research

Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and classifying data in order to

make decisions. Evaluation involves questions like.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Is a certain programme initiated worthwhile?

Is it costly or manageable?
Is the newly introduced curriculum better than the old one?
What alternative should be selected in order to make a correct decision?

Any educational programme is evaluated against criteria and accurate data. The
more objective is criteria and accurate data, the better will be the outcome of
evaluation.
In view of researchers, the function of evaluation is not simply to determine a
programme as good or bad as worthwhile or worthless, but to select an
"alternative" in order to make correct decision. As a result of evaluation one
will have to decide either to continue a new programme or to discontinue it and
reverted to the old one.
Evaluation research is also a disputed matter among the researchers. Some
researchers argue that educational research and evaluation research have
different 'distinct' purposes. Research is based on design and seeks control
while evaluation assesses what it is? However, the distinction between the two
is not very sharp. Evaluation research may utilize research design. There are
certain common features in research and evaluation. Both involve decisionmaking and both involve steps which parallel those of scientific methods.
Many researchers are conducted in natural setting. In short, the value of
evaluation research lies in its very purpose to facilitate decision making based
on its authentic evidence.
The common areas in evaluation research are evaluating the goals and
objectives of education, curriculum, instructional methods, physical facilities,
basic amenities and instructional facilities, evaluating the effectiveness of new

methods and innovations in instructional programme, evaluating the internal

efficiency of educational institutions, evaluating the effectiveness of in-service
training programmes and so many other related problems and issues prevailing
in the system.
In short, for evaluating a certain programme in any social or instructional
situation, "Criteria" is developed and "System approach" is adopted for
achieving the objectives of an "objective evaluation".

UNIT-5:
HYPOTHESES
This section is devoted to discussion on hypotheses. The following aspects will
be focused in this section.
1. Definitions of Hypotheses
2. The Importance or Value of Hypotheses
3. Characteristics of Hypotheses
4. Types of Hypotheses
5. Examples of formulating Hypotheses
These are described here:
5.1 DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESES
What is hypothesis? It has been defined by various educationists and research
experts. A few of such definitions are given below;
According to Fred N. Karlinger (1983) hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a
tentative proposition about the relation between two or more phenomena or
variables. For example a scientist will say, if such and such occurs then so
and so results.
In view of Cohen M. (1956) hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the
relation between two or more variables.

John W. Best (1982) defines hypothesis as a tentative answer to a question. It is

a hunch or an educated guess to be subjected to the process of verification
or disconfirmation.
Van Dalen (1978) says that hypotheses are suggested problem solutions, which
are expressed as generalizations or propositions. They are statements
consisting of elements expressed in an orderly system of relationships,
which seek to explain conditions or events that have not yet even been
confirmed by facts.
According to L.R. Gay (1992) hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviour, phenomena of events that have occurred or will occur. He further
says that a hypothesis states the researchers expectations concerning the
relationship between the variables in the research problem. A hypothesis is
the most specific statement of a problem. It states what the researcher thinks
the outcome of the study will be.
Good and Hatt maintains that a hypothesis looks forward. It is a preposition to
be put to test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or
incorrect.
In view of James B. Creighton, hypothesis is a tentative supposition or
provisional guess which seems to explain the situation under observation.
In the words of A. Lumbery, hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the
validity of which remains to be tested in its imaginative idea which leads to
further investigation.

Barr and Scaled define hypothesis as a statement temporarily accepted as true

in the light of what is at the time known about a phenomena and it is
employed as a basis for action in the search for new truth, when the
hypothesis is fully established it may take the form of facts, principles of
theories.
Carter V. Good defines hypothesis as an informed guess or inference with a
reasonable chance of being right, formulated and tentatively adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions to guide in future investigation.
George G. Mouly observes that hypothesis is an assumption or proposition
whose testability is to be listed on the basis of the compatibility of its
implications with empirical evidence and with previous knowledge.
Walter J. Borg says that hypothesis reflects the research workers guess as to be
probable outcome of the experiment.
J.C. Aggrawal (1991) simply defines hypothesis as a proposition to be put to
test to determine its validity.
In short a hypothesis is an informed and shrewed guess, inference or
supposition, hunch or a tentative generalization as to the existence of some
facts, condition or relationship relative to some phenomena which serves to
explain such facts as already are known to exist in a given area of research and
to guide the research for new truth.
5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES
The importance of hypotheses are briefly described.

Hypotheses are important and indispensable tools of scientific research because

they are deducted from theory and from other hypotheses and they are
tested and shown to be probably true or probably false.
Hypotheses are important and powerful tools for the development of
knowledge because they enable man to get outside himself. They are
powerful tool man has invented to achieve dependable knowledge.
Hypotheses are important because they have the power to predict.
A hypothesis if properly stated can be tested. A problem alone cannot be
scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form. Hypotheses
advance scientific knowledge by helping the investigator confirm or
disconfirm theory.
Hypotheses are important because they provide direction to research. They
define what are relevant and what are irrelevant. They also prevent wastage
in collection of data.
Hypotheses sensitize the investigator to certain aspects of the situation which
are relevant from the stand point of the problem at hand.
Hypotheses are a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery.
They are the investigator eyes a sort of guiding lights in the world of
darkness.
Hypotheses focus research. Without research, would like a random and aimless
wandering. They prevent blind research and prevent indiscriminate
gathering of data which may turnout to be later irrelevant.

Hypotheses place clear and specific goals before us. They provide specific
goals to the investigator with a basis for selecting sample and research
procedure to meet these goals.
Hypotheses serve the function of linking together related facts and information
and organize them into one comprehensive whole. They also enable the
investigator to understand with greater clarity the problem and its
ramifications as well as data, which bear on it.
Hypotheses enable the researcher to clarify the procedure and methods to be
used in solving his problem and rule out methods which are incapable of
providing the necessary data.
Hypotheses serve as a framework for drawing conclusions, makes possible the
interpretation of data in the light of tentative proposition or provisional
guess. They provide the outline for stating conclusion in a meaningful way.
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Good hypotheses possess a number of characteristics, which are briefly
described.
a. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts. A hypothesis is
entirely plausible and conceivable. It is based directly on existing data.
b. A good hypothesis does not come in conflict with any law of nature which
is known to be truth.
c. A good hypothesis is stated in scientific and research like language and is
not an ordinary statement.

d. A good hypothesis is stated in simplest possible terms. It is also called the

principle of economy. It is not a literary statement. The more insight the
researcher has into the problem, the simpler will be his hypotheses.
e. A good hypothesis permits the application of deductive reasoning. It should
be verifiable and testable. It should be capable of being proved or refuted.
f. It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original
problem which forms the primary purpose of the investigation. It should be
related to the available knowledge or theory concerning the original
problem area.
g. It must be stated in final form early in the experiments before any attempt at
verification is made.
h. In short, a good hypothesis is testable, states relationship between variables,
limited in scope, consistent with the known facts and is stated as far as
possible in simple terms.
Research students will surely face difficulties in formulation of hypothesis if
they
a. lack the knowledge and clarity of the theoretical framework of the area in
which they choose to work
b. lack the ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically
c. lack acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to
be able to phrase the hypotheses properly and if
d. their statement is vague

5.4 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses can be classified in terms of how they are derived (Inductive Vs
Deductive hypotheses) and how they are stated (declarative vs null hypotheses)
i.

Declarative Hypotheses

The declarative hypotheses are non-directional or directional. A non-directional

hypothesis simply indicates that a relationship or difference exists and a
directional hypothesis indicates the nature of relationship or difference.
Example of Non-directional hypothesis
a.

There is significant difference in the achievement of 10th grade biology

students who are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who
receive regular instruction only.

The corresponding directional hypotheses might state

a.

Tenth grade biology students who are instructed using interactive

multimedia achieve at a higher level than those who receive regular
instruction only.

The declarative form can be expressed in question such as.

Is there a significant difference in the achievement of 10th grade students who
are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who receive regular
instruction only.
ii.

Null Hypotheses

A null hypothesis states that there is no relationship or difference) between

variables and that any relationship found, will be a chance relationship not a
true one.

Example:
There is no difference in the achievement level of lO grade biology students
who are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who receive regular
instruction.
The expression of hypothesis in null form is preferred because of logic of
statistical analysis.
5.5

AN EXAMPLE OF FORMULATING AND TESTING OF

HYPOTHESIS

Formulating and testing of hypothesis are the integral elements of the scientific
method. Scientific method has been discussed in the preceding chapter.
However, its stages on steps are briefly re-stated.
A felt difficulty
Location and definition of the difficulty
Suggested solution of the problem! hypotheses
Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the suggested solution
Testing hypotheses by action
Example of Formulating, Testing and Verifying the Hypotheses (This example
is quoted from Deobold B. Van Dalen 1982 p.24)
A man returns from his vacation and discovers his garden is destroyed (step- 1:
Felt Difficulty). He examines the garden and finds a twisted fenee, flattened
flowers and uprooted stakes (step-2 concrete facts that help him precisely
locate and define the difficulty). While searching for an explanation of these
facts, it occurs to him that the neighbours children may have deliberately
destroyed the garden (step-3 hypothesis or generalization explaining the facts).

His hypothesis goes beyond existing knowledge. He did not see the children
perform the act but this hypothesis offers one possible explanation of the facts.
It also occurs to him that a bad storm may have wrecked the garden. Thus he
has a second hypothesis which may explain the facts. Consequently he
responds judgment until he can establish proof.
By deduction he reasons out the consequences of his first hypothesis (step-4).
If the children wrecked the garden, they had to be at home during the time he
was on his vacation. To test this hypothesis (step-5) he asks where the children
were and finds that they were away at camp while he was on vacation. Thus he
must reject his first hypothesis, for it is not in harmony with observable facts.
He then deductively, reasons out the consequences of his second hypothesis
(step-4). If a sever storm destroyed the garden, it probably wrecked other
nearly gardens. He tests this hypothesis (step-5) by observing other gardens and
finds they have also been destroyed. He checks in news paper and finds an
account of a storm which destroyed many gardens in his area of the city. A
neighbour tells he watched the hail and wind uprooting the garden. He
concludes that his second hypothesis is a reasonable explanation of the facts.
He further checks in news paper and finds an account of a storm which
destroyed many gardens in the city. (Further verification of his hypothesis).
From the above example, it is concluded that researcher will have to formulate
several hypotheses and will test them one by one and will retain that one which
may provide, reasonable, verifiable, defensible and reliable explanation of the
facts.

UNIT-6:
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
6.1

THE MEANING, NATURE AND PURPOSE OF

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

6.1.1

What is history?

History in the words of John Best (1994) is a meaningful record of mans

achievement. It is not merely a catalogue of chronological events but a
truthful, integrated account of the relationships between persons, events, times
and places. Man uses history to understand the present in the light of the past
events and developments and to predict the future. Historical analysis may be
directed towards an individual, an idea, a movement or an institution. However,
none of these objects of historical importance can be considered in isolation.
No man can be subjected to historical investigation without some consideration
of his interaction with the ideas, movements and institutions of his times. The
focus merely determines the point of emphasis towards which the historian
directs his attention.
According to Travers, history is not just a reconstruction of the past, it must
reflect the spirit of critical inquiry that aims at to achieve a faithful
representation of past events. Good (1959) defines history as an integrated
narration or description of past events or facts written in the spirit of the critical
enquiry to find the whole truth and report it. In short, narration or description of
events in limited and in isolated manner, does not become a history.

6.1.2

Is History a Science?

Whether history is a science or not, is not an issue. Those who are against the
idea that history is not a science, forward the following arguments.
a. The purpose of science is prediction. The historian cannot always generalize
on the basis of past events because the past events are unplanned and
involve so many uncontrolled factors, therefore, the same pattern cannot be
repeated.
b. The historian depends upon observations of others which are not as reliable
as self observation.
c. There are gaps and discrepancies in historical information. The historian
had to fill in these gaps and removing these discrepancies what has
happened? And why did it happen, is a really a difficult task.
d. The historian cannot control the conditions and the variables as are done by
the natural scientist in his laboratory.
Those who are in favour of the view that history is a science forward the
following arguments:
The historian like a natural scientist, adopts a scientific method for his
historical study such as:
He selects the problem
He formulates the problem
He delimits the problem
He develops the hypothesis

He collects data
He criticizes the source material
He analyzes data
He tests the hypotheses to see that they are consistent or inconsistent with the
evid7
If history is not a science in the true spirit of the term because of human or
social factor as observed by John W. Best (1994) a historian, however, collects
data from primary sources but sometimes it is very difficult to have access to
the original sources. He then gets requisite information from the secondary
sources. Such information is more authentic, true and reliable.
Moreover, according to Van Dalen (1985) the historian strives to recreate the
past experiences of mankind in a manner that does not violate the actual events
and classifies facts in accord with specific standards and endeavour to interpret
those facts in an exposition that will stand the test of critical examination. They
apply the same scholarly standard to any problem relating to any social and
educational field.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that the understanding of history
both in educational and social context is important to professional workers. It
will help them to understand how and why educational and social
developments that have happened some hundred years ago, still continues with
all their limitations.

6.1.3

Scope of Historical Research

As observed by Good (1959) history embraces the entire field of human past
and is as broad as life itself. Our human past includes many areas of social
experiences and activities that frequently have proved more significant than
political history or any other movement or campaign. For example, culture,
ideals, institutions, law, religion, literature, art, travel, engineering, industry,
technology, medical science, philosophy, economic, education, psychology,
anthropology and sociology and the new developments like demography,
environment, globalization, electronic and print media, explosions, wars,
conflicts, terrorism etc. All these issues have implications of historical interest
for a researcher. There is general agreement among the historians that the scope
and the richness of the content of history including social, cultural, economic
and educational development is gradually expanding.
6.2

THE HISTORICAL METHOD OF RESEARCH: CONCEPT,

NATURE AND PROCESS

This section is devoted to examine in detail the concept, nature and procedure
of historical method of research. The method is employed by researchers who
are curious and critical about conditions and events that have taken place in the
past. Obtaining the knowledge in historical research is always intriguing,
therefore, the historians strive to recreate as mentioned earlier, the past
expenences of mankind in a manner that does not violate the actual events and
conditions of the time. They collect, examine, select, verify and classify facts in
an exposition that will stand the test of critical examination.
Historical method of investigation is of particular interest to scholars because
of universality of its application. One can apply it not only to subject matter

that is commonly related to as history but also to ascertain the meaning and
reliability of past facts in the natural sciences and in social sciences.
When undertaking a historical study, a scholar engages himself in some
activities that are common to all investigations but the nature of the subject
matter presents with some peculiar problems and requires him to apply some
special standards and techniques.
6.3 THE PROCEDURE OF HISTORICAL METHOD
In general, a historian is involve in the following procedure.
Selecting the problem
Formulating the problem
Determining the conceptual framework
Collecting source materials
Criticizing source materials
Formulating hypotheses to explain events or conditions
Interpreting data
Reporting the findings
Some of the steps of the procedure of historical study, are briefly discussed.
a.

Selecting and Formulating the Problem

The location, selection and development of the problem for the study, is the
first step in historical research. An experienced historian realizes that the

historical research is conducted in the past situation. According to Best it must

be confined to a penetrating analysis of a limited problem rather than to
involve a superficial examination of a broad area. The weapon of research is
the rifle (single bullet) not the short gun (shower of bullets).
b.

Sources of Location of the Problem

Historical inquiry begins with some event, development or experience of the

past is questioned. Sometimes, the historian discovers new source material,
when interpreted, will provide answers about past events. Sometimes, he
questions an old interpretation of existing data and derives hypotheses that will
provide a more satisfactory explanation of the past events.
Beginning with rather a general, diffused or even a confused notion of the
problem he isolates one by one the crucial points that gives rise to his initial
doubt or concerns about gaps in knowledge and then formulates a simple, clear,
complete description of the problem. Before proceeding further, he checks
whether the problem is answerable/feasible by available method of inquiry and
by the available sources of data.
c.

Sources from which a Problem is Selected

As indicated by Van Dalen (1985) a historical research can investigate

individuals, institutions, organization, curricula, administrative structures,
processes, text books, equipment and other facilities etc. He can also study the
social, economic, political and intellectual phenomena relating to a specific
period of time. He may confine his study to one era and one sequence of events
in local, national or regional setting in different areas, in different societies and
in different civilizations.

Sources of academic nature for the selection of the problem of historical

investigation are the libraries of the universities and of the individual
institutions, libraries of Archives and other public libraries are also full of
historical documents, thesis and dissertations.
6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES
A large number of historical resources are used in research. These sources have
been classified in several ways. Good Carter (1959) has classified such sources
in the following manner.
Classification-A
a.

Sources of Physical Nature

They include physical remains, historic sites, roads, pyramids, fortifications,

buildings, furniture, etc
Sources of Human nature: They include clothing, utensils, pottery, implements,
weapons, machinery, products, toys ornaments, fine arts, and museum
pieces many kinds. The ruins and museums of Mohenjo-daro, Harapa,
Taxila, Takht Bhai etc are rich places for studying such historical sources.
Orally Transmitted Materials. The orally transmitted materials include folk
lore, legends, ballads, tales, anecdotes, traditions, customs, manners, burial,
ceremonies, social institutions and languages.
More Elementary and durable kinds of representative or artistic materials not
written in ordinary sense are inscriptions on rocks, backed clay and on
wood stones, movements, stamp, coins, vases, portraits, sculptures, historic
painting, etc.

Hand written materials (sometimes in print). These include papyri vellum, or

parchment manuscripts, and such more recent documents as biographies,
and diaries.
Classification-B
This kind of classification of historical materials includes documents and
remains or the record kept and written by concerned persons. These can be
produced for the purpose of transmitting knowledge, so desired. Such
important documents are listed below.
a.

Documents

Legislative Acts

Court decisions

Educative and other official records

Proceedings of administrative and deliberative bodies

Reports of the commissions, committees and conferences

Census reports, case studies, and other research reports

News papers, periodicals

Personnel materials

like

autobiographies,

biographies, letters, legal instructions.

b.

Remains
These include
School buildings, furniture and equipment

memories,

and

Photographs of buildings and furniture

Forms of diplomas, degrees in certificates
Sports equipment
Charts, maps, drawings etc
The physical remains are considered more valuable for social, economic
historical studies. Some remains or relics are called memorials with
characteristics of both remains and documents. For example if a grave stone
including only a name it is a relic but it includes date of birth and death and
possibly other information, it becomes a memorial.
c.

Other Type of Classification

Under this system all sources for collection of data are classified as primary
or Secondary. The nature of these sources are briefly discussed.
(a)

Primary Sources

Primary sources are the original documents or remains or the first witness to an
event. They are the eye witness accounts. They are reported by an actual
observer or a participant in an event.
(b)

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are accounts of an event that were not witnessed by the
reporter. He may have talked with the actual observer or read an account
written by an observer but his testimony is not that of an actual participant or
observer. The writer of the secondary source was not on the spot of the event
but surely reports what the person who was there said or wrote.

Lord Macaulay Minutes, Charles Grants ObservationEducation Act 1831

and Wood Despatch 1854 are primary sources. If the nature, or meaning of
these documents are reproduced or comments made and communicated by a
writer in a book of history of education, they become secondary sources.
6.5 HISTORICAL CRITICISM
As observed earlier, a historian does not often use the first hand knowledge
based on his own observation and participation. It is not possible for the
historian to repeat the past as it can be done in case of experiment in natural
science. Sine the historian gets most of his data from the reports of those who
participated in those events or witnessed those events, the information he uses
in research is of secondary nature and therefore, the data must be carefully
analyzed to sift true from the false, irrelevant and misleading. He should collect
and use trustworthy data in the historical research which is known as
historical evidence. Such historical evidence is derived from historical data by
the process of criticism which is of two types external criticism and internal
criticism. These are described in this section.
(a)

External Criticism (Authenticity)

External criticism deals with the authenticity and genuineness of the document
i.e. whether the document is what it seems to be? Or reads true to the original.
This criticism establishes the authenticity of data and tries to establish whether
a document or relic is true and is not a forgery. Through external criticism, the
historian also checks the textual integrity of source material.
To discover the origin of the source material, according to Van Dalen (1985)
the historian asks many questions such as when and where was the document

produced? Who was the creator or the author? Did the credited author produce
it? Is this an original or accurate copy of the authors work? From what sources
were the contents derived? And how depended upon was the author?
The problem of establishing age or authorship of documents may involve
intricate tests of signatures, handwriting, script, types, spellings, language
usages, documentation, knowledge available at that time and consistency with
the time. They involve physical and chemical test of ink, print, paper,
parchment, cloth, stone, metal or wood. Are these elements consistent with
known facts about the person, the knowledge available and the technology Of
the period in which the remains or document originated? Problems of external
criticism in testing the genuineness of document also involve the characteristics
of the author, the factors or conditions that may have influenced the production,
the purpose and the circumstances of its composition.
The work of external criticism has now been facilitated through development
of science, printing, photography and micro photography.
(b)

Internal Criticism (Creditability)

Internal criticism deals with the meaning and trustworthiness of statements

remaining within the document. In other words, it weighs according to Good
(1959) the testimony of the document in relation to truth.
After the authenticity of a historical document or a relic has been established,
there is still a problem of evaluating its accuracy or worth. Such questions need
to be answered.
a. Does it reveal a true picture?

b. What about the writer?

c. Was he competent, honest, unbiased and actually acquainted with the facts
or was he too antagonist or too sympathetic to give a true picture.
d. Did he have any motive for disturbing the account?
e. Was he subjected to pressure, fear or vanity?
f. Was he able to remember accurately what had happened?
g. Was he in agreement with other competent witnesses?
These questions according to Best (1984) are difficult to answer but a historian
is expected to get accurate and authentic data before he introduces them as
historical evidence and worthy of serious consideration.
There is no sharp dividing line between the external and internal phases of
historical criticism and the two processes may progress or proceed
simultaneously with a considerable amount of overlapping. The internal
criticism may confirm external evidence concerning authorship or time and
place of writing and determining the truthfulness and accuracy of the
statements made in the document. The term external and internal refer to the
purpose of the criticism and not to the looks within or without the document for
evidence to complete the particular purpose.
(c)

Conclusion

It has been observed that historical research is difficult and demanding

authentic evidence, requires careful examination of both primary and secondary
sources, establishing their authenticity and credibility of the document or any

historical material. Studies of historical significance demand patience,

experience, time, energy and financial resources.
6.6 Weaknesses Identified in Historical Studies
While evaluating historical studies of academic nature, certain weaknesses or
limitations, are revealed:
Problems are too vaguely stated.
The tendency to use secondary data as short cut or easy approach
Inadequate historical criticism of data
Poor logical analysis
Over generalization on the basis of insufficient evidence
Failure to interpret words, terms, expression used in earlier period
Failure to distinguish between significant facts in a situation and those that are
irrelevant and unimportant
Expression of personal bias
Poor reporting in a dull and colourless style or too flowery style
6.7 DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN HISTORICAL
RESEARCH
The major difficulty encountered by a historian is determining the problem so
that a satisfactory analysis is made possible. An experienced historian realizes
that historical research must

involve penetrating analysis of limited problem rather than superficial

examination of a broad problem. However, such problem still exists in
historical research.
6.8 THE HISTORICAL HYPOTHESES
The historian formulates hypotheses but the type of hypotheses and procedure
for testing themt, differ from physical scientist.
The indications are;
a. The historian deals with a much more complex phenomena
b. He experiences greater difficulty in ascertaining the cause of an historical
event under investigation
c. It is much more difficult to hypothize a cause because some of factors
associated with the past event may be unmeasurable or unrecorded
d. A historical phenomena may have a greater number of antecedents and a
more complicated pattern of interaction among them
e. A historian often reports to multiple hypotheses
f. Because of these complexities, the historian is unable to draw conclusions,
that are inclusive and decisive as those of physical sciences
Inspite of these constraints and limitations, the historian formulate purposefully
hypotheses. When the historical hypotheses once have been tested
satisfactorily, it may become a central thesis, unifying themes or the principles
of interpretation used by the historian.

Some examples of hypotheses of historical nature relating to education system

in the past, are given below:
The British deliberately discouraged indigenous system of education in India.
The emergence of a national system of education has been resisted by
bureaucrats in the subcontinent.
The system of grant in aid and job incentive led to the supremacy of English in
Indian education system.
The ambiguity of education policy adopted by the company rule, led to a long
controversy in education system in India.
6.9 THE HISTORICAL REPORT
(a)

Elements of Research Report

Reporting the findings of historical research is the last and the most important
phase of research. In view of the special nature of historical research the report
makes certain demands on the investigator. According to Van Dalen, the report
mainly includes:
a. A statement of the problem
b. b. A review of the literature
c. The basic assumptions underlying the hypotheses
d. The method employed in testing the hypotheses
e. The results obtained and the conclusion drawn
f. Bibliography

(b)

Considerations to the taken in Research Report

Some considerations should be taken in view in writing of the research report.

In writing of the research report, the investigators will pattern his material in
some systematic order. Such as chronological, geographical, topical or a
combination of all these approaches. Generally experienced historians in
modern days adopt topical arrangement of material to make the discussion
interesting and to keep the focus on major issues.
Reporting all the evidence collected during the investigation would make the
account dull and uninteresting so, historian must use his judgment in
determining the amount of emphasis on space to give to various evidence. A
rapraisal of the hypotheses and the purpose of the study would help decide
which data are most significant for the study and how to organize or integrate
them, the narrative should realize the twin objectives of maintaining accuracy
and interest. This requires creativity as well as an imagination and
resourcefulness. The research report should be written in a scholarly style that
is dignified as well as objective.

UNIT-7:
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
7.1 THE CONCEPT OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
In this section an attempt has been made to explain the concept of descriptive
research which is a predominant research method of behaviour sciences. Many
types of behaviour cannot be observed under experimental conditions because
under experimental conditions, the variables may be harmful to the subjects.
The prevailing practice of educationists and other social scientists is to
systematically examine and analyze behaviour under conditions that actually
exist in the school, classroom, home and community. Here lies the advantage of
descriptive research.
(i)

What is Descriptive Research?

A descriptive research involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to

answer questions concerning the current status of the subject. A descriptive
study determines and reports the way things are. According to Best (1997)
descriptive research describes and interprets what is? It is concerned with the
conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail, the beliefs, points
of view or attitudes that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are
being felt or trends that are developing.
Descriptive research sometimes investigates how an existing phenomena is
related to some preceding event or what was the effect of that preceding event
on present conditions. Its process involves gathering and tabulating facts, and
element of analysis and interpretation, comparison or contrast of variables as
well as their measurement and classification.

The importance of descriptive research lies in the fact that not much progress
can be made in solving problems unless we possess descriptions of the
phenomena with which we work. Moreover, no effective policy of universal
education can be formulated unless we know why parents do not send their
children to school? and what role in played by the teacher and the community
to encourage basic education in the existing situation of the country.
Descriptive research is very popular because a high percentage of reported
research studies are descriptive in nature. The descriptive research is useful for
investigating a variety of educational and social problems. Typical descriptive
research studies are concerned with the assessment of attitudes, opinions,
demographical information, conditions, institutions, instructional practices and
facilities.
Descriptive research sometimes is known as non experimental or correlation
research deals with the relationships between variables, the testing of
hypotheses and the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
have universal validity.
(ii)

Steps (or Process) in a Descriptive Research

In a descriptive research, the researcher follows certain steps which are briefly
listed. According to Van Dalen, the following steps may be taken by the
investigator to carryout research on proper lines.
a. Examining a problematic phenomena/situation
b. Identifying the problem
c. Defining the problem

d. Stating hypotheses/key questions

e. Stating the assumptions upon which hypotheses or procedure are based
f. Selecting appropriate subjects and sources of material
g. Selecting or constructing instrument for collection of data
h. Establishing categories for classification of data
i. Validating the data gathering techniques or instrument
j. Making discriminatory and objective observation
k. Describing, analyzing and interpreting data
l. Arriving at findings and conclusions in clear and precise terms
A good descriptive research is not a bare description. It is in fact, a collection
of evidence on the basis of hypotheses or theory, tabulation and careful
summarization of data, analysis of results to draw meaningful generalization
that will advance knowledge. Data of descriptive study may be expressed both
quantitatively and qualitatively.
7.2 SOCIAL SURVEYS
(I)

Definition of Social Survey

As noted earlier, the common methods of diagnosing and solving of social

problems are undertaking of surveys in various fields. Social survey is one of
the important methods of social investigation in a particular area or community
about its social aspects. Sociologists have defined social surveys in different
words such as:

a. Mark Abraham has defined social survey as a process by which quantitative

facts are collected about the social aspects of a community, its composition
and activities.
b. Bogardes E.S. is of the view that social survey is the collection of data
concerning the living and working conditions of people in a given
community
c. C. Bargress E.W says that a social survey is the scientific study of
conditions and needs of a community for the purpose of presenting a
constructive progranm-ie of social advancement
From these definitions, it is concluded that social survey is a type of survey
conducted with a view and purpose that general and specific information about
society should be collected and compiled in meaningful manner.
(ii)

Growth of Social Surveys

Social survey is not a new method. It is as old as history, itself. French social
scholars, German economists, American and British Sociologists, have
conducted detailed social surveys on various social, political and economic
aspects of the society in 19th and 20th centuries. All these investigators have
come to the conclusion that all social problems were interlinked and
interconnected with each other and that no problem can be studied in isolation.
So far as the growth of the social survey is concemed some instance are quoted
in the context of development of Social Survey in United States, mostly in 20th
century.

a. In 1930 a sociologist Gunner Myrdol had conducted a comprehensive

analysis of social, political and economic life of black persons
b. In 1948 Indiana University had attempted a comprehensive study on the
sexual behaviour of the human male
c. In 1967 witty had studied the television viewing habits of school children
d. In 1942 Shaw and Mckay had conducted a detailed study of juvenile
delinquency in large urban community
e. In 190 Hang and Kahn have examined special education teachers estimates
of their students criminal acts and crime victimization
f. The National Security Council had conducted survey in 1980 on the nature,
extent and causes of automobile accident in all parts of the country
g. State High School Athletic Association has conducted survey in 1980 on the
nature and extent of athletic injuries
(iii) Characteristics of Social Surveys
a.

Characteristics of the Social Surveys in old days

In the old days, the social survey techniques used were not sophisticated. Most
of the survey conducted on large scale, were quite ambitious. In most cases
these surveys were conducted to find out basic facts of life which were then
unJcriown for example economic conditions of slum dwellers or the effects of
modernization on the poor section of the society.
Moreover, in these days general techniques were used to conduct a social
survey. For example, in a social survey observation method, questionnaire
method, random sampling and cooperative method were all combined to make

a survey a success. There was no confinement to one single method in so far as

social method was conducted. There was no system of conducting survey at
regular intervals. However, efforts were made to maintain quality but it
depended on the devotion and ability of the social workers.
b.

Characteristics of Social Surveys in Modern times

Social surveys in modem times are more sophisticated. They are conducted on
more scientific lines. They are very extensive and comprehensive in nature and
scope. They are conducted on regular intervals by government agencies such as
census, market survey, educational survey etc. They are inter disciplinary in
nature. They combine both human as well as economic resources.
In modem survey, the notion of collecting maximum data has been discarded.
The most specific relevant data are collected, tabulated and analyzed by
experts. Only trained workers are engaged for this purpose.
(iv) A Comparison of Social Survey and Social Research
There is difference in aims, scope, method and utility between social survey
and social research. These differences are comparatively stated:
Social Survey

Social Research

a.

Social Survey helps in utility

a.

Social
research
is
not
concerned with that purpose

b.

Social survey simply studies b.

social problem

Social research helps in adding

to existing knowledge and
discovering new facts

c.

Social survey has utilitanan c.

view point

Social research has scientific

view point

d.

Social survey studies only the d.

members of community

Social research covers much

broader field. It covers the
whole human

e.

Social survey deals

immediate problems

with e.

Social research, is not much

concerned with immediate
nature

f.

Social survey is not in need of f.

social hypotheses and their
generalization

Social research is based on

hypotheses. They are to be
generalized

g.

Social surveys are helpful in g.

solving welfare problems.

Social research is not directly

concerned
with
welfare
problem

7.3

DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY STUDIES WITH REFERENCE

TO EDUCATION

(I)

The concept and significance of survey studies

According to John W. Best (1994) survey is an extensive and cross-sectional

approach dealing with a relatively large number of cases at a particular time
and yielding statistics that are abstracted from particular cases.
The survey method gathering data from a relatively large number of cases at a
particular time. It is an important type of research. It must not be confused with
a mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It involves a clearly
defined procedure and definite objectives. It requires expert and imaginative
planning, careful analysis and interpretation of data, logical and skillful
reporting of findings.
According to Carter V. Good (1959) the purpose of descriptive survey study is
to secure evidence covering the existing situation, to identify standards, norms
which to compare present conditions and to determine how to make the next
step. This means that researchers who attempt to solve problems in educational
and social organizations by conducting surveys, collect detailed descriptions of

existing phenomena to justify the current conditions and to make plan for
improving them.
The survey studies collect data from a number of cases at a particular period of
time. These are not related with the characteristics of individuals but their main
concern is to make generalizations which are based on the data collected from a
number of cases.
Survey may be broad or narrow in scope. They may encompass several
countries or may be confined to one region, city or some other unit. Survey
data may be gathered from every member of a population or from a carefully
selected sample. Data may be collected concerning a large number of related
factors or a few selected items. The scope and depth of the study depend
primarily upon the nature of the problem and the scope of the study.
7.4 KINDS OF SURVEYS
The survey study according to Good, is essentially a research and is clearly
distinguished from a clerical report. It has a distinctive form with a definite
attention given to describing the methodology, the resources, the population,
the traits being studied and other appropriate methodological or technical
details. The survey study is presumably based on original observations. Each
step is taken carefully. The data are summarized and form a definite part of the
contribution of the study. Moreover, the background, sensitivity and general
competence of the investigators as well as the spirit with which he works, are
also vital elements in survey studies.

(ii)

Limitations in Survey Studies

Inspite of the fact that survey researchers make their efforts to take meticulous
care in collection of data but still there are certain limitations in the studies
which are mostly related to the nature of data or information collected for
research purpose. For example:
a. Information that is not known to the respondents cannot be obtained
b. Information that is not significant to the respondents cannot be obtained
c. Information will not be accurate when a respondent tends to conceal it
d. Information about activities shared by a very small proportion of
population, will not be reliable in a cross sectional surveys
e. Data obtained with high sampling error do not suit proper for sample
surveys
f. Information obtained from a single survey is less reliable than the trend
survey, carried out by the same method
g. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining exact quantitative forecast of things
to come
h. Information will not be accurate if it is collected by inexperienced
investigator or social worker
7.4.1
a.

School Survey

The Nature of School Survey

School surveys have become popular in school system. Traditionally in school

surveys detailed information is collected to be used as a basis for judging, the

effectiveness of the instructional programme. The following aspects are

specially surveyed in a school system.

Physical facilities

Instructional materials

Basic amenities

Curriculum offerings

Teaching and supervisory personnel

Other ancillary or supporting staff

Financial resources and their utilization

Pupils achievement and evaluation methods

Rules and regulations

Transportation and other recreational facilities

Problems faced by administrators, teachers and students

Enrolment, dropout, repetition and failures

School surveys may be carried out by school staff by experts and both by
school staff and experts, or by collaboration and cooperation of external
agency.
Information for various purposes are collected through school surveys.
However, most of information sought by school survey, falls into the following
categories.

b.

Studying the Setting for Leaning

Such survey studies the legal, administrative, social physical setting for
learning so that the entire infrastructure of school system could be developed
and improved.
c.

Studying the Characteristics of Educational Personnel

Such studies relates to the collection of information about school staff,

supervisory and other administrative personnel so that their professional
capacity and their interrelationship could be built up and improved.
d.

Studying the Nature of Pupils

Such studies are conducted on the behaviour patterns of pupils in the

classroom, at home and in the community. Necessary information about pupils
health, attitude, skills, academic achievement, intelligence, aptitude, study
habits, attendance and dropout rate are collected. The objective of such survey
is to improve academic achievement of children and facilitate their better
adjustment in school and in home environment.
e.

Studying the Nature of Educational Process

Some surveys are carried out to scrutinize educational programmes, processes,

practices and outcomes. The researcher may also study the effectiveness of
curriculum its content, relevance and the need for change in future.
7.4.2

Community Survey

There is a close relationship between educational and social sector and the
community. Educators often collect data about local setting and particular
aspect of life in it. Sometimes they join social scientists in fact finding projects

known as community survey. These may also be called social survey or

field studies. These surveys are closely linked with school surveys. They may
collect data concerning the schools, which on the other hand may analyze many
aspects of the community.
Community survey may focus sharply on a particular condition such as health,
services, unemployment, or may represent data concerning specific segment of
the society as rural women and other environmental and sanitary conditions.
Ihe scope and depth of community survey are determined by the nature of the
problem, the amount of time and money, qualified leadership and willingness
of the community to cooperate. Community survey investigators use methods
like questionnaire, interview and direct observation. They collect data from
teachers, students, administrators and adopt an interdisciplinary approach. They
collect information about various social processes.
If the very objective of community survey is to identify social, economic, and
educational problems and needs, then these studies should be focused on the
following

prevailing

issues

in

community

life.

For

this

purpose

interdisciplinary approach should be adopted and workable strategies should be

suggested on the basis of outcome of these surveys.
The most crucial problems and issues which are facing to community are:

Lack of basic education facilities

Lack/absence of basic health facilities

Non availability of safe drinking water

Absence of electricity and sanitation facilities

The growing poverty in rural areas

The poverty of rural women

Human rights violation and gender discrimination

Child labour

Unemployment

Educational wastage

These are just a few examples. There are hundred and hundred problems facing
to communities in Pakistan which need detailed investigation for improving the
quality of life.
7.4.3
(a)

Job Analysis

The Nature of Job Analysis

The job analysis technique is applied to study administrative, teaching and nonteaching priorities. In this type of research, data is often gathered about the
general duties and responsibilities of workers and their specific activities, their
status and relationship in the administration of the organization, their working
condition and the nature and scope of the facilities available to them. The data
helps the investigator to describe present practices and conditions of
employment and competencies and behavioural traits that personnel should
possess to carryout their own work effectively and efficiently.
(b)

The Objectives of Job Analysis

According Van Dalen this type of research helps the administrator to:

Detect weaknesses, implications or inefficiency in work

Establish uniform classification for similar work

Identify the competencies

Assign workers to jobs best suited to each worker to put the available
manpower to the best use

Set up training programme and establish requirements for promotion or

for reward or incentives.

Develop theoretical framework for studying administrative functions

and structures

(c)

Procedure Employed for Job Analysis Studies

Various procedures are adopted for the job analysis studies by a researcher such
as:
- From personal observation and judgment detained from authorities in the
field, the researcher may compile a list of the broad functions involved in
administrative, supervisory or teaching positions

An investigator may examine documents to obtain information

concerning the duties, responsibilities and rights of personnel holding a
given position

By questioning workers, a researcher may try to ascertain what duties

they perform

An other procedure is employed in job analysis consists in determining

the duration of the time devoted to duties. Such approach would
describe the work load of various working people in an organization

(d)

Some Important Considerations to be taken in view in Job Analysis

Studies

The qualitative and creative characteristics which are necessary for

successful job performance, should not be omitted from the description

The job analysis should also give consideration to the personal

characteristics of the workers

The job analysis should give equal weight to all activities, functions and
personal characteristics associated with a particular job.

Some method or criterion of weighing the relative importance of various

job component must be devised

7.4.4

Public Opinion Survey

In our society where there are so many controversies, there are so many
opinions. These controversies, these opinions are, however expressed by
organized and interest groups and are usually projected through media. There
are large number of controversies which need ascertaining public opinion or the
opinion of public at large. For example issues relating to education are English
as a medium of instruction. Uniform system of Education, Co-education at
higher level. Self financing scheme etc. So, it is important to find out what
the people think? How do people feel about these issues? Such questions can
be answered by means of public Opinion survey Many research

organizations carryout these surveys on controversial subjects and disseminate

finding through media and other means. A new term Gallup Pole or Opinion
Pole is conducted to predict about a success or failure of a particular political
figure for example in an election such surveys are usually conducted by the
media concerns.
As it is inconvenient and also not feasible to get an expression of opinion from
every person, therefore, sampling techniques are employed in such a way that
the resulting opinion of a limited number of people can be used to infer the
reaction of the entire population. Those who conduct opinion have developed
more sophisticated method of determining public attitude through more precise
sampling procedure. If the sampling procedure is incorrect, and sample is not
representative, then the prediction or the result will not be true. Therefore, for
more accurate sampling probability sampling is used instead of quota sampling
for the purpose of survey.
7.4.5

Follow Up Studies

The follow up studies investigate individuals who leave an institution after

completing a programme or a course of study. The study aims at discerning
what has happened to them and what impact the programme of institution had
on them. the purpose of follow up study is to determine the adequacy or
inadequacy of the programme with the help of opinions acquired from those
who have gone through the programme as well as the opinion of those with
whom these people work.
This type of research enables the researcher to find out if the course or
programme is effective and of value or only of limited value. These studies are

also helpful for the institutions in evaluating various aspects of their course or
programme in the light of actual results.
Important follow up studies have been conducted in United States. Two of them
are important to be mentioned.
a. Dillons (1949) study of early school leavers had yielded information that
had led to the improvement of the curriculum, guidance services,
administrative procedure and holding power of the American Secondary
Schools.
b. Project Talent both survey and follow up study was conducted by US Office
of Education in 1965. On 44000 students enrolled in 1953 in secondary
schools. The objectives of such survey and follow up study were.
a. To build up linkage between educational instruction and employment
opportunities.
b. To make change and improvement in the curriculum of an educational
programme and to make it more job oriented.
Some other benefits attributed to follow up studies are:
i. To obtain an inventory of young people of their capabilities and
potentialities
ii. ii. To establish a set of standard for educational and psychological
measurement
iii. To provide a comprehensive guide indicating patterns of career success
iv. To provide information on how youth choose their work

v. To provide better understanding of the educational experiences which

prepare student for their work
7.4.6
a.

Documentary Analysis

The Nature of Documentary Analysis

Documents and records may be dry and dull reading material to ordinary
persons but a researcher often provides them blood through digging the
exciting and pertinent facts out of these sources. Documentary analysis is
sometimes referred to as content activity or informational analysis.
Documentary analysis is closely related to historical research. Both methods of
investigation explore existing records, but historical research is primarily
concerned with the more distant past while documentary analysis is a type of
descriptive research concerned with the present status of a certain problem.
In this type of research, a researcher may merely gather and clarify factual data
from the official reports of institutions, organizations or may classify or
evaluate the content of documents according to establish criteria.
A researcher has to bear in mind that the date appearing in print are not
necessarily trust worthy and authentic and all documents used in this type of
descriptive research must be subjected to the same careful criticism which is
employed by historians. The authenticity of the document as well as the
validity of content is of crucial importance. The researcher is required to
establish the trust worthiness of all data that he draws from documentary
sources.
b.

Documentary Sources

The documentary sources are listed below:

Official records and reports

Committees Commissions and Conferences Reports

Workshops Symposium and Seminar Reports

Census, Statistics Reports

National Development Plans and Policies

National Financial Plans (Budget)

Books, Text Books, Magazines

News Papers, News Letters, Bulletins

Letters, Autobiographies

Diaries

Pictures, Films and Cartoons

Proceeding of meetings

Cumulative records of students

Case studies

Observation reports

Curriculum offering materials

Codes of conduct

State laws etc

A wide variety of such documents are available for documentary analysis. It

depends upon the nature of the problem and the type of materials to be
analyzed by the researcher.
c.

The Purposes of Documentary Analysis with Reference to Academic

Matters

The following purposes may be served through documentary analysis.

To describe the prevailing conditions and practices

To discover the relative imnortance or interest in certain topics or

problems To discover level of difficulty of presentation in text books or
other publication

To evaluate bias, prejudice or propaganda in text books or other

publications

To analyze error in students, work or to identify the literary style

concept or belief of a writer.

This type of analysis serves a useful purpose in research adding important

knowledge to a field of study or yielding information that is useful in
evaluating social or educational practice.
d.

Advantages of Documentary Analysis

The following are advantages of documentary analysis.

It describes specific condition and practices that exist in school and

society

It spots trends

It detects weaknesses and anomalies

It traces the development of a certain activity

It discloses differences in the practices of various areas

It evaluates the relationship of various objectives and what is being

taught

It exposes biases and prejudices

It detects the attitude, interest, values and psychological state of the

people

It depicts problems and issues in the society

It builds a rationale for bringing about change and improvement in the

system

e.

Limitations of Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis inspite of providing valuable information contains

certain limitations.

For example error made by students in a certain test which is under

analysis. These mistakes are attributed to difficulties encountered by the
students in the test, but this information is of limited value for it does
not reveal why they made such errors

In documentary research, findings are of little value because the

investigator fails to analyze a representative sample of source material

An other weakness found in some documentary studies is failure to

analyze the worthwhileness of source material

f.

Procedure of Documentary Analysis

The analysis of quantitative material involves the following procedure.

Specification of objectives

Developing hypotheses

Sampling

Determining categories/classification

Category wise analysis

Quantification of major units

Quantification involves the frequency with which various units occur.

Majpr units are:
Words, themes, character, items, space and time measures.
7.5 EX POST FACTO OR CAUSAL COMPARATIVE STUDIES
7.5.1

The Nature of Causal Comparative Studies

Educational and social researchers while carrying out descriptive research not
only try to discover what a phenomena is but also to see how and why it
occurs. They try to determine what factors or circumstances, certain events or
practices accompany the occurrence of the phenomena. In social sciences,
where it is difficult to control various variables, causal comparative method is
usually employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for

researcher to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause
and effect relationship. So this method enables the researcher to analyze what
happens in a natural situation rather than in a laboratory situation. In an
experiment, the researcher hypothesizes, then manipulates important variables.
And exposes the experimental group to experience A while withholding the
experience from a control group and observes the result. In a causal
comparative study, the researcher observes phenomena B and searches back
through multiplicity of possible causes for the factors independent that are
related or contributed to the accurence of phenomena B. three examples are
quoted here to clarify the nature of a causal comparative study.
Examples-1 If a researcher wants to determine the cause of unrest in an
educational institution, he cannot set up a control group to test whether certain
factors will cause an unrest. He will compare the institutions where unrest
occurred with other institutions, which had no unrest or riots. He will study the
likeness and difference between the two situations and will determine the
factors that appear to account for the unrest in one instance and for its lack in
the other.
Example-2 If a researcher intends to identify the causes of automobile
accidents in order to study their causes. He will incline to automobile industry
police department, safety commission and other insurance companies to study
the conditions associated with the accidents that have occurred. Such factors as
mechanical faults, or failure, excessive speed, driving under the influence of
drugs and others have been identified as causes.

Example-3 Studies on juvenile delinquency may compare the social and

educational background of delinquents and non- delinquents, what factors if
any were common to the delinquent groups? What factors if any were common
to non-delinquent groups. Any factors common to one groups but not to the
other might serve as possible explanation of the underlying causes of
delinquency.
Weaknesses or Limitations of Causal Comparative Studies
This type of studies possess certain weaknesses or limitations.
a. The study of the past event may be the only practicable way to investigate
certain problems, the researcher needs to be aware of the problems inherent
in this type of research. The researcher must be cognizant of the fact that the
information used in ex-post facto studies may be incomplete. That the
researcher may not have sufficient information about all the events and
variables that were occurring at the time being studied.
b. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method. Suppose a
researcher observe phenomena B and hypothesizes that A caused B. The
data may show that A is related to B but without controlling A, he cannot be
certain that some other factors as C.D.E etc did not cause the occurrence B.
So we can say that causal comparative studies do not produce precise,
reliable knowledge that an experimental study can do. But they provide a
way to problemlproblems that cannot be probed in a laboratory situation.
7.5.2

Correlation Studies

Description of phenomena are sometimes made by cmploying correlation

technique which helps in ascertaining the extent to which two variables are

related or the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variation
in another factor. The investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate
the independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the
independent as well as the dependent variable as these occur in natural setting.
For example, a researcher studying the relationship between IQ and
achievement randomly selects some groups and measure both the IQ and the
achievement through some tests. The two variables in this type of research may
be closely relatyd, moderately related or completely unrelated. Generally, the
magnitude of the correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or
decrease in one variable is accompanied by increase or decrease in other
variable whether in the same direction or in opposite direction. For example, a
high positive correlation exists if a high rank in one set is accompanied by a
high rank in other (high IQ high achievement test score) and a low rank in one
set is accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation exists
if in general a high rank in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the
other (high IQ low achievement test score). No or little correlation exists if a
high score in one set is just as likely to corresponds with a low or with a high
score in the other set. Correlations therefore, range over a state which extend
from a perfect negative correlation to no correlation and to perfect positive
correlation.
The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of
correlation merely qualifies the extent to which two variables are related and it
does not imply that cause- effect-relationship necessarily exists. The meaning
of the relationship is interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical

compilation. This interpretation has as the limitations to which causal

comparative studies are subjected.
With some ingenuity, correlation method can be used in studying various
educational and social problems.
7.5.3
1.

Developmental Studies

The Concept and Nature of Developmental Studies

The concept of development is essentially biological and has been most

commonly associated with living structures and life processes. However, the
concept has come to be applied to physical system as well as to social
institutions, cultural and system of ideas. According to Good the purpose of
developmental studies is to discover the origin, direction, trend, pattern, rate
pattern of growth with a somewhat more recent interest in causes and
interrelationships affecting growth.
Longitudinal as well as cross section techniques have frequently been used. In
longitudinal studies, the growth of a particular group is followed over a period
of month or years where as cross sectional studies at least a single
measurement is obtained for each individual with a group studied.
The two types of developmental studies that can be used in the field of
educational planning and management and in the planning and management of
the component of other social sector are growth studies and trend projection
studies. These are briefly described.

7.5.4

Growth Studies

A planner in the social sector, for successful and realistic planning, has to be
fully aware of the changes taking place in areas affecting his field. He has to
know what interrelated factors affect growth of education for example at
various stages of economic development when various aspects of growth are
first observed and move forward to reach optional development.
Growth studies can be carried by using other longitudinal or cross-sectional
approach. When applying longitudinal method one person, group or institution
is observed over a period of time while in cross-sectional method different
persons or groups are observed at approximately the same time at different
stages of development. Cross sectional approach has an advantage over the
longitudinal approach. The former is more economical and has the advantage
of gathering data promptly. A planner might will like to study the educational
policies being produced in countries at different levels of economic growth or
might like to study the impact of a certain strategy of educational development
being adopted by a country at comparable level of socio-economic growth.
7.5.5.

Trend Studies

The trend study is an interesting application of the descriptive method. In

essence, it is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data
indicating what has been happening in the past? What the present situation
reveals and on the basis of these data what is likely to happen in the future. For
example, if the population in an area shows consistent. growth over a period of
time, one might predict that by a certain data in the future the population will
reach a certain level. These assumptions are based upon likelihood that the
factors producing the change or growth will continue to exert their influence in

future. The trend study points to conclusion reached by the combined method
of historical and descriptive analysis.
This type of research furnishes valuable data for planning prograrmnes. These
prediction are, however, estimates and represent tentative conclusion because
there are a lot of factors which can hasten or arrest the problem of growth and
development.
7.5.6

Trend Projection

All the future plans can be made on the basis of approximately accurate
estimates about future. That is possible only if we critically analyze the past
data and existing status. The trend can be mathematically educated and trend
projection can be made on the basis of the past trends. These types of studies
may be named as trend projections.
An other type of projection study is target oriented projections. In this way of
projections, the targets are set before hand and the projections are made looking
into consideration the existing data and projecting the figures up to the target.
For example the year 2010 and 2015 have been set as target of achieving
universal enrolment at primary level and universal adult literacy in Pakistan on
the basis of census figures in 1998 for which enrolment projection and
population projection have been made both at national and regional levels.
Moreover, Allama lqbal Open University has carried out a projection for the
demand and supply of primary schools female for the period 1981-82 to 199091.
In Pakistan, however, target oriented projections for the development are made,
the rising cost or the cost factors are not taken into consideration with the result

that programmes are slow and the targets are not achieved. Therefore, more and
more realistic projections are made that is resource oriented projections. In this
type of projections of the planners keep in view the financial allocation made
by the government for the sub sector for which the projections are made.
7.6 INTER-RELATIONSHIP STUDIES
7.6.1
(I)

Case Study

The Meaning and Concept of Case Study

A case study is a simple approach in educational and social research in which a

single individual or small groups of people is studied. The concept is further
elaborated. When the focus of attention is directed towards a single case or a
limited number of cases, the process is personalized and such researches are
included in the case study method of descriptive research. This study is
extended to include any relatively detailed description and analysis of a single
person, event, institution or community. This study is said to be ideographic in
the sense that it attempts to understand behaviour or attitudes of the individuals
without attempting to generalize these findings to other persons or groups. Here
the emphasis is not upon the individual representing a type but upon the
individual as a unique personality with his own problems and needs.
As indicated earlier, it is an in depth investigation of a single case in its totality.
Because of this intensive nature, the case studies highlights the important
variables, processes and interaction that deserve action.
In short the case study attempt to examine and analyze extensively the
background, current studies, social, political, economic and environmental

interaction or relationship of a given social unit i.e. individual, a group, an

institution, a community or an examination of a given phenomena.
A case study is similar to survey but instead of gathering data covering a few
factors from a large number of social units, an intensive study of a limited
number of representative cases is made. It is narrower in scope but more
exhaustive in nature than a survey.
(ii)

Purposes of Case Studies

The case studies in research are undertaken for the following purposes.
a. To provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be difficult to study
in other context.
b. To provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to test
hypotheses.
c. To provide new insights, help modify pre-existing beliefs, and point out
gaps in knowledge.
d. To be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be established in
a concrete model.
e. To understand the life cycle or an important part of the life cycle of an
individual unit. This may be a person, family, a group or a social institution
or an entire community.
(iii)

Sources of Data for Case Studies

Data for a case study may be collected by a variety of methods such as:

a. Making observation by a researcher of the informants physical

characteristics, social qualities or behaviour.
b. Conducting interview with subjects, his/her relatives, friends, teachers
counselors and others.
c. Using questionnaire, opinionmaire, psychological tests and inventories.
d. Consulting recorded data from news paper, schools, courts, clinics,
government agencies and other sources.
e. Consulting personal documents such as diaries letters etc.
(iv)

Pre-Cautions to be Taken by Researcher in a Case Study

Certain precautions should be taken by a research while undertaking a case

study.
a. The method may look deceptively simple. To use it effectively, the
researcher must be thoroughly familiar with existing theoretical knowledge
of the field of inquiry and skilful in isolating significant variables from
those that are irrelevant. There is tendency to select variables because of
their spectacular nature rather than for their crucial significance.
b. Subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering and analysis.
The danger of selecting variable relationship beset upon pre-conceived
condition and the apparent consistency of a too limited sample of
observation may lead to the researcher to an unwarranted feeling of
certainly about the validity of his/her conclusion.
c. Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely associated
rather than cause and effect related while the case study process is

susceptible to the post hoc fallacy, it is also a hazard associated with other
type of non-experimental studies.
7.6.2
Statistical Method of Educational and Social
Research
a.

Definition of Statistical Method

Many research problems can be solved with the help of statistics, therefore, this
method of research is becoming more popular iii these days. Statistical method
is defined as a method which deals with data obtained by counting or
measuring properties of popular natural phenomena. In the words of Horace,
statistics are aggregate of facts, affected to a marked extent of multiplicity of
causes, numerically expressed according to reasonable standard of accuracy,
collected in a systematic manner for a pre-determined purpose and placed in
relation to each other. In single word statistical method of research lays stress
on facts, figures and nothing beyond that.
b.

Characteristics of Statistical Method

Statistical method of social research has its characteristics such as:

The method does not study any individual but a group of individuals.

This method is quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.

This method is itself not the source of data but it interprets and analyze
data.

c.

Functions of Statistical Method

- The function of statistical method is that it should try to measure social

phenomena which implies analysis and evaluation of various variables.

Another function is that the method should be presented in a simple manner in

a way that is clearly understood and followed by observer.
It should have no subjectivity in it.
It should introduce objectivity and avoid bias in social phenomena.
It should provide proper analysis of data.
The importance and significance of statistics in educational and social research
is considerably increasing. Since figures help in representing data and make
that easy and understandable therefore, in social and educational research their
use is increasing. The statistics method is useful for planners and administrators
for assessing their achievement and future needs and for assessing financial
resources for development programme.
d.

Limitations of Statistical Method

The statistical method inspite of its popularity, has certain limitations such as it
cannot be used under all circumstances and situations. This method becomes
irrelevant when qualitative data is to be interpreted. Another limitation is that it
does not deal with individuals but only with groups or aggregates. This method
need maximum care. When this method is handled by incompetent persons
then misleading results are bound to arise.

UNIT-8:
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
8.1 THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIMENT
An experiment according to Kanneth D. Bailey is a highly controlled method
of attempting to demonstrate the existence of a causal relationship between
one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables.
In an ideal experiment the researcher gets control over the environment in
which the experiment is conducted and is able to hold consistent or
otherwise control over any experimental or extraneous factors that might
affect the experiment.
In the words of M.A Bukhari (1990) an experiment is a scientific device for
obtaining an answer to the question like If this is done under carefully
controlled conditions, what will happen?
An experiment is a situation in which relationship between the cause and effect
is established. The underlying logic being if two situations are alike in every
respect and if one element is added to one but not to the other the resultant
difference may be considered to be the effect of the element. Similarly, if
two situations are alike in every respect and one element is removed from
one situation but not from the other, any observable difference may be
attributed to the element removed.
What is educational experimentation? Engal Hart (1991) has described
experimentation as the name given to the educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or a group of

children is subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting
achievement. In the simplest type of educational experiment the investigator
seeks to evaluate the influence of some one educative or experimental factor on
a single group of children. He must start the experiment with some
measurement of the initial attainment of the children in the trait or ability to be
influenced. He then subjects the group to the experimental factor. At the end
the investigator applies a final test for the purpose of determining the gain the
achievement that has resulted from the application of the experimental factor.
According to John W. Best (1994) experimentation provides a systematic and
logical method if this is done what will happen under carefully controlled
condition.
Experimentation provides a method of hypotheses testing. After experimenter
defines a problem, he proposes a tentative answer or hypothesis. He tests the
hypothesis and confirms or disconfirms it in the light of the controlled variable
relationship that he has observed.
According to Van Dalen (1985) in experimental research, the researcher does
not confine himself to the activities such as to observe and describe what exists
but he deliberately manipulates certain factors under highly controlled
conditions to ascertain how and why a particular condition or event occurs.
8.2 THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
According to L.R. Gay (1992) experimental research is the only type of
research that can truly test the hypotheses concerning cause and effect
relationship. It represents the most valid approach to the solution of educational
problems both practical and theoretical and to the advancement of education as

a science. He further says that in experimental study, the researcher

manipulates at least one independent variable, controls relevant variable and
observe the effect of one or more dependent variable. The researcher
determines who gets what? Which group of subjects get which treatment? This
manipulation of independent variable is the one characteristics that
differentiates all experimental from the other types of research.
8.3 THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS
An experimental process is a systematic procedures of an experimental
research in which several steps are logically followed. Such as:
Studying a problematic situation
Selecting a problem
Defining the problem
Selecting subjects
Selecting measuring instrument
Selecting a design
Executing the experimental designlprocedure
Analyzing data
Formulating conclusion
Further verifying results

8.4 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN EXPERIMENT

In a simple conventional experiment, reference is usually made to an
experimental group and a control group. The experimental group is exposed to
the influence of the factor under consideration and the control group is not
exposed to it. Observations are then made to determine what difference appears
or what change or modification occurs in the experimental group as contrasted
with the control group.
8.5 VARIABLES
The dictionary meaning of the word variable is that characteristic which is
able to assume different numerical values. In research terminology variables
are the conditions or characteristics that an experimenter manipulates, controls
or observes. For example, a researcher studying the effect of the use of audiovisual aids on the academic achievement, manipulates and controls the use of
audio-visual aids and observes the academic achievement of students as
compared to instruction in which audio-visual aids are not used by the teacher.
For this purpose, he selects two un biased groups of students and provides
instruction to one group through the usual lecture method and to the other
group through the use of audio-visual aids. This is what is meant by controlling
or manipulating. Then the researcher records the academic achievement of the
two groups of students. This is what we meant by observation. In this
experiment audio-visual aids and academic achievement are the two
variables.

a.

Independent Variables

An independent variables is the condition or characteristics that the

experimenter himself manipulates or controls in order to observe and ascertain
its impact on the phenomena to be observed. In educational research cited
above audio-visual aids are independent variables.
b.

Dependent Variable

An dependent variable is that condition or characteristics that appears,

disappear or change as the experimenter introduces, removes or changes the
independent variable. The experiment is free to assign any value to the
independent variable but he can only observe or record the resultant value of
the dependent variable. In the research of the efficacy of the use audio-visual
aids, the experimenter can vary the extent of the use of audiovisual aids during
teaching but he can only record the academic achievement of students which is
perhaps dependent on the teaching method.
In short, in educational research, independent variable may be a particular
teaching method, types of reinforcement (rewards) curriculum organization,
type of teaching material, frequency or duration of any activity.
The dependent variable may be performance on test, number of errors, speed
and accuracy in the performance of any task and any other behavioural changes
which can be observed quantified.
c.

Intervening Variables

In many type of research, specially in behavioural sciences, the relationship

between the independent and dependent variables is not a simple stimulus
response type relationship. Certain variables intervene between the stimulus

and response or between independent and dependent variables. For example, an

experiment conducted to investigate a certain type of training on the
administrative performance is dependent variable. But the efficiency of the
administrator may be affected by his family background, socio-economic
conditions, his motivation and his will to implement the desired changes etc.
Theses and other factors may intervene in determining the effect of training on
his management performance. In behavioural sciences, such intervening
variables cannot be avoided. However, it is important that the experiments
could be conscious of these intervening variables and should adopt the
experimental design most suited for controlling of these variables as far as
possible.
d.

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are those uncontrolled variables which are not

manipulated by the researcher, but they may have significance influence upon
the results of a research study. For example, in a study about democratic
versus authoritarian control in the educational institutions and their relative
effect on the performance of teachers. There may be certain extraneous
variables which cannot be manipulated by the experiment but they do effect the
result of the experiment. For example, the inborn competence of educational
managers, the enthusiasm on their parts, their missionary zeal, or their
socioeconomic levels are such variables which cannot be manipulated by the
researcher but which may affect their performance.

8.6

TECHNIQUES/MEASURES TO BE ADOPTED
CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

FOR

Although the extraneous variables cannot be completely controlled by the

experimenter but there are certain measures and techniques which can be used
to minimize the effect of extraneous variables. Some of these techniques are
briefly stated.
a.

Removing the Variable

Extraneous variable may be controlled by eliminating such variables

completely. For example, if in a study on education managers, wide differences
are expected in male and female behaviour (that is if sex is an extraneous
variable) the study be delimited to one sex only.
b.

Randomization

Randomization is the method of selection of subjects for the study. It ensures

that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected and
of being assigned. to the experimental and control group. It provides an
effective method of eliminating systematic bias and of minimizing the effect of
extraneous variables.
c.

Matching Cases

An other method of controlling extraneous is that of assignment of subjects

with identical or nearly identical characteristics to the two groups. This method
is used in cases where assignment of cases through randomization is either not
feasible or nor appropriate. For example in the research on the impact of
regular drill or speed drill on the spelling competence, the researcher wants
to have two groups with equal spelling competence. He first gives the two

available classes a spelling test and assigned students to the two groups so that
for each student in the regular drill group, there is a student in the spaced drill
group with the same or almost the same score on the spelling test. This method
assures that the two groups had the same spelling ability at the beginning of the
experiment and that any difference found after exposing the two groups to the
methods of drill was due to the method of drill itself.
Matching cases method can only match groups on the basis of one variable and
can thus control only one extraneous variables.
d.

Balancing Cases

This method consists of assigning subjects to the experimental and control

groups in such a way that the mean and the variance of the two groups are as
nearly equal as possible. Because identifical balancing of groups is impossible
the experimenter has to decide how departure from equality can be tolerated
without loss of satisfactory control. This method also suffers from the
limitations pointed out in the matching method.
e.

Analysis of Co-variance

It is possible with the help of statistical method to eliminate initial differences

on more than one variables. This method is preferable to the conventional
method of matching but it involves use of analysis of covariance.
8.7 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
In most experimental research carried outside the laboratory, a number of
extraneous variables tend to confound the research in such a way that it is
difficult to evaluate their influence on the result when such extraneous
variables are affecting the result, it becomes difficult to conduct that the

changes observed in the dependent variables are caused by the independent

variables. The extraneous variables in effect introduce rival hypotheses, which
account for the observed changes not attributable to the experimental variables
under consideration. Although these extraneous variables cannot be completely
eliminated, a researcher should be able to identify and anticipate them and take
possible measures to minimize their influence through appropriate design and
careful execution. In order that the conclusion arrived at through the
experimental research are accepted as true, the experiment must have internal
and external validity.
a.

Internal Validity

Internal validity is the basic minimum limit necessary to make the result of the
experiment interpretable. Internal validity questions whether the experimental
treatment really makes a difference in the dependent variable? An adequate
answer to this question requires adequate internal validity. Before, it can be
answered, the researcher must be confident that extraneous variables have not
produced an effect that is being mistaken as an effect of the experimental
treatment. According to Best an experiment has internal validity to the extent
that the factors that have been manipulated (independent variables) actually
have a genuine effect on the observed consequence (dependent variables) in the
experimental setting.
b.

External Validity

The value of an experimental research lies in its validity to provide a basis for
generalization from a sample to total population.

External validity according to best concerns the power of the experiment to

generalize variable relationship to a wider population of interest and to non
experimental settings.
Achieving external validity is difficult but sound experimental design,
appropriate statistical analysis and many replications with varied population
samples in a variety of settings, may minimize the problem.
Experimental validity is an ideal to aspire, for it is unlikely that can ever be
completely achieved. Internal validity is very difficult to achieve in a non
laboratory setting of the behavioural experiment when there are so many
extraneous variables to attempt to control. When experimental control are
tightened to achieve internal validity, the more artificial, less realistic situation
may prevail, reducing the external validity or generalizability of the
experiment.
Some comparison is inevitable so that reasonable balance may be established
between control and generalize ability between internal and external validity.
In order to gain maximum experimental validity, some efforts are made in
improving to experimental design, which are rarely, if ever, perfect. According
to William Wersman both internal and external validity are important and
through experimental design we attempt to embrace adequate validity. Since in
having one type of validity, may tend to jeopardize the other, we often attempt
to secure an adequate compromise. The compromise is essentially that of
attaining sufficient control to make the result interpretable which is maintaining
enough realism so that the results will generalize adequately to the intended
situation.

in the degree to which they control the various threats to internal and external
validity. However, a researcher selects a design which is appropriate for the
study, is feasible in the presence of any constraints, under which the researcher
is operating, controls the sources of internal and external invalidity and which
tests the hypotheses.

UNIT-9:
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
9.1 A RATIONALE FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental design as described by M.A Bukhari is the blue print of the
procedure that enables the researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid
conclusions about relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Selection of a particular design is based upon the purposes of the experiment,
the type of variables to be manipulated and the conditions or the hmiting
factors under which it is conducted.
The design deals with such practical problems such as:
how subjects are to be manipulated or controlled
the way extraneous variables are to be controlled
how observations are to be made and
the type of statistical analysis to be employed in interpreting data relationships
9.2 ISSUES IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
L.R Gay (1992) has pointed out some basic issues in the experimental design.
A selected experimental design dictates to a great extent the specific procedure
of a study. Selection of a given design dictates such factors as whether there
will be a control group whether subjects will be randomly assigned groups,
whether each group will be pretested and how resulting data will be analyzed.
Depending upon the particular combination of such factors experimental
designs vary widely

Various Types of Designs

There are various types of designs for conducting experimental research in the
area of education and other behavioural sciences. Three groups of designs i.e.
PreExperimental Designs and True Experimental Designs and QuasiExperimental Designs have been discussed in this unit. Before discussing
various types of design some symbols/abbreviations are explained which
frequently occur in research design.
T=

Treatment

O=

Observation

E=

Experimental Group

C=

Control Group

R=

Randomly Selected

P=

Period

9.3 PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Design No-1
Study)
(I)

The Simplest Design (One Shot Case

The Nature of Design

A large number of research studies in social sciences have used one-shot-case

design. In this design a single individual or group is studied in detail only once
and the observations are attributed to exposure to some prior situation. This
design may be represented as:
T

Example:
A group of principals of high schools are taken on a study tour of some modern
and well- equipped and well-managed educational institution of the country.
After some times the Director of Schools visit their schools to observe how
well their institutions were being managed by them. If he feels that schools are
well managed, he will conclude that the difference he noticed was due to the
influence of the study tour and hence the purpose of the study tour has been
achieved.
(ii)

The Weaknesses in the Design

This one-shot-case design is not considered by researchers to be an

experimental design at all. They argue that in order to provide useful scientific
information at least two observations i.e. pre-test and post test should be made
which could provide a basis for comparison. If there is any basis for
comparison in this design, it is only the observers general expectation of the
outcome of the treatment i.e. study tour.
The design is defective and open to criticism on the grounds that it provides no
clear cut standard of comparison by which to judge whether the subsequent
observation is, in fact, related to the preceding treatment. Moreover, in this
design, there is no pretest and none of the threats to validity that are relevant,
are controlled. Therefore, the limitation of the absence of pretest has been
removed in the next design No.2.

Design No.2: Pre-Test and Post-Test Design

(i)

The Nature of the Design

It is on the basis of criticism on design No.1 that a pretest is added to design

No.2. It is symbolized as under:
O1

O2

Referring to the previous example, if we intend to measure the efficiency of the

Principals before they are sent for a training in management (O) and then we
use the same device to measure their efficiency after training period is over
(02) the difference between the two Observations i.e. (O 02) is most likely
to be. attributed to the training component which is independent variable
manipulated by the researcher. In this way design No.2 is an improvement over
design No.1, in which the weakness of the absence of pretest has been
removed.
(ii)

The Weakness in the Design

There is also a weakness in the design. In physical sciences, like physics and
chemistry, this design may be more efficient but in behavioural science i.e.
education, one cannot be so sure in inferring cause and effect relationship. In
this design and the location of the treatment between pre-test (01) and post test
((02) affords no warrant that this treatment (i.e. pretest) alone is responsible for
any gain or difference between the two observations i.e. (d=02 O)
Moreover, during intervening period, between pre-test and post-test events
other than the treatment will also have occurred and may have caused 0 to
increase up to 02 particularly, if the period between 01 and 02 is long, the
change may reflect the maturation and experience of the principals even in the

absence of treatment i.e. training or tour component. Another affecting variable

may be the act of measuring itself. In this design the influence of pre-test on the
post test cannot be ignored or avoided. For example, in a test of cognitive skill
if an individual is taking the same test for the second time, he will do better
than he did in the first time.
Another weaknesses of this (O1 T 02) design may be due to the sampling
mistake (or a missing element) with the result that the observed gains may be
spurious. Taking previous example the group of the principals may consists of
these persons who have long experience with the result that they do not show
any significant difference between 0 02.
In short the clear limitations in the design are that:
a. History and maturation are not considered
b. Testing and instrumentation are not controlled and
c. Statistical regression is also not controlled
Design No-3
(I)

The Static Groups Comparison Design

The Nature of the Design

It is due to the criticism on design No.2 that the researcher tries to look for
some better experimental design. Design No.3 given below, may provide an
answer to this criticism. It provides two groups for comparison. One group is
experimental (E) which is given and is to be subsequently compared on the
basis of performance on some post test with the second group, the control
group (C) which has not exposed to the treatment. There is no pretest for both
groups.

The design may be symbolized as under:

E=

01

C=

02

Example:
Comparison of the result obtained with one group of principals provided
training in technique of school management (E Group) with the result obtained
from another group of principals not exposed to such treatment of such training
(C- Group)
(ii)

The Merit of the Design

This design provides an external standard of reference against which to

measure the effect of experimental treatment (01) of being the observation of
experimental group after treatment (training) and 02 being the observation of
control group. Other things being equal, it can be safely conducted that any
difference between 01 and 02 can be attributed to the training (treatment)
provided to the principals.
(iii) Weakness in the Design
The absence of pre-test is a major weakness in this design with the result that
information lacks as to be equivalence of this experimental and control group
in the first place. One group may be initially better than the other. However,
such situation can be improved through the technique of randomization.
In short, the advantage claimed for Design-3 is that the presence of the
treatment in one group and its absence in the other makes possible a valid
estimate of the treatment effect provided that the groups were equivalent

initially. In the previous example if we use a process of random assignment of

principals, the two groups are likely to be statistically equivalent and the
possibility of error is controlled. This weakness has been corrected in the True
Experimental Design (No.4) which controls for nearly all sources of internal
and external invalidity.
9.4 THE TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The Background
Design No.1 and No.3 have been discussed as pre-experimental design as
they provide either no control group or no way of equating the group that are
used with the result that these designs are least effective. The Design No.1 does
not provide for any pre-treatment observation and does not have any external
and explicit standard of reference for the purpose of comparison.
Design No.2 provides for a pre-treatment observation as a standard for
comparison but it does not provide for a control group as an external standard
of reference for comparison.
Design No.3 does provide control group as an external standard of reference
for the purpose of comparison but it does not provide pre-treatment observation
in either of group.
This situation therefore, demands a design which should have a control group
as well as to provide for a pre-treatment observation for both experimental and
control group s that the design may be true experimental one.
In a true experiment, according to Best the equivalence of the experimental
and control groups is provided by random assignment of subject to

experimental and control groups. Although, it is difficult to arrange a true

experimental design in behavioural science like education management,
however, it is the strongest type of design and should be used whenever
possible. These design are discussed below.
Design No-4

Post Test only Equivalent Groups Design

This design may be symbolized as under

RE=

O1

RC=

O2

This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats to

experimental validity. It differs from Design No.3 is that, experimental and
control groups are equated by random assignment. At the end of experimental
period, the difference between the mean test scores of the experimental as
well as of the control groups are subjected to statistical significance. A 1-test or
an analysis of variance, are relevant for this purpose.
Example:
A researcher selects 16 principals from a population of 100 principals in a
division. They are randomly assignment to experimental and control groups
such as 8 of than are used as experimental group and 8 of than as control group.
The experimental group is provided an intensive training (for example) in
Leadership in Education for a certain period where as the control group is not
provided any training and they continued their routine work in traditional
manner.

All the factors are equated. At the end of the period (P) the experimental and
control groups were administered a test of statistical significance. In case, the
statistically significance difference is found in favour of the experimental
group, one can safely conclude that this effect in the efficiency of the principals
is due to the training variable and in this way, the cause and effect relationship
is determined between the training treatments and efficiency (observation).
In case the difference between the mean score is found to favour the
experimental group but not to the extent of being statistically significant. one
can conclude that this superiority of experimental group (E) over the control
group (C) could well have been the result of sampling error and that there was
no evidence of the superiority of the training component over those principals
who were not provided such training.
However, there is one drawback in this design that is the non existence of pretest. If a pre-test is added to both the groups. we can arrive at another design
which can be named as Design No.5.
2. Design No-5Pre Test Post-Test Equivalent Groups
The following is the symbolic representation of the design.
(i)

(ii)

RE= O1

O2

RC=03

O4

D= dRE

O2 -

O1

dRC=O4

O3

(iii)

D=dRE-dRC

The design is similar to Design No.4 except that pretests are administered
before the appreciation of the experimental group treatments and post test at the
end of the treatment. The difference between the scores on pre-test and post test
for the experimental group is denoted as dRE and is calculated by the use of
formula dRE= 02 0 where as the difference between the scores on pre-test
and post-test of control group is dRE and is calculated by the use of formula
dRC= 04 03. Thus the gains in experimental and control group are dRE
dRC respectively and can be compared by calculating the net difference
between these two gains i.e. with the help formula
D= dRE - dRC
It is reasonable to attribute the difference between these two gains (i.e. capital
D) to the treatment (Training to the principals in the example referred
frequently) that one group received and the other group did not. The gain score
may also be compared and subjected to a test of significance of the difference
means. Pre-test scores can also be used in the analysis of co-variance to
statistically control for any difference between the groups at the beginning of
the study.
Let us take the example of training of principals as discussed in design 4 where
in each of this experimental and control groups is to be subjected to a pre-test
(the same or parallel) before the conduct of experiment. Then the training
component is planned to be given to the experimental group and the control
group is not to be exposed to treatment (training) After the experimental
treatment is over, the same or parallel test (post-test is to be conducted for both

the groups. The gain (02 - Oi) named as dRE in the experimental group now
has its counterpart dRC which is equal to (04 03) in the control group and
these gains can be compared. Their difference is D which is equal to dRE
dRC or (02 01) (04 03). It is reasonable to attribute the difference
between these gains (D) to the treatment or training received by experimental
group and not by control group.
The design is clearly an improvement over design No.4 where in no pretest was
provided and the group had been equated only statistically. This design is also
an improvement our design no.2 in which there was no assurance that the
treatment alone was responsible for any gained observed. The presence of
control group in design No.5 now makes it possible to control maturation and
practice effects. In brief, Design 5 has an advantage over previous designs that
the pretest affords an opportunity to check on the initial equivalence of the
groups. Thus this is a strong and a true experimental design but there may be
possibility of the influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the
experimental variability.
Design No-6

The Solomon Four Group Design

The symbolic representation of the design is as under:

RE

O1

O2

RC

O3

O4

RE

O5

RC

O6

The characteristics of this design are:

i.

Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups

ii.

Two groups receive experimental treatment (T)

iii.

One experimental group receive a pre-test (O)

iv.

Two control groups do not receive treatment (T)

v.

One control group receive a pre-test (03)

vi.

All four groups receive post-tests (02 04 05 06)

The design is really a combination of the two groups design previously

described (the post test only and the pre-test and post test). It is possible to
evaluate the effects of training. Analysis of variance is used to compare the four
post-test scores and an analysis of co-variance is used to compare gains in 02
and 04.
Because this design provides for two numerous experiments the advantage of a
replication are incorporated. A major difficulty is finding enough subjects to
assign randomly to four equivalent groups.
9.5 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The quasi experimental designs provide control of when and to whom the
measurement is applied. Out of a number of quasi experimental designs, a few
are described in this section.
Design No-7: The Pre-Test and Post-Test NonEquivalent Groups Design
The symbolic representation of this design is as under:
E

O1

O2

03

O4

Where O1and O3 are observation or pre-tests and 02 and 04 are the observation
on post-tests.
The design I as indicated earlier makes use of intact groups which are formed
on the basis of some natural grouping. Thus experimental and control groups
are formed neither by randomly assigning scores nor by matching.
Randomization is preferred over the selection of intact groups. Randomization
(as compared to matching which can equates groups, on a few variables) can
assure the researcher that there is no systematic biases in groups containing
randomly assigned individuals and it can determine which individual is to
receive treatment and which is not to receive, thus eliminating systematic
difference between the groups. The addition of control group is the major
advantage of this design, though it lacks the characteristics of Design No.5.
A researcher should be aware of the fact that the basic requirement of design 7
is not pre test scores for experimental and control groups. They are as similar as
possible and that the initial assignment of individuals to groups does not reflect
biases.
This design is justified on the following grounds. The design is adopted when
obtaining of equivalent groups through randomization for experimental and
control groups may sometimes become difficult because this would involve
splitting classes, disturbing class schedule or assembling scattered subjects at
one place. Therefore, there is need to have a design which could use preassembled subjects for experimental and control groups. The difference
between the mean of the 0 and 02 scores and the difference between the mean
of the 03 and 04 scores are tested for statistical significance. Analysis of co-

variance may also be used. Because this design may be the only possible one,
the comparison is justified but the results should be interpreted with care.
Design No-8:

The Time Series Design

The time series experimental is a type of longitudinal research where subjects

undergo repeated measurements both before and after the introduction of the
experimental variables. It can be diagrammed in the following way.
02 03 04

05 06 07 08

There are four observation period (the number may vary considerably).
The time series design is actually an elaboration of the one group pre test and
post test design. One group is repeatedly pre-tested (more than once but not
necessarily four times as shown in the above diagram) expoed to a treatment
and then repeatedly post tested. If a group scores essentially the same on a
number of pre-test and then significantly improve following a treatment, the
researcher has more confidence in the effectiveness of the treatment than if just
one pre test and one post test are administered.
The characteristics of this design are that maturation is eliminated in most time
series design, testing is also absent because the effects of repeated
measurement can be eliminated.
Weaknesses in the Design
There are certain weaknesses in the design such as:
History is still a problem in this design something might happen between the
last pre test and the first post test the effect of which might be confused with
the treatment

Instrumentation may also be a problem in case the experimenter is changing

measuring instruments during the study
Pre treatment Interaction is also a validity problem
Although the design is simple to execute but the analysis of the interpretation
of data is complex and difficult to handle
In this design for the analysis of data, the statistical technique of trend
analysis needs to be used

UNIT-10
TOOLS OF RESEARCH
10.1 SAMPLING: MEANING, PURPOSE AND
CHARACTERISTICS
(i)

The Purpose of Sampling

Many problems in scientific research as observed by Van Dalen (1985), cannot

be solved without employing sampling tools. Since most educational and social
phenomena consist of a large number of units, it is not always possible to
interview, test or observe each and every one under controlled conditions.
Sampling tools solve this problem for they help the researcher select
representative units from which he can gather data that permit him to draw
inferences about the nature of the entire population. Sampling tools save
investigators time, money and energy and enable him to provide solution to
problems that are too widely to be tackled by conventional methods.
According to John W. Best (1987) the primary purpose of research is to
discover principles that have universal application. But to study the whole
population in order to arrive at generalization, will be impracticable, if not
impossible. Some population are so large that their characteristics cannot be
measured. Fortunately, the process of sampling makes it possible to draw valid
inferences or generalizations on the basis of careful observation or
manipulation of variables within a relatively small proportion of the
population. A sample in simple words is a small proportion selected for
analysis. In a population in any group of individuals there is one or more
characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher.

In view of L. R Gay (1962) sampling is the process of selecting a number of

individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent a large
group from which they are selected. The individuals selected comprise a
sample and the large group is referred to as a population. The purpose of
sampling is to gain information about a population. It is not generally feasible
and not necessary that to use total population or group for a study. If the group
of interest is unmanageably large or geographically scattered, the study of this
group can result in considerable expenditure of time, energy and efforts. If a
sample is well-selected, research results based on it will be generalized to the
population.
(ii)

Steps in Selection of Sample

According to Van Dalen sampling does not consist in collecting data usually
from any conveniently located units. To obtain a representative sample. one
systematically selected each unit in a specified way under controlled
conditions. Several steps are involved in the process.
a.

Defining the Population

Conclusion cannot be drawn concerning a population until the nature of the

units that comprise it is clearly identified. If a population is vaguely defined, it
is impossible to decide what units to consider when selecting the population.
b.

Listing the Population

Once the population is clearly defined, the investigator obtains or construct a

complete accurate and upto date list (called frame) of all units in population.
This task is time consuming and the researcher will have to encounter
difficulties. The researchers will produce disappointing results if they consider

the available population frame without investigation of the methods that are
used to comply them without and without ascertaining whether all members of
the population are included.
c.

Selecting a Representative Sample

Once a population is defined and all units are tested, the next essential task is
relatively simple one. It involves the procedure of selecting units from the list.
Despite the mechanical ease of drawing a sample, mistakes are made by the
researcher. They select any group of units that conveniently at hand to them. A
good sample must be as nearly representative of the entire population as
possible.
d.

Obtaining Adequate Sample

The researcher should not select some samples which are too small to represent
the characteristics of the population. However, there are no specific rules on
how to obtain adequate sample. Each situation present its own problems. It
depends upon the size of an adequate sample, the nature of population, the type
of sampling design and the degree of precision. However, it should not too
small to be insignificant and not too large to be properly managed.
(iii) Types of Sample
a.

The Simple Random Sample

In selecting a simple random sample, the individual units/observation in the

population are chosen in such a way that any individual or observation in the
population has an equal chance of being selected and that each chance is
independent of any other choices. Only when these conditions are met can a

sample be said to be randomly selected. For example, if we wish to draw a

random sample of 50 individuals from a population of 600 students enrolled in
a high school, we can place the names in a container, a blindfolded person
draws one name at a time, untill the sample of 50 names is selected (This
procedure is though simple but cumbersome and is not often used). If a small
group is involved, a coin may be flipped to select the sample. Perhaps the best
method is to employ a table of random numbers such as those prepared by
Fisther and Yates, Teppell or Kandell and Batington Smith. After assigning
consecutive number of units of the population, one starts at any point on the
table of random number and reads consecutive numbers in any direction. When
a number is read that corresponds with that written on a unit card, that unit is
chosen for the sample. One continue to read until a sample of the desired size is
obtained. The number tables are given in books of statistics.
This method is criticized on certain grounds such as a random sample does not
necessarily represent the characteristics of the total population but it does leave
the choice of subjects to chance and thus reduces the possibility of bias
entering the selection of the sample. By chance of course one can select a
sample that does not accurately represent the total population. The more
heterogeneous the units are and the smaller the sample, the greater is the
chance of drawing poor sample.
However, random sampling according to LR Gay possesses a certain merit in
the best sample way to obtain a representative sample. No technique, not even
random sampling guarantees a representative sample but the probability is
higher for this procedure, than for any other. An other point in favour of
random sampling is that it is required by inferential statistics. This is very

important since inferential statistics permit the researches to make inferences

about population based on the behaviour of samples. If sample are not
randomly selected then one of the major assumptions of inferential statistic is
violated.
b.

Stratified Sampling

(i)

The Nature

Since random sampling may by chance, have under proportion of one type of
unit in it, it is sometimes advisable to use stratified random sampling to get a
more representative sample. When applying this technique of the researcher
divides his population into strata or groups by some characteristics and from
each of this smaller groups homogeneous groups draws at random a
predetermined number of units. For example to ascertain the views of the
people on female education issue, one can sub-divide a population into groups
on the basis of known characteristics or behaviour such as age, income,
educational level or religion. Proportional or equal sampling enables one to
achieve even greater representation in the sample. In this technique one will
select units at random from each stratum in proportion to its actual size in the
total population.
(ii)

Steps to be Followed in Stratified sampling

The steps to be taken in stratified sampling are summarized below:

a. Identify and define the population
b. Determine the desired sample size

c. Identify the variables and subgroups (strata) for which a researcher

guarantees appropriate representation
d. Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified
sub-groups
e. Randomly select (using a table of random numbers) an appropriate number
of individuals from each of the sub-groups (Appropriate meaning either a
proportional number of individuals or an equal number of individuals)
(iii) An Example of Stratified Sampling
Let us suppose a researcher intends to study the nature of professional
preparation of schoolteachers in NWFP region:
There are 5000 teachers. He wants to study 500 teachers, which comes 10.0
percent of the total number of schools of various categories. The distribution of
teachers in various schools is such:
65.0 percent or 3250 teachers are Middle Schools
20.0 percent or 1000 teachers are in Secondary Schools
15.0 percent or 750 teachers are in Higher Secondary Schools
A researcher will use random table for the selection of above number of
teachers proportionately such as:
65.0 percent of the sample (325 teachers) of Middle Schools
20.0 percent of the sample (100 teachers) of Secondary Schools
15.0 percent of the sample (75 teachers) of Higher Secondary Schools
After the completion of the process, the researcher will have a sample of 500
teachers (325 + 100 4- 75) or 10.0 percent of 5000 and each group will be
proportionally represented.

c.

Cluster Sampling

(i)

The Nature

Cluster sampling is a sampling in which groups. not individuals are selected.

All the members of the groups have similar characteristics. For example.
randomly selecting students of 5thj class, the researcher randomly select
classrooms of the 5th class and use all students in each class. In an other
example, testing all primary schools children in a given city and randomly
selecting 15.0 percent of these children, a researcher list all of the primary
schools in the city and selects a random 15.0 percent of these clusters of units
(Primary Schools) and use all the children in the selected schools as the sample
(other example of clusters are hospitals, city blocks, sectors, departmental
stores etc).
(ii)

Merits/Advantages of Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling carries the following advantages:

a. Cluster sampling is economical for it is much easier and less expensive to
observe cluster of units in a few schools than randomly selecting students
scattered in many schools through out the city.
b. Cluster sampling is more convenient when the population is very large or
spread over a wide geographical area. In the above example, it is easier to
use all the people in a limited number of city blocks than a few people in
many city blocks.

(iii)

Limitation of the Cluster Sampling

The cluster sampling technique would be easier (though not necessarily good)
than either random sampling or stratified sampling. According to Van Dalen
cluster sampling produces a larger sampling error than a simple random
sampling of the some size for each cluster. In the above example, a block in a
given neighbourhood may be composed of units that are like one another,
which reduces the representativeness of the sample.
(iv)

Steps to be Followed in Cluster Sampling

The steps to be taken in cluster sampling are not very difficult from those
involved in random sampling. The major difference as already indicated is that
random selection of groups (clusters) involved not individuals.
Cluster sampling involves the following steps.
Identifying and defining the population
Determining the desired sample size
Identifying and defining logical clusters
Listing all clusters that comprise the population
Estimating the average number of population members per cluster
Determining the member of clusters needed by dividing by the size or by the
estimated size of the cluster
Randomly selecting the needed number of clusters (using a table of random
numbers)

Including in the study all population members in each selected cluster

(v)

An Example of Cluster Sampling

A researcher intends to get a sample of teachers for to interview using cluster

sampling technique.
The following steps to be followed:
The population is all 5000 teachers in secondary schools of a district
The desired sample is 500
A logical cluster is school
The District Education Officer has a list of all schools in the district, there are
100 schools
Although the schools vary in number of teachers per school, there is an average
of 50 teachers per school
The number of clusters (schools) needed equals the desired sample size 500
divided by the average size of a cluster 50. thus the number of schools
needed comes of 10
Therefore, 10 of 100 schools are randomly selected
All teachers in each of the 10 schools are in sample (10 schools 50 teachers per
school equals the desired sample size) thus a researcher will conduct
interview to teachers at 10 schools instead of traveling to a possible number
of 100 schools
In the above case. the advantages of cluster sampling are evident. Cluster
sampling has also a draw back. There are chances of selecting a sample that is

not very much representative in some way of population. Another problem is

that the use of inferential statistics are not appropriate for analyzing data
resulting from using cluster sampling. Such statistics generally require random
sampling.
d.

Systematic Sampling

(i)

The Nature

Systematic sampling is sampling in which individuals are selected from a list

by taking every Kth name. So what is Kth name, that depends on what K is ?
if K is = 4 selection involves taking every Kth name, if k is 10, every I 0th
name and so forth. What K actually equals depends on the size of the list and
the desired sample size. The major difference between systematic sampling and
other types of sampling is the fact that all members of the population do not
have an independent chance of being selected for the sample. Once is selected,
all the rest of the individuals to be included in the sample are automatically
determined. A systematic sampling can be considered a random sample if the
list of population is randomly selected.
(ii)

Steps to be taken in Systematic Sampling

The following steps are to be followed in systematic sampling.

Identifying and defining the population
Determining the desired sample size
Obtaining a list of the population
Determining what K is equal to by dividing the size of population by the
desired sample size

Starting at some random place at the top of the population list

Starting at that point, take every Kth name on the list until the desired sample
size is reached
If the end of list is reached before the desired sample in obtained, one should
go back to the top of the list and restart the process of taking every Kth
name on the list
10.2 QUESTIONNAIRE
a.

Questionnaire Defined

Questionnaire is a type of tools of research which is popularly used in

educational and social research. According to John W. Best (1992) a
questionnaire is used when factual information is desired, when opinion rather
than facts are desired, an Opinionnaire or Attitude Scale is used.
Van Dalen (1992) defines a questionnaire as an instrument that is widely used
by educational workers to obtain facts about current conditions and practices
and to make inquiries concerning attitude and opinion.
In view of Ahmad A. Arain (1980) a questionnaire is a set of carefully selected
and ordered questions prepared by an investigator to seek factual information
from respondents or to find their opinion, attitude or interest.
Some restrict the use of the words questionnaire to a set of questions seeking
factual information where as those seeking opinion are called opinionnaire
and those dealing with attitude of the respondent called attitude scale.
However it is generally agreed that isolating specific questions for the

consideration of respondents tend to objectify, intensify and standardized their

observations.
b.

Forms/Kinds of Questionnaire

A researcher can construct questions in the form of a closed, open pictorial

and scale items. He can utilize one type of questionnaire exclusively or a
combination of them when structuring his questionnaire. The nature of the
problem and the character of the respondents determine which form or forms
will most likely supply the desired data. These forms are briefly described.
(i)

Close Form

Questionnaire that call for short, check responses are as the restricted, or close
form type. They provide for marking a Yes or No, a short response or
checking an item from a list of suggested responses.
The following example illustrate a closed form item.
Why did you intend to do your M.Ed from I.E.R University of Peshawar?
Please indicate three reasons in order of importance using, for most important.
2 for the second most important and 3 for the third most important.
Accessible
Enjoys reputation
Expenses are low
Financial assistance is available
Courses are easy
Any other (please specify)

Even when using the close form, it is desirable to provide for unanticipated
responses, providing an other category as given in the above example, permits
the respondents to indicate what might be his most important reaction, one that
the questionnaire frame had not anticipated specification is essential for
tabulation or interpretation purpose. Such type of option relaxes the rigidily of
the form.
(ii)

Advantages of the Close-Form

For certain type of information the close form questionnaire is entirely

satisfactory. Such as:

It is easy to fill out

It takes little time by respondents

It keeps the respondent on the subject

It is relatively objective

It is fairly easy to tabulate and analyze

It provides a good looking format to the questionnaire

Answers are standardized

Answers are relatively complete

The respondent is often clear about the meaning of the question

As questions are self contained, they can be answered quickly

They require fewer instruction than open end questions

(iii)

Limitations of the Close Form Questionnaire

The following are certain limitations of the close form questionnaire.

The close form questionnaire often fails to reveal the respondents motives and
does not always get information of sufficient scope and in depth and may
not discriminate between the finer shades of meaning
Fixed alternative responses may make respondents take a stand on issue about
which they have not crystallized opinion or may force them give answers
that do not accurately express their ideas
The respondents may feel frustrated because the appropriate category of their
answers are either not provided or is not provided in detail
There may be too many answers categories to print on the questionnaire
There is more likelihood of clerical mistakes
f Usually respondents check items blindly without giving attention to their
purpose
Sometimes a respondent check an item without understanding its meaning
(iv)

The Open Form of the Questionnaire

The open form or unstructured type of questionnaire calls for a free response in
respondents own words. For example:
Why did you intend to take admission in M.Ed Programme in IER University
of Peshawar?
In what respects IER programme needs improvement?

The open form probably provides for greater depth of response. The respondent
reveals his/her frame of reference and possibly, the reasons for his/her
responses. Since it requires greater effort on the part of respondent, return are
often meager. This type of item question is sometimes difficult to interpret,
tabulate and summarize in the research study.
(v)

Some Considerations Need to be Taken in View while Framing Open

End Questions

Questions should be such that they are answered clearly

Questions should be clearly worded
The terms should be defined that could not be misinterpreted
Unwarranted assumptions should be avoided in questions
Questioned should be phrased so that they are appropriate for all respondents
Questions should be designed such that they will give a complete response
The nature of questions must ensure the systematic quantification of responses
Double barreled questions should be avoided
(vi)

Advantages of the Open Form Questionnaire

In the words of Dr. Ahmad A. Arain several advantages are attributed to open
end questionnaire such as:
Open end questions are flexible. They have the possibility of depth and have
the capacity to encourage cooperation and achieve support and to make
better estimates of respondents true intentions, beliefs and attitude

The response to open end questions may suggest the possibility of relations and
hypothesis. Respondents will sometime give unexpected answers that may
indicate the existence of relations not originally anticipated by researcher in
the development of questionnaire
They can be used when all possible answer categories are not known
They allow the respondents to answer adequately
They can be used when there are too many potential answer categories to test
on the questionnaire
They are preferable to complex issues that cannot be condensed into small
categories
They allow more opportunity for creativity, thinking and self expression
They are used for complex questions that could be answered in a few simple
categories but require more detail discussion
(vii)

Disadvantages or Limitations of Open Form Questionnaire

Some limitations or disadvantages are attributed to Open-Form type of

Questionnaire. They are:
There is possibility of collection of worthless or irrelevant information
Data collected through open end questionnaire are not often standardized from
person to person
Coding is difficult and subjective

Pictorial Form
Some questionnaire present respondents with drawings and photographs rather
than written statement from which to choose answers. This form of
questionnaire is particularly suitable tool for collecting data from children and
adults who had not yet developed reading ability. Pictures often capture the
attention of respondents more readily than printed words, lessen subjects
resistance and stimulate the interest in questions.
Scale Items
A scale items is a question to which the respondents expresses his agreement or
disagreement of various levels. Such items have fixed alternative and the
respondent indicates where he stands on the scale. For example the item
indicated earlier relating to English medium school may be presented as
follow:
All English Medium Institutions should be closed forth with.
Strongly agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly disagree
(i)

What is Interview?

An interview is essentially the oral, in person administration of a questionnaire

to each member of the sample.

(ii)

Advantages

When well-conducted, it can produce in depth data not possible with a

questionnaire. On other hand, it is expensive and time consuming and
generally involves smaller samples
The interview is most appropnate for asking questions which cannot effectively
be structured into a single multiple choice format
In contrast to a questionnaire, the interview is flexible, the interviewer can
adopt the situation to each subject
By establishing support and a trust relationship the interviewer can often obtain
data that a subject will not give on a questionnaire
The interview may also result in more accurate and honest responses since the
interviewer can explain and clarify the purposes of research and individual
questions
Interviewer can follow up on incomplete or unclear responses by asking
additional probing questions
Disadvantages of the Interview
Direct interviewer and interviewee contact also has it disadvantage. The
responses given by a subject may be biased and affected by his/her reaction to
the interviewer either positive or negative.
Construction of Interview Guide/Schedule
The interviewer must have a Written-Guide which indicates what questions
are to be asked and in what order and what additional prompting or probing is
permitted. In order to obtain standardized comparable data, from each subject

all interviews must be conducted in essentially the same manner. As with a

questionnaire, each question in the interview should relate to a specific study
objective. Also as with a questionnaire, questions may be structured or
unstructured.
Since interviewee is usually used when a questionnaire is not really
appropriate, it usually involves unstructured or semi- structured questions.
Structured questions which require the interviewee to select from alternative,
are of course, easier to analyze but tends to defeat the purpose of an interview.
Completely unstructured questions, on the other hand which allow absolute
freedom of response can yield in depth response and provide otherwise
unobtainable insight but produce data that are very difficult to quantify and
tabulate. Therefore, most interviews use a semi-structured approach involving
the asking of structured questions followed by clarifying unstructured or openend questions. The unstructured questions facilitate explanation and
understanding of the responses to the structured questions. Thus a combination
of objectivity and depth can be obtained and result can be tabulated as well as
interpreted.
Many of the guidelines for constructing questionnaire apply to the construction
of interview guides. The interview should be as brief as possible and questions
should be worded as clearly as possible. Terms should be defined when
necessary and a point of reference given when appropriate leading questions
should also be avoided.

Communication During Interview

Effective communication during the interview is critical and interviewer should
be well trained before the study begins.
Before the first formal question is asked, sometime should be spent in
establishing rapport and putting the interviewee at case. The purpose of the
study should be explained and strict confidentiality of responses be assured. As
the interview proceeds, the interviewer should take full use of the advantages
of the interview situation. He should also be sensitive to the reactions of the
subjects and proceed accordingly. If the interviewee gets off the track, he
should gently get his/her back on target. Above all the interviewer should avoid
words or actions that may make the subject unhappy or feel threatened.
Recording Responses
Responses made during an interview can be recorded manually by interviewer
or mechanicall.y by recording device. If the interviewer record the responses,
space is provided after each question in the interview guide and responses are
recorded either during the interview as it progresses or after interview is
completed. If responses are recorded during the interview, it may tend to slow
things down, especially if responses are lengthy. It may also make some
subjects nervous to have something writing down every word they say. It
responses are recorded after the interview, the interviewer is not likely to recall
every response exactly as given specially it many questions are asked. On the
other hand, if a recording (as an audio tap/cassette recorder) is used, the
interviewer moves more quickly and responses are recorded exactly as given.
In general. mechanical recording is more objective, feasible and advisable.

Pre-Testing the Interview Procedure

The interview guide, interview procedure and analysis procedure should be
tried out before the main study is initiated using a small sample of population.
Feedback from a small pilot study can be used to revise, improve questions in
the guide that are apparently not clean and do not solicit the desired
information or produce negative reaction in the subjects. The pilot study will
determine whether the resulting data can be quantified and analyzed in the
manner intended.
Interview studies enjoys the characteristics of flexibility better performance
rate and control over environment as compared to the questionnaire studies.
However, comparatively, they are costly, time consuming and inconvenient.
10.4 OBSERVATION
The Nature of Observation
In an observational study or through un-observational technique, the current
status of a phenomena is determined not by asking but by observing.
Observation is most appropriate approach for studying the covert behaviour of
persons. Observation as a research technique should be directed by a specified
purpose systematic carefully focused and thoroughly recorded procedure. Like
other methods it should be subjected to checks for accuracy, validity and
reliability.
Observation may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled. There are
participant observation and non participant observation. Participant-observation
is usually associated with qualitative research. Naturalistic observation includes

both natural observation and simulation observation and typically involves

observation of human subject.
Here non-participant, naturalistic observation and simulation observation are
briefly described.
Non-Participant Observation
In non participant observation, the observer is not directly involved in the
situation to be observed. In other words the observer is on the outside looking
in and does not intentionally interact with, or effect the object of the
observation.
Naturalistic Observation
Certain kind of behaviour can only be (or least be) observed as they occur
naturally. In such situation then observer purposefully controls or manipulates
nothing, and infact, works very hard but not affecting the observed situation in
any way. The intent is to record and study behaviour as it normally occurs. For
example, classroom behaviour of the teacher, behaviour of the students and the
interaction between the teacher and the students can best be studied through
naturalistic observation, often form the foundation non controlled research in
an area. The work of Piaget for example, involved primarily naturalistic
observation of children. His research which has stimulated researches (in
naturalistic observations) have provided education which many important
findings regarding concept development in children.
Simulation Observation
The simulation observation, the researcher creates the situation to be observed
and tells subject what activities they are to engage in. the technique allows the

researcher to observe behaviour but occurs frequently in natural situation or not

at all. The major disadvantage of this type of observation is of course that it is
not natural and the behaviour exhibited by subjects may not be the behavour
that would occur in natural setting. However, this is not a serious problem.
Subjects tend carried away with their roles and often exhibit very true to life
situation. The major types of simulation are individual role playing and team
role playing.
Conducting Observation
Steps Followed in Observation
The steps in conducting observational research are essentially the same as
followed for other type of research. The researcher clearly defines what
specific behaviour are intended? What observation must be quantified and how
observation times are randomly selected.
Observers should have to deserve and record only one behaviour at a time. It is
probably better to record observations as the behaviour occurs. Probably the
most often used type of recording form and the most efficient is a check list
that fits an behaviour to be observed so that the observer can simply check each
behaviour as it occurs. Rating scales are also sometimes used for this purpose.
Assessing Observers Reliability
Determining observers reliability generally requires that at least two observers
independently make observations, their recorded judgment as to what occurred
can then be compared to see how well they agree. Recorded situations to be
observed allow observer to play back or often taps at a time convenient to
his/her to play them back as often needed.

Observers need to be trained in order to have some assurance that all observers
are observing and recording the same behaviour in the same way.
Reducing Observation Bias
Efforts be made to reduce observers bias in the process of observation which
refers to invalid observation, the halo- effect or the observers effect.
Methods of Recording Observation
As indicated earlier, for recording observations a number of devices are used.
Two of them which are popular and exclusively used are check-list and
rating scale. The instruments help the researchers focus his attention on
specific phenomena, make objective observation and systematize the collection
of data. These instruments are briefly observed.
10.5 CHECK-LIST
The check list is the simplest device consisting of prepared list of items. The
presence or absence of the items may be indicated by checking yes or No.
this simple laundry list type of device systematizes and facilitates the
recording of
observations and helps to assure the consideration of important aspects of the
subject or an act observed. For example assessing the nature of a project
relating to school building before its implementation, the following items may
be checked.
Items Yes

Yes

No

Is a copy of the scheme available

___

__

Has the detail drawing/blue print of the building been prepared

___

__

 Has the building plan been approved by competent authority

___

__

Has financial resources allocated for the building been released

___

__

Has the time schedule for its execution been prepared

___

__

Has in responsibility for execution of each major activity been assigned ___
__
Rating Scale
A rating scale is used for qualitative description of a limited number of aspects
of a thing, situation or traits of a person. In this device the aspect of thing,
situation or trait of a person are rated on a three, five point scale from the
highest to the lowest. For example in describing the quality of a building the
following categories on 5 point scale may be used.
Scale Excellent
Weightage

Good Average
4

Below Average

Poor
1

For example for identifying The Educational Factors Responsible for Low
Enrolment, Poor Attendance and Dropout of Children at Primary Level the
following 3 point scale may be used with wieghtage 3, 2, 1 respectively.
Item/Statement

Factors
Major Minor Notat All

Unstimulating school environment

____

____

____ ____

Unattractive curriculum

____ ____

____ ____

Harsh treatment of teachers

____ ____

____ ____

Lack/absence of instructional material

____ ____

____ ____

 Lack/absence of basic facilities

____ ____

____ ____

Teachers absentees

____ ____

____ ____

Inefficient supervision

____ ____

____ ____

Absence of home-school relationship

____ ____

____ ____

Poor scholarship of children

____ ____

____ ____

Lack/absence of recreational facilities

____ ____

____ ____

One of the problems in rating scale is that different scale may interpret the
quality to be rated differently. If a rating scale uses brief behaviour statement
and are kept at minimum level, it may be used with greater objectivity and may
minimize the effect also.
Merits of Various Observation Technique
Following are some of the merits or values of observation technique in the
collection of data as discussed above.
a. Observation techniques supply information which supplements the
information obtained by other methods
b. Observation supplies information which cannot be gathered by other
available technique
c. Observation provides a sample of individuals real behaviour
d. Observations are selective
e. Observation promotes the growth of person doing the observation

10.6 TESTS AND APPRAISAL INSTRUMENT

Multifarious research based appraisal instruments such as tests, inventories,
scales etc have been developed and are used extensively in experimental and
descriptive researches. These instruments have been designed to describe and
measure sample of aspects of human behaviour. These instruments assess
variety of human abilities, potentials achievements and behaviour tendencies.
They possess different degrees of validity reliability and applicability.
Types of Instruments
The following types of instrument designed for different facilities and purposes
are briefly described.
a.

Achievement Tests

Achievement tests (also known tests of proficiency) yield measures of what the
individual knows or the extent of his achievement and performance in the
solution of problem and completion of set tasks. These tests attempt to measure
what the individual has learned, his present level of performance/* in a subject
or skill as result of instruction. Such tests measure performance in a specific
area e.g. typing, computer, spellings, reading or arithmetic. Achievement tests
can be used for diagnosing strength and weaknesses of an individual and for
evaluating influence of a course of study, teaching methods etc. These tests can
also be used to select equivalent groups to be used as control and experimental
group to measure gains made by experimental and control group by applying
the test before and after the treatment and to evaluate the relative effectiveness
of two teaching methods, courses of study, text book etc.

b.

Aptitude Tests

Aptitude tests seek to assess the level of achievement that an individual can
attain in some particular academic or vocational field. In other words, aptitude
tests attempt to predict an individuals capacity to require improved
performance with additional training. Aptitude tests may measure mechanical,
motor coordination, artistic aptitude, aptitude for medicine, engineering,
computer language etc.
c.

Personality Tests

Another broad area of psychological testing is concerned with the nonintellectual aspect of human behaviour. Personality tests most often refer to
measure of such characteristics and attitudes. Most of these tests are usually
self-report instruments. The individual checks responses to certain questions
indicating what he prefers to do or how he intends to act in a given situation.
Personality tests are classified in the broad categories; personality
questionnaires and proj ective techniques. The Minnesota Multiple Personality
Inventory (MMPI) and the Edward Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) are
used as personality questionnaires for assessing the personality. Projective
method has been applied in a number of ways. The more well-known one
Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Thematic Apperception Test TAT) are used
for personality assessment.
Steps in the Construction of a Standardized Test
The following steps are followed in the construction of a standardized test.

a. Test construction is started with the definition of ability for which test is
written
b. Test questions/items are written for each component
c. The test is pre-tested and statistically analyzed. It goes through a series of
revision till it becomes an adequately valid and reliable test
d. The norms are prepared for purpose of interpretation
Qualities of a Good Test
The qualities of a good test are:
a. It is standardized
b. It is reliable
c. It is valid
d. It is consistent

UNIT-11
PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PLAN OR
PROPOSAL
11.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PLAN OR PROPOSAL?
Development of a research plan or proposal is critical step in conducting
research. Having formulated specific hypotheses, it is necessary to carefully
delineate the method and procedure to be followed in testing them.
occasionally it will become apparent in formulating a plan that the proposed
study is not feasible in its present form. That decision is best made before the
researchers have extended considerable time and energy on a study which
cannot be properly executed.
The research plan has been defined by various specialists such as according to
L.R. Gay (1992) a research plan is a detailed description of a proposed study
designed to investigate a selected problem. It includes justification for
hypotheses to be tested, a detailed presentation of the research steps that will be
followed in collecting and analyzing data and a projected time schedule for
each major step. It also includes proposed budget if it is submitted to a funding
agency.
According to John W. Best (1982) the proposal is comparable to the blue
print which the architect prepare before work on a building is started. The
initial draft proposal is subject to modification in the light of the analysis by the
student and his adviser. Since good research must be planned and
systematically carried out, procedures that is improvised from step to step, will

not suffice. A worth whole research project is likely to result only from a welldesigned proposal.
11.2 WHAT ARE THE
PLAN/PROPOSAL

PURPOSES

OF

RESEARCH

A research plan serves several purposes such as:

a. It makes researcher to think through every step or aspect of the study
b. It facilitates evaluation of the proposed study
c. It also allows others to identify flaws to make suggestions for its
improvement
d. It provide a guide and guidelines for conducting a study
e. A well-thought plan saves times, energy and resources of the researcher
f. It reduces the probability of costly mistakes and generally results in higher
quality of research
g. It reduces the chances of researchers trial and error approach while
undertaking the study
h. It permits the researcher to assess the overall impact of any changes in the
study as a whole
11.3 DESIGN/FORMAT/COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH
PLAN OR PROPOSAL
Various design/format or components of the research plan or proposal have
been suggested by research experts. A few of them are outlined below:

(i)

According to L.R Gay (1992) the following components comprise a

research plan have been suggested

a.

b.

Introduction

Statement of problem

Review of the literature

Statement of Hypotheses

Method

Subjects

Instrument

Design

Procedure

c.

Data Analysis

d.

Time schedule

e.

Budget (if appropriate)

(ii)

Format/Design Suggested by Allama Iqbal Open University

Islamabad, Important Components are:

a. Statement of the problem

b. Purpose/objectives of the study
c. Definitions, assumptions and limitations

d. Review of the related literature

e. Theoretical framework
f. Hypotheses and questions
g. Proposed research procedure
h. Time frame
i. Proposed budget (if required)
(iii)

An outline of Research Proposed by John. W. Best

a. Statement of the problem

b. The hypotheses
c. The significance of the problem
d. Definitions, assumptions and limitations
e. A resume for related literature
f. A careful and detailed analysis of proposed research
g. A time schedule
(iv)

Looking into various FORIVIATS of the research proposed, the

following pattern of research plan is suggested by the author. It
contains the following elements

a. Statement of the problem

b. Objectives of the study
c. Method

d. Significance of the study

e. Definitions, Abbreviations, assumptions limitations
f. Review of the related literature
g. Theoretical framework
h. Hypotheses/key questions
i. Research method and procedure
j. Time schedule
k. Proposed budget (if desired)
These elements of as research proposal are elaborated in the next section so
that students could be able to understand how to explain each and every
element of the plan according to nature of the problem.
11.4 ELABORATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE
RESEARCH PLAN / PROPOSAL
a.

Statement of the Problem

In the words of Dr. JR. Hassan (1990) one of the unholy joys one feels as
Pakistani researcher is the realization that what a fertile land Pakistan is for
research. There are in fact, unlimited number of problems to be investigated
by researcher. Research students usually are not taking pains to identifS certain
important problems for research. Even they show lack of insight or they are
problem blind. The research proposal may be considered as responses to a
problem, because that is what research really is. The deficiency or weakness
which is usually observed in a research proposal is the lack of a clear problem

statement to define and guide the inquiry. The problem statement should be
adequate to define, guide and conduct systematic research.

(i)

Qualities of a Good Research Problem

Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research problem. The
qualities attributed to a good research problem are:

It is not too broad

It is manageable

It is not too subjective

It is not too controversial

It should not be too familiar

It is not too technical

It should express relationship between two or more variables

It should be stated clearly and unambiguously preferably in

question form

It should be such as implies or permits possibilities or empirical

testing

It must be new and novel

It is researchable

It has theoretical as well practical significances

It should be justified in terms of its contribution to educational

theory or practice

It is a good problem in the sense that the researcher possesses the

research skill, available resources and time

(ii)

Qualities of a Research Statement

Qualities of a statement of the problems are:

A statement of the problem is the first component of the introduction of

both a research plan and a research report of a completed study. Since
the problem statement gives direction to the rest of the plan or report, it
should be stated as soon as possible. The statement of the problem
should be accompanied by a presentation of the background of the
problem including justification of the study in terms of the significance
of the problem. Background of and the problem means information
required for an understanding of the problem

A statement of the problem indicates interest of the researcher in the

problem and the specific relationship between those variables which is
to interpreted

A statement of the problem also defines all relevant variable either

directly or operationally

b.

Objectives of the Study

When the problem has been selected and its theoretical, framework determined,
the * step is to state the purposes, objectives and significance of the study.
Research is always undertaken in response to a problem. Accordingly the
purpose of the study is always to understand better more possible solutions of
the problem.

Free floating objectives, and objectives without criteria add no new knowledge
to the one already known. Therefore, objectives should be carefully thought out
and they must be involved from the theoretical framework and confirm to the
criteria laid down for the relationship to be established amongst a set of
variables.
c.

Significance of the Study

Related to the purposes or objectives of the study is the question of significance

of the study which could warrant an urgency and justifying its worth. The
researcher should indicate how the answer to the question or solution to the
problem can influence educational theory or practices. The researcher should
be sure that he/she is not wasting time, energy and resources on trivial,
irrelevant and superficial investigation.
d.

Definitions, Abbreviations, Assumptions and

Limitations

(i)

Definitions and Abbreviations

In this section the research student provides definitions of all such terms being
used in the statement of the problem as are ambiguous and likely to
misinterpreted. The definitions of these terms help to establish or sharpen the
frame of reference with which the researcher approaches the problem. The
researcher should also explain the abbreviations, which would be used in the
study.
(ii)

Assumptions and Limitations

The assumptions that the researcher has made, should be stated. He should not
make a long list of such assumptions. He should also clearly and frankly state

the limitations or short comings of his study. This will not reduce the
significance of the study but will provide more confidence in the solution of the
problem.
e.

Review of the Literature

A review of the literature is an integral part of the study. It should not be taken
as luxury. It provides researcher insight into the problem, broaden his
horizon of the nature of the problem and prevents him from repetition and
duplication and overlapping of his research efforts, while reviewing related
literature, a resume or a brief summary of previous researches and writings of
the recognized experts provide evidence that researcher is familiar with what is
already done and with what is still to be done. In reviewing other researches,
the researcher should specifically look into matters like the nature of problem,
design of the study, population. variables, deficiencies and suggestions for
further researches. Preferably the review should include a summary of the areas
of agreement and disagreement in findings.
f.

Theoretical Framework

The concept of theoretical framework has been defined as a set of concepts,

variables and relationship with in which the problem is formulated and solved.
It has been further explained by Dr. I.H. Hassan in the following words.
Neither can a problem be formulated, nor can adequate research design be
developed, except within a specified theoretical framework. What is meant by
framework is a conceptual or theoretical frame which every researcher has to
adopt to view a problem and find a solution. Implicitly or explicitly every
inquirer adopts his own pair of glasses through which he views the problems

and within that perspective identified and orders the variables on which he will
concentrate his attention (Ed Research 1999 p.92).
The concept of theoretical framework can better be explained through
answering such questions.
a. Which factors are most responsible for the solution of a problem?
b. How to restrict the study?
c. How to restrict the population? from which a sample is selected?
d. How to restrict the variables so as to make a meaningful study possible?
e. How to sharpen the focus and increase clarity?
f. In simple words what should be included and what should be excluded?
In short, such focalization, clarification and exclusion are essential in the
process of choosing a theoretical framework and should be decided explicitly
and rationally before initiating the study otherwise the study will be obscure
and vague and the researcher will be confused.
The study of related literature is therefore, important in the sense that in
developing a research design, it helps the researcher to realize how many facts
of the problem do exist and what other conceptual framework has been applied
to solve the problem earlier.
g.

Hypotheses and Questions

The statement of the hypotheses or key questions to be answered in the

investigation complete the fourth stage of the procedure guide such as the
problem statement formulated, conceptual framework sharpened the focus of

study, the objectives narrowed further the investigation and the statement of
hypotheses/questions formulated.
The statement of the hypotheses and questions is actually a two-steps process
i.e. selecting the key questions appropriate to the objectives and
operationalizing the definitions that will be employed for the major variables in
the study in preparation for describing the design, instrumentation and analysis
appropriate to the inquiry.
It may be advisable to formulate a major hypothesis and several minor
hypotheses. This clarifies the nature of the problem and the rationale behind the
method adopted for collection of data. The hypotheses should first be stated in
positive or in literacy form. For example participation in extra-curricular
activities by students of ix-x classes adversely affect their academic
performance in Board Examination later on in the chapter on research
methodology, the statistical hypotheses should be stated in negative or null
form. Such as There is no significant difference between the academic
performance of Board Examination of those who participate and those who do
not participate in extra curricular activities in classes ix-x.
A good hypothesis has the following characteristics:

It is researchable

It is consistent with known facts or theories

It is stated in such a form as to permit testing and validation/rejection

It is stated in simplest possible form

It is important that the hypotheses be formulated before data are

gathered

The formulation of hypotheses in advance of data gathering process is

necessary for an unbiased investigation.
h.

Proposed Research Method/Procedure

In this section of the research proposal, an outline of the research plan or

procedure should be given. The research plan or procedure deals with the
variables to be measured, the population to be sampled, the measuring devices
to be adopted and the procedure to be used, in analyzing the data. The validity
and reliability of data gathering devices should be critically evaluated and the
limitations if any, should be pointed. Let us take for example a researcher is
interested to conduct research on the job preferences of high school students.
The outline of the research proposal shall have to detail or specify.

How many schools shall be selected?

From which area schools should be selected?

Would an equal number rural and urban schools be selected?

Would an equal number of boys and girls high schools be sampled?

How many students studying in these high schools be chosen?

How shall the job preference of students be obtained? Shall a

questionnaire be administered?

How the data thus collected, be analyzed?

Shall any attempt be made to obtain the aspirations of parents of sample

students be correlated?

From the above example, it is observed that the proposed procedure describes
what must be done and how will be done? What data will be needed? And what
gathering device will be employed with evaluation of their validity and
reliability? How sources will be selected and how the data will be analyzed and
conclusion reached?
(i)

Time Schedule

A schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget his time and
energy effectively. Dividing the project/study into parts/phases and assigning
dates for the completion of each part helps to systematize the project/study and
minimize the natural tendency to procrastinate.
The preparation of work plan with definite dates/goals is most important
because the academic research project usually involves critical time limitation
and definite deadlines for submitting the complete report.
The preparation of the schedule also allows the advisor of the student to
monitor the progress of his work. Thus it serves as a stimulus helping the
researcher to proceed systematically towards the goal of completing the project
with the deadline set by the degree awarding institution.
Conclusion
The ultimate objective of this chapter is to familiarize the research students of
steps to be taken towards the formulation of their research outline or proposal.
Various steps have been discussed but for which specific care and attention are

needed, are the preparation of a statement of the problem, conceptualizing the

theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses and designing an appropriate
research procedure.

UNIT-12
RESEARCH REPORT
(GENERAL ONSIDERATIONS)
Research undertaken for any purpose, culminates with the production of a
Research Report, various formats and styles have been adopted for writing
research report. However, all reports contain certain common elements like a
statement of the problem a description of procedure, and a presentation of
results. However, all research reports have a common purpose like to
communicate the purpose, procedure, and produce main findings of the study.
A well written report describes a study in sufficient detail, what are the general
rules to be followed in writing and presentation of research report? What are
the major section and sub-sections of a research report, will be discussed in this
chapter.
12.1 GENERAL RULES FOR PREPARATION OF THE
RESEARCH REPORT
The following general rules in the preparation of the research report which
should be observed by the researcher are:
a. The writer must be as objective as possible in reporting the study
b. The report should not contain subjective statements over statements and
emotional statements
c. It should be clearly, directly and briefly stated

d. It should be consistent with the goal of objective reporting

e. It should be written in a clear, simple and straightforward style
f. The greater virtue of a good research report is clarity therefore, extraneous,
irrelevant and unnecessary material should be avoided or eliminated from
the report
g. Use of abbreviations and contraction is generally discouraged
h. The research report should be well documented. It means that the resources
of every statement made, should be provided
i. Final report should be proof read carefully
j. The research report is written in the past tense
k. A standard manual or the manual recommend by the university/department
be followed for research writing.
12.2 FORMATS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
As already indicated various formats or styles are adopted by researchers for
writing or presentation of the research report. Allama Iqbal Open University in
its book Educational Research and Statistics (EPM: 1990) has suggested the
following format to be followed by its students.
(i)

Format Recommended by Allama Iqbal Open

University
A. Preliminary Section or Front Matters
a. Title of the study
b. Acknowledgement

c. Table of content
d. List of tables
e. Abstract
B. Main Body of the Report
Chapter-1: Nature and Background of the Study
a. Statement of the problem
b. Reasons for making the study
c. Review of the related literature
d. Further elaboration of the problem
e. General hypotheses
Chapter-2: Method of Study and Presentation of Data
a. Actual steps followed in the course of research
b. Instrument used for collection of data
c. Validity and reliability of the instrument
d. Population and sample studied
e. Description of the evidence gathered
f. Summary of data
Chapter-3: Summary and Conclusion

It contains a brief recapitulation on the entire study and presents briefly

arguments and data supporting the conclusion drawn from the
interpretation of data.

Chapter-4: Recommendations
In this chapter, the researcher makes recommendations about actions to
be taken to use the new knowledge discovered in the study.
C.

References

Appendix:
(ii)

Format Recommended by L.R. Gay (1992)

L.R. Gay in his book Educational Research (1992) has suggested the following
Format for the presentation of the research report.
A.

Preliminary Pages

Title of the study

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables and figures

Abstract

B.

Main Body of the Report

Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Statement of the problem
b. Review of the Related Literature
c. Statement of the Hypotheses

Chapter-2: Method
a. Subjects
b. Instrument
c. Design
d. Procedure
Chapter-3: Results
a. Discussion/COncluSi01 and Recommendations
b. References/Bibliography
c. Appendex
(iii) Format Forwarded by John W. Best in his books
Research in Education
(1982) for Presentation of Research Report
A.

Preliminary Section or Front Matters

Title page

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables

List of Figures

Main Body of the Report

Chapter-I: Introduction

Statement of the problem

Significance of the study/problem
Purposes of the study
Assumptions and Limitation
Definitions of important terms
Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature or Analysis of
Previous Researches
Chapter-3: Design of the Study
Procedure used
Sources of data
Method of gathering data
Description of data gathering instrument used
Chapter-4: Presentation and Analysis of Data
Text
Tables
Figures
Chapter-5: Summary and Conclusions
Re-statement of the problem
Description of procedure used
Principal Findings and conclusions

Recommendations for further Researches

C.

References Section

Bibliography
Appendex
(iv)" Format Usually Adopted by the Author with
some Modification, is stated below:
A.

Preliminary Section/Front Matters

Title of the study

Bismillah (in Arabic Words)

Dedication (if desired)

Declaration (Required by AIOU)

Approval Sheet (by supervisor)

Forwarding sheet (by supervisor)

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables (if any)

List of Figures (if any)

List of Graphs (if any)

Abstract

B.

Main Body of the Report

Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Background of the study
b. Statement of the study
c. Objectives of the study
d. Significance of the study
e. Assumptions underlying the study
f. Delimitation of the problem
g. Hypotheses or key questions to be answered in the study
h. Definition of terms/abbreviations used
Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature
In this chapter, the related literature is reviewed which, provides further
justification for the research and the knowledge which is related to those
aspects of the problem with which the research deals.
Chapter-3: Method and Procedure of the Study/Design of the
Study
Actual steps followed in course of research
Preparation/construction of instruments
Validity and reliability of instrument
Population and sample studied/selected

Characteristics of sample
Chapter-4: Analysis of Data
The data collected is organized, tabulated and interpreted accordingly. If
tables are long, they are placed in Appendix and their interpretation is
presented in the text.
Chapter-5: Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
Major findings are drawn
Conclusions are made
Recommendations are forwarded for correction or improving the
situation
C. References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
12.3 GUIDE-LINES FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Writing of a research report infact, is a strenuous and pains taking task and
requires careful planning and repeated revision. The very aim of report writing
is to communicate it effectively in objective and unbiased manner and
language. However, some guide-lines are important to be taken in view while
writing a report in acceptable format as discussed earlier. These are:
a.

Preparing a detailed outline

The researcher before starting writing the report should prepare a detailed
outline following the general framework of the report as discussed earlier. Each

chapter should be divided into sections and sub-sections. This outline should
indicate the actual organization of the material that would be placed in each
section of the report.
b.

Adopting a Simple Style

High rounding words and phrases, long and complicated sentences and
unfamiliar words should be avoided. Grammatical mistakes be looked into. The
report should be written in short, simple sentences consisting of commonly
used words.
c.

Using Dictionary

Spellings mistakes are commonly found in the report which leaves had
impression on the part of researcher. Therefore, for writing correct spellings,
dictionary be frequently consulted. Some universities require a certificate from
the advisor to the effect that there are no spelling mistakes in the report.
However, the introduction of computer has solved this problem.
d.

Building Strong Paragraphs

The opening paragraph of the chapter or section is of special significance. The

writer should avoid vague introductory remarks and go straight to the point in
the opening paragraph. The central idea/ideas relating to the topic/subject be
discussed in each paragraphs. A summary section may be placed at the end of
the paragraph. Attention should be given to the transition or linkage from one
paragraph to the other.
e.

Writing Clear an Strong Sentences

Care should be taken that each sentence should express one distinct idea or
fact. Overloading the sentence with many ideas may lead to confusion. As few

words as possible should be used for conveying the message. Choice of

appropriate word is the hall mark of a good writer.
f.

Following Acceptable Practice

As research report is to be read mostly by professionals, it is therefore,

advisable that the practice or techniques adopted by the academic community
are followed.
g.

Revising the Draft

A written draft be read critically and those parts which are not clear and which
do not follow logically, should be revised carefully. Moreover, any sentence
which contains unnecessary words, should be reworded to enhance its clarity.
The revision of the draft be made at regular interval and in a quite relaxed
mood.

UNIT-13
ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
Thesis writing is a systematic approach. Its style is based on a standard
procedure. It is a formal presentation of an objective, critical investigation and
is written in a formal scholarly fashion. Students are always facing difficulties
in finding and adopting an appropriate Manual for thesis writing.
Department/Institutes, however, require that their students must prepare their
thesis according to a standard manual. The manual of the American
Psychological Association (Fifth Edition, 2001) Popularly known APA
Manual is recommended to students for writing of thesis at M.A, M.Ed,
M.P.hil and Ph.D levels. The important features of the Manual have been
described in this unit. The preliminary requirements of a thesis have been given
in the Appendix. These specimens have been prepared in the high of format
recommended by Allama Iqbal Open University.
If this unit is studied thoroughly by students, they will not only gain insight and
understanding of writing a research report on proper line but they would also
be able to write it efficiently and with quality.
The content of this unit has been divided into four sections for convenience
sake which are briefly described.
Section-A: This section describes the organization of the report with reference
to its titles, forwarding sheet, approval sheet, acknowledgement, abstract, table
of content, list of tables and list of figures.

Section-B: This section highlights the important features of thesis/dissertation

such as introduction review of the literature, methodology, presentation and
analysis of data, summary, conclusions, discussion and recommendations.
Section-C: This section relates to the guidelines suggested for writing
quotations, citation and constructing tables, figures and bibliography in the
research report.
Section-D: This section is concerned with observing the formalities of applying
various font size, margins, spacing, indention and pagination.
All these formalities must be understood and practiced by the researcher
themselves and have to provide clear instruction to the typist in this regard.
13.1 (SECTION-A) THE NATURE AND ORGANIZATION OF
PRELIMINARY MATERIAL OF THESIS / DISSERTATION
/ RESEARCH REPORT
1.

Title of Thesis

The title of thesis aims at to inform the reader about the phenomena under
study therefore, it should be:
a. Explanatory by itself
b. Specific
c. Concise statement of the main topic
d. It should refer to the major variables or theoretical issues under study
e. It should summarize the main ideas of the report
f. Redundant or words that serve no purpose, should be avoided

g. Abbreviations should not be used in title

h. The length of the title should be 12 to 15 words or 15 to 20 words
2.

Title Page of Thesis

The title page of thesis should include the following.

a. The title of thesis/dissertation
b. Full name of the researcher (Roll No. if required)
c. The degree/programme for which thesis is submitted
d. The name of the department/institute where the researcher has conducted
research and for which thesis is submitted
e. The month and year the research report is defended
f. The title of thesis should be typed in capital words. It should be centered
and typed on the 4 line from the top margin in 18 pts bold on single space
g. The researchers name should be written in small letters (initials in capital
letters) on 27 line from the top margin in 16 pts bold in upper case
h. The institutional affiliation should be started on the 16th line from the
bottom edge of the sheet in 12 pts
i. The title page bears no page number although it is considered the first page
of the preliminary part of the thesis
j. Other preliminary pages to be numbered in lower case and in roman number
e.g. i, ii, iii at 25 mm from the bottom edge of the page

k. In all cases the font size of the Time New Roman should be used. Specimen
1 and 2 (Appendices A and 13) are given for outer title and inner cover
3.

Forwarding Sheet (or Certificate)

This forwarding sheet (see specimen 3) is given by the supervisor (in case of
M.Phil and Ph. D Thesis by supervisor as well as by co-supervisor) to the effect
that the researcher has completed the study under their guidance and is
recommend for external evaluation.
4.

Approval Sheet

In thesis the Approval Sheet follows the title page and the forwarding
sheet. It contains the title of the thesis, name of the students, a statement
of acceptance of the research report. The statement starts with the
acceptance, be the name of faculty, discipline (where applicable) and
areas of specialization. The signatures of viva voce committed follows
the statement which includes Dean, ChainnanlDirector, External
Examiner, Supervisor and a member of (if needed). Names of committee
members usually appear at the right margin.

The phrase Approval Sheet is centred in capital letters on 8t1 single

line from the top of the paper. The statement of acceptance is typed on
double space in usual indented form.

The page number (iii) appear from the bottom of the page.

The signature lines must be 2 i4 in length and the date line 2 in length.

The format differs from degree to degree (see specimens 4,5 and 6).

5.

Declaration

Some universities require declaration from the researcher to the effect that
the work done by him/her is original and shall not in future be submitted for
obtaining any other degree from any other university or institution. This
declaration contains. Name of the researchers Fathers name Roll No. and
Registration No. Statement of text of the declaration, signature of the
researcher and date. (Specimen given relates to the declaration).
6.

Acknowledgement

The acknowledgement page contains the writers expression or appreciation for

the assistance and encouragement given to him/her in the course of research.

The acknowledgement sheet follows the approval sheet

It should not exceed two double spaced pages

The word Acknowledgement typed in capital letters

It should be simple and sincere and should avoid exaggeration in the

expression of gratitude

Only those who gave assistance without payment, should be mentioned

in acknowledgement

Initials of the author/writer in capital words and with no space

between, should be placed two double spaces below the last line of the
acknowledgement and one inch from the right hand margin

7.

Abstract

In all thesis, this part is most widely read. Therefore, it should be the
distillation of the thesis best written towards the end. It is a brief
comprehensive summary of the content of the thesis. A good abstract is
accurate, self contained, concise, specific, coherent and readable.
In theoretical and methodological studies the abstract should be limited to 250
350 words. In empirical studies it should be 350 500 words (preferably
400 words).
The abstract should be written in clear and vigorous prose. Active verbs and
present tense be used to describe results, while past tense be used to describe
specific variables manipulated or tested.
The abstract should contain.
a. The problem under investigation
b. A brief description of the background and purpose of the study
c. A statement of the conceptual or theoretical framework and hypotheses
d. A specification of the object or sample, the research design, the instrument
and the data collecting procedure
e. The main results and conclusions
8.

Table of Contents

The table of contents lists the preliminary part, the chapter titles alongwith subdivision of the body of the report and the supplementary material included in
the appendices.

The words Table of Contents should appear in capital words centred

on the 8t1, single space line from the top of the page written in 16 pts
bold upper case.

The preliminary parts are listed first. After these the word chapter is
typed flush on the left hand margin, the word page flush with the right
hand margin. Each of these words has only the first letter capitalized on
12 pts.

The chapter numbers in Arabic numerals should be given. It is placed

between the letter P in word chapter and is followed by a period

The first chapter should be listed a triple space below the word
chapter.

The title of the first chapter should be followed by double space. Other chapters
title and sub division headings should like wise be both preceded and followed
by a double space.

Chapter title should be in capital letters bringing two spaces after the
period following the chapter number

Dots lines should be used from the end of the title

Headings of sub division with in chapters should appear in the table of

contents beginning the double space below the first letter of the chapter
title

Headings of a chapter division should have only the first letter of the
principal words capitalized. They should be typed single space.

9.

List of Tables

Tables should be listed separately from the chapter and section headings

The words list of Tables should appear in capital letters on the first
page of the list on 8th single space from the top of the page of the paper
in 16 pts

The number of each table should appear in capital letters (in Arabic
numerals) and should be followed by a period

The table litters in the list of tables should have only the first letters of
principal words capitalized

Table litters should be single spaced within individual title and double
spaced between litters. Tables appearing in the appendex should be
included in the list of tables

Dots be used in the same way as in table of content

10.

List of Figures

Title of pictures, graphs, charts and other illustrative materials are all included
in the list of figures.
11.

List of Appendices (Appendex)

List of appendices be prepared at the end of the report according to the

instructions cited above.

13.2 (SECTION-B) DISCUSSION ON SOME SALIENT

FEATURES OF PART/CHAPTERS OF THE THESIS
1.

Introduction (Chapter-i)

The body of the thesis begins with an introduction that presents the specific
problem, objectives under study and describes the research strategy. It explains
the following.
a.

Background of the Study

This is a brief statement of the origin of the problem. It is an account describing

the circumstances which suggested the research. The background should also
tell about the research gap that the study wants to fill up. Some studies include
the theoretical framework and a justification of the selection of the study which
are described separately.
b.

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem indicates what does the researcher want to do?
How did it arise from a situation of unresolved difficulty? Therefore, it should
be precisely, accurately and clearly stated either in declarative or in question
form. It can be one main statement, question or a series of statements, questions
or combination of both.
c.

Objectives of the Study

The research objectives are statements a researcher intends to find out or

determine while a research problem is stated in question form, the objectives
are recorded in declarative form. The objectives usually start with phrases like
to find out, to identify, to understand etc.
d.

Significance of the Study

This section of the study requires justification. The study should justify itself,
why the problem investigated is important and what will the significant results?
It should state its relevance to felt needs, the potential contribution of the
research to knowledge, policy implications, and other possible uses for its
results.
e.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Limits of the study need to be properly defined. The scope is expected to

indicate a reasonable area of the study, which is large enough to be significant
but narrow enough to permit careful treatment. The scope of the problem
should be stated specifically. The nature of the subjects treated, the treatment,
they receive, limitations that exist in the reference population, instruments and
research design should be stated.
f.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are conjectural statements of relationship between two or more

variables. These statements are based on existing information and tested
experimentally or empirically. They guide the investigation and attempt to
answer question like how and why?. Therefore, some guidelines should be
followed.

Hypotheses should be stated in clear and precise terms.

They should originate from substantially the same ground as that which
sound to identify the problem

They are changed in the null form when they are tested statistically

g.

Definitions of Terms/Variables

Many terms and variables are used in research studies which are subjected to
variety of definitions and interpretation. Therefore, all these terms be defined
operationally

according to their

precise

meaning.

Moreover, where

abbreviations, acronyms have been used, should also be explained accordingly.

2.

Review of the Literature (Chapter-2)

A separate chapter consisting of the review of the related literature is

recommended in thesis. The purpose of this section is to tell what research has
been done on the problem and explains the theoretical rationale of the problem.
Only studies which are related in purpose, method or findings to the current
study, should be included in the review. The discussion of such studies should
be in the form of a brief critical analysis of the purpose, method of study,
principal findings and conclusions. The review of the related materials should
be summarized and a transition from the past studies to the present one should
be provided. Strengths and weaknesses in studies under review should also be
pointed out.
3.

Methodology (Chapter-3)

This chapter vanes from thesis to thesis depending upon the nature of problem
and the type of study. However, it is required almost in every study:
This section includes description of the sources of data, the data processing
techniques and treatment applied. The procedure followed in conducting a
statistical study, are explained in detail. Techniques, devices and procedure
followed are described. Moreover, a set of a description of adoption,
construction and administration of instrument is included in this section:
Statistical techniques are used while analyzing data. The level of significance

(at 05, 01, 001 level) will be needed in accepting or rejecting the null
hypotheses.
4.

Presentation and Analysis of Data (Chapter-4)

This chapter summarizes the collected data and statistical treatment applied to
them. The results are presented in a straight forward and unbiased manner. The
data are reported in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. The presentation
must be geared to the research questions and hypotheses. Some other points be
taken in view.

Only relevant data be presented. Individual scores or raw data should

not be reported in the text. They should be placed in appendix

It will be helpful to summarize the results and analysis through tables or

figures

Repetition of data at several places be avoided

The analysis of data should be objective and logical. Careful distinction

be made between facts and opinion

In reporting statistical tests of significance, information concerning the

obtained magnitude or value of the test, the degree of freedom, the
probability level and the direction of the effect be included

5.

Summary, Conclusion, Discussion on Findings and

Recommendations (Chapter-5)

(i)

Summary

This last chapter of the body of the report contains an overview of the research,
It gives a brief restatement of the problem, the procedure and findings. Some
considerations should be taken in view.

The summary chapter should not contain any new information but
should briefly recapituate the entire content of the report

Generalizations not adequately supported by data, should be avoided

Conclusions should be based on evidence

Practical implications that can be drawn from the study, should be

mentioned

(ii)

Conclusions

Conclusions are short, concise statements of the inferences that the researcher
has made because of his works. These should be organized as short numbered,
arranged in order from most to least importance. All conclusions should be
related to research questions stated in first chapter.
(iii)

Discussion on Findings

While discussing the findings, the following points should be taken in view.

The meaning of what has been found

Statement of the inferences drawn from the findings

Conditions that limit the generalization of findings

Implications and application of findings

Suggestions for improvement of procedure

Emphasize any theoretical consequences of the results

(iv)

Recommendations

It is the contribution which a researcher has made on the basis of discussion on

conclusions. Recommendations should be recorded in concise numbered
paragraphs and be organized from most to least important. Recommendations
for future research should also be included. Recommendations should center
the problem investigated and hypotheses tested. The researcher should avoid
making opinionated statements and suggestions that are not supported by
evidence. The recommendations be stated in terms what the findings suggest in
terms of policy, and what the results mean in terms of existing knowledge. The
recommendations should be directed to different levels of possible users of
researchers work i.e. policy makers, planners, administrators, media planners,
communication specialists and other social scientists and should also likely
include the theoretical as well as practical implications of research findings.
13.3 (SECTION-C) QUOTATIONS, CITATIONS, TABLES,
FIGURES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Quotations

a. Quotations quoted from previously published work or material should be

reproduced word for word. Incorporate a short quotation (less than 40
words) in text and enclose the quotation with double quotation marks.

b. Display a quotation of more than 40 words in free standing block of type

writer lines and omit the quotation mark. Start such a block quotation on a
new line indent five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation
double spaced on the new margin and indent the first line of any subsequent
paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin.
c. Direct quotation must be accurate. The quotation must follow the wording,
spellings and punctuation of the original source
d. Use double quotation marks for quotations in text. Use single quotation
marks within double quotation marks to set off material that in the original
source was enclosed in double quotation marks.
e. In block quotation do not use any quotation marks to enclose a block
quotation. Use double quotation marks to enclose any quoted material
within a block quotation.
2.

Citation of Sources

a.

Always cite the sources of a direct quotation alongwith the quotation. In

text give the author, year and page number, in parentheses. Include a
complete reference in the reference list (Quotation 1)

b.

In-mid Sentence
End the passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses
immediately after the quotation marks and continue the sentence
(Quotation-I).

c.

At the end of a sentence

Close the quoted passage with quotation marks, cite the source in
parentheses immediately after the quotation marks and end with period
(Quotation-2)
d.

At the end of a block quote

Cite the quoted source in parentheses after the final punctuation mark
(Quotation-3)

Examples
The following examples illustrate the application of APA Style to direct
quotation of a source.
Quotation-I (Quotation to be produced in text and which is less than 40
words)
He stated, The, placebo effect, disappeared when behaviour were studied in
this manner (Smith, 1982, p.276) but he did not clarify which behaviour were
studied.
Quotation-2 (Quotation to be produced in text and which is less than 40
words)
Smith (1982) found that the placebo effect which had been verified in
previous studies, disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner
(p.276)
Quotation-3 (Quotation which is a direct block quotation and which is more
than 40 words
Smith (1982) found the following:

The placebo effect which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared
when behaviours were studied in this manner. Further more, the behaviours
were never exhibited again even when real drugs were administered. Earlier
studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect
(p.276).

Other Examples:
a. According to them, The students come to realize that teachers expect them
to behave in a certain way in the class. (Ducke, Meckel, 1989, p.15)
b. Duke, and Meckel (1984) observed that, The students come to realize that
teachers expect them to behave in a certain way in class. (p.15)
3.

Tables

(i)

The Importance of Tables

Tables are always complicated to set in type. However, they are best reserved
for important data directly related to the content. A well constructed table is
economical in isolating data from the text and enables the reader to quickly see
patterns and relationship of the data not readily discernible in text. The reader
can more easily comprehend and compare data when they are presented in
tabular form. Tables usually communicate quantitative data. The presentation
of data is effective only when they are arranged so that their significance is
obvious at a glance.
Before constructing a table, the researcher should consider that:

Rounded off values may display patterns and exceptions more clearly
than previous values.

A reader can compare members down a column more easily than across
a row

Column and row averages can provide a visual focus that allows the
reader to inspect the data easily and

Ample spacing between rows and columns can improve a table because
white space creates a perceptual order to the data

(ii)

Guide-Lines to be Followed in the Construction of Tables.

The following guidelines or instructions are suggested to be followed in the

construction of tables.
Number all tables with Arabic numbers
Table number and caption be flushed with left margin on the same line in Time
New Roman in 12 Pt size
Give every table a brief, clear and explanatory title
Abbreviations that appear in the headings of a table can be parenthetically
explained
Use single spacing for table or captions
Do not underline the bold face of the table title
Capitalize the first letter of each word of the table title
No termination point (full stop) is placed at the end of the table title

One style of table caption be consistently followed through out the thesis
The table may also be placed vertically on the page if it will not fit horizontally
the page, however, it should have the same margin as the rest of the thesis
The headings in the list of tables should correspond in the body of the thesis.
Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives
The main body of the table may be typed double space or one and half space
If tables continued over two or more pages, the box headings are not repeated
on the second page
(iii)

Instructions Relating to the Text of the Tables

The followed instructions be followed in the text of the table.

In the text, refer to every table and its data
Discuss only the tables highlights
Each table should be an integral part of the text and also should be intelligible
without reference to the text
In the text refer to tables by numbers
Avoid superfluous words like the table above/below or the table on page-2,
etc.
Followed a consistent scheme of capitalization of column headings in all tables.
Capitalize the first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs etc.

Where percent is used as column heading, the % sign is not placed after each
entry in the column
typing of the text should begin on the third space below the table
4.

Footnote to Tables

Footnotes may be general, specific or probability level notes. A general note

explains information about the table as a whole. A specific note refers to a
particular column or entry. A probability level note indicates the results of test
of significance. The following instructions be followed while recording
footnotes to tables.
a. All footnotes to tables should be placed immediately below the tables not at
the bottom of the page
b. The first note should begin flush left and the subsequent lines follow one
after the other on new lines
c. The first line of each footnote should begin flush left and the subsequent
lines follow one after the other on new lines
d. Type single space within each footnote and double space between
individual footnotes
e. Footnotes superscripts in tables usually follow numerals small letters (a,
b) or asterisks rather than Arabic numerals
f. General notes are designated by the word Note (underlined followed by a
period)
g. Specific note begin with a b in each value and the probability level
notes are indicated by asterisk. For example

Note Proportions total more than 100% etc

a. a test A Group include 50 students
b. b test B Group include 45 students *p<05 **p<0l
h.

If a table extend over several pages, any footnote applying to the table as
a whole is written on the last page

i.

If data in a table are drawn from publication of another individual or

agency that fact should be made clear by complete reference to the
source, indicating the place and date of publication as well as the name
of the author to whom they arc to be created.

5.

Figures

A figure may be a chart, graph, photograph, drawing or other depiction.

Consider carefully whether to use a figure. On one hand, a well prepared figure
can convey the qualitative aspects of data such as comparisons, relationships
and structural or pictorial concepts more efficiently than can a text or table, on
the other hand, a figure is usually more time consuming and more expensive
than text or tables to prepare and reproduce. Before deciding to use a figure ask
yourself these questions.
a. Is the figure necessary? If it duplicates text, it is not necessary. If it
complements text or eliminates lengthy discussion, it may be the most
efficient way to present the information
b. What idea do you need to convey?
c. What type of a figure (e.g. Graph, chart, diagram, drawing, map or a
photograph etc) is most suited to your purpose?

A good figure will have the following qualities.

Augments rather than duplicates the text

Conveys only essential facts

Omits visually distracting detail

It is easy to read its elements (type, lines, labels etc)

It is easy to understand its purpose

It is carefully planned and prepared

All elements of a figure must be large enough to be legible, even

when the figure is to be reduced

The caption serves both as an explanation to the figure and as a figure title,
therefore, it should describe the content of the figure in a brief sentence or
phrase.
6.

Bibliography

A bibliography is necessary for every research report. It is an alphabetical list

of resources and materials that have been drawn upon the study and not
necessarily every work examined during the planning of the research. The list
enables the reader to judge the discrimination, resourcefulness and scholarly
grasp of the researcher in relation to his work. The bibliography follows the
body of the text and is a separate section. In thesis and dissertation, it is
introduced by a page number and the word Bibliography.
Some guide-lines/instructions are suggested to be followed while preparing
bibliography.

The first page of the bibliography should have the word bibliography
centered and in capital letters on the 8th single space from the top of the top
of the page.
The entries in the bibliography are arranged in an under hang, single spaced
form with double spacing between reference. Each entry begins flush with
the left margin and the second and ensuring lines are indented five to seven
spaces. One style be followed through out the reference list.
The bibliography is divided into categories if it is long.
Within the bibliography, category headings are separated from preceding
material, by a triple space
ii. References are arranged in each division of a divided bibliography in
alphabetical order
If you have cited many works by one author, order them in reference list by
publication date from older to new
Italicize or underline books and journals.
Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and sub title of a work.
7.

Examples or Specimen of Bibliography

In the following lines examples of bibliography are given for guidance of

research students.
A.

Books

Ghaffar, S.A (2003) Educational Psychology Peshawar: Afzal Printing

Press

Ghaffar, S.A, and Afridi, A.K (2003) Methods of Teaching English

Peshawar: Afzal Printing Press

B.

Journals

Ghaffar, S.A (1993) Educational Development in 90s in Pakistan PUTAJ

Peshawar University Teachers Association Journal (1993-94) Peshawar:
Nadi Printers

Ghaffar, Fazia (2002) Population Pressure and its Implications for

Socio-Economic and Educational Development in Pakistan Journal of
Education and Research Faculty of Education University of Peshawar
Vol.5 No.1

C.

Government Reports

Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1959) Report of the

Commission on National Education 1959 Karachi: Government Printing
Press Government of Pakistan, Planning

Commission (1994) u Islamabad Planning Division D. News Paper

Article

D.

News paper article

Cheema, Iqbal Pervez (2004 April 11) Contrived Policy Pursuits. The
News Islamabad p.7

Saleem Farruith (2004 April 11) A Brighter Future The News, Islamabad
p.6

E.

thesis

Ghaffar, S.A (1974) A Comparative Study of Pilot, Comprehensive and

Ordinary Secondary Schools in Punjab Province of Pakistan.
Unpublished Doctoral Thesis IER University of Punjab Lahore

Khan Rashid, (2002) Assessing the Role of Government and NonGovernment Organizations (GOs and NGOs) Towards poverty
Alleviation in the Rural Areas of NWFP (Pakistan) Unpublished
Doctoral Thesis, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University
of Peshawar.

F.

Dictionaries

Websters Third new international dictionary un-bridged The great

library of English Language (1993) Spring Field, M.A Merriam Webster.

Websters Collegiate dictionary (l0t1 ed) (1993) Sprint Field, M.A

Merriam Webster.

G.

Encyclopedia

Bergrnann, P.G. (1993) Relatively in the new Encyclopedia Britanica

(vol. 26 p.50 1- 508) Chicago: Encyclopedia Britanica

H.

Unpublished Manuscript

Vanden, Bos. G.R (2001) Disguising Care Material for Publication

(unpublished manuscript available from APA Production Office 750
First Street NE Washington DC 2002-4242.

I.

Electronic Media

(i) On-Line Sources

Funder, D.C (1994, March) Judgment Process and Context. Commentary on

Kohler on base-rate (9 paragraphs) Psychology (on line serial) 5 (17) Available
E. Mai1:Psycho(apacemessage:Gxpsyc,94. xxxxx.
(ii)

Abstract on CC-ROM

Meyer, A.S and Book (1992) The Tip of the Tongue, Phenomenon: Blocking or
Partial Activation [CD.ROM] Memory & Cognition, 20, 7 15-426 Abstract
form silver platter File PSYCLIT Item: 80-16351
(iii)

Computer Programme

Miller, M.E (1993) The Interactive Tester (Version 4.0) [computer software]
Westminster C.A: Psy text Services, Binder Report [computer software) (1993)
Melbourne EL Psycho motive software
(iv)

Internet Article based on print source

Venden Box, G. Knapp. S. & Doa J. (2001) Role of reference elements in

selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [electronic version]
Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5,117-123
(v)

Article in an Internet only Journal

Fredrickson B.L (2000) Cultivating Positive Emotions to Optimize Health and

Well-being, Prevention & Treatment, 3, articles ooola Retrieved Tannory
12,2003 from http/j ournals,apa-orglpreventionlvol2/pre003000la.html
(vi)

Stand alone documents on the internet

GYUSg www user survey (n.d) Retrieved August 8 2000 from

http/www.ee.gatchedulgov/usersurvey/ 1997-10

(vii)

Electronic Copy of a Journal Artile

Boreman, W.C. Hanson, M.L Oppler, S.M (1993) Role of Early Supervisory
Experience in Supervision Performance, Journal of Applied Psychology 78,
443-449 Retrieved October 23, 2000 from ARTICLES data base.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aggraval, J.C (1991) Educational Research: An Introduction. New

Delhi: Arya Book Depot.

Albert, Pilliner, (1975) Experimental Research: Methods of Educational

Enquiry. E.341 Block No.5 The Open University UK.

Allama Iqbal Open University (1990) Educational Research and

Statistics: M.A (EPM) Course Code No.50) Islamabad: Allama Iqbal
Open University.

American Psychological Association. (1990) Third Ed. Publication

Mannual, Lancaster: Lancaster Press Inc.

Best, J.W and James, V. Kahn (1986) Research in Education, New Jersy
Englewood Cliffs. (Eight Ed).

Best, J.W, (1983) Research in Education, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of

India (Pvt) Ltd.

Bryman, A. (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research: London:

Unwin Hyman.

Caplouiz, David (1993). The Stages of Social Research, New York: John
Wiley.

Charles, C.M. (1995) Introduction to Educational Research, (2 Ed.)

New York: Longman.

Cohen L. and Manion, L. (1989) Research Methods in Education (Third

Ed) London: Routtedge.

Coote and Hatt. (1981) Methods in Social Research, Singapore:

MacGraw Hill. Inc.

Cournell, F.G (1956). The Essential of Educational Statistics. London:

John Wiley & Sons.

Entwistte,

N.J.

(1973)

The

Nature

of

Educational

Research.

Buckinghamshire: Open University Press, Walton Hall Blechley.

Fred, N. Kerlinger (1983) Foundation of Behavioural Research (2nd Ed)

Delhi: Surjeet Publications.

Gay, L.R. (2000) Educational Research (Fifth Ed) Islamabad: Manza

Printing Corporation.

Good, C.V. (1963) Introduction to Educational Research, (2nd Ed). New

York: Appleton Century Croft

Good, Carter, V. (1959) Essentials of Educational Research, New York:

Appleton Century Crafts.

Good, William J. (1952) Methods in S Research, New York: McGraw

Hill Book Co.

Good, Y. Carter and Dougals E. (1962) Methods of Research in

Education New York, Appleton Century Cliffs Inc.

Masrur, Rehana, (2003) Thesis Writing: A systematic Approach

Islamabad: Allam Iqbal Open University.

McAshan, H.H (1973) Elements of Educatioi1 Research New York:

McGraw Hill Co.

Mouly, George J. (1978) Educational Research The Art and Science of

Investigation. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Raj, Hans. (1992) Theory and practice Social Research. New Delhi:
Bookmark (Pvt. Ltd).

Rashid, Mohammad (2001) Hand Book for Writing Dissertation Thesis.

Lahore: Nawaz Printing Press.

Rummel. J.F (1958) An Introduction to Research Procedure in

Education, New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.

Sax, Gilbert (1968) Empirical Foundations of Educational Research,

New Jersy: Englewood Clifts, Prentice Hall, Inc.

Sing, Kulleir, Sindu (1987) Methods of Research in Education, (211d

Ed) New Delhi: Sterling Publishers (Pvt. Ltd)

Sukhia, S.P. (1963) Elements of Educational Research Bombay: Allied

Publishers.

Van Dalen, Deolbold B. (1985) Understanding Educational Research:

An Introduction, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.

Van, Wagenen, R. Keith (1991) Writing a Thesis: Substance and Style.

Englewood (Cliffs. N. J, Prentice Hall.

Wiersma, William (1969) Research Methods in Education An

Introduction. New York: Lippincott Co.

Young, V. Panline (1998) Scientific Social Surveys and Research (4th

Ed) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India (Pvt. Ltd)

Zaki, W.M. (1989) Evaluation of Educational Plans and Projects,

Islamabad National Book Foundation.

APPENDIX
Preliminary Material

Specimen _A
Outer Cover
Spine
Name

RESEARCH TOPIC
(Hard Bound Black /Royal Blue/Dark Green/
Maroon Colour)

Full Research
Topic

Students name

Year of Acceptance of
Thesis

Faculty / Institute / Department

University of

Rool No.______

Year

Specimen-B
Inner cover
Title of Thesis ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Name of Student
Roll No. ______

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree

of_________________ in _______________ at the Faculty / Institute /
Department of _____________________ University of ____________ Moth
Year

Specimen-C
Bismillah

Specimen-D
Forwarding Sheet
FORWARDING SHEET
The Thesis entitled _______________________________________________
submitted by

____________ in partial fulfillment

of Son/Daughter

of______________________________________ degree in _______________

with specialization in ____________ (if any) has been completed under my/our
guidance and Roll No. ______________ Registration No._________________
supervision. I am /we are satisfied with the quality of students I research work.

_____________________
(Name)
Supervisor

_____________________
(Name)
Co-Supervisor
(in case of M.Phil/Ph.D)

Specimen-E
Declaration
DECLARATION
I,

____________________________________________________________

son/ Daughter of _________________________________________________

roll No. _____________ Registration No. _____________________________
As student of M.Phil/Ph.D at the Allama Iqbal Open University do hereby
solemnly

declare

that

the

thesis

entitled_________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
submitted by me in partial fulfillment of M.Phil/Ph.D degree in
__________________________ I is my original work, except where otherwise
acknowledged in the text, and has not been Supervisor submitted or published
earlier and shall not, if future, be submitted by me for obtaining any degree
from this or any other University or institution.
Signature _____________________
Name in Full __________________

Dated: day, month, year

This is required byAllama Jqbal Open Unrsersiiy. Islarnabad

Specimen-F
Approval Sheet for M.A/M.Sc/M.Ed

APPROVAL SHEET

The

Thesis

entitled

_________________________________________

prepared and submitted by ________________________ Roll No. __________

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of _________
with specialization (if any) in is hereby accepted.

Viva Voce Committee

__________________________
External Examiner
__________________________
Internal Examiner

__________________________
Chairman/Chairperson
Department of ____

Dated: day, month, year

Specimen-G
Approval Sheet for M.Phil
APPROVAL SHEET
Title of thesis ____________________________________________________
Name of student ________________________________________________
Roll No. _______________________ Accepted by the Faculty /Department /
Institute

of

__________________________

University

of

___________________ in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master

of Philosophy Degree in _____________with specialization (if any) in
________________

Viva Voce Committee

__________________________
Advisor
__________________________
External
__________________________
Chairman/Chairperson
__________________________
Dean

Dated: day, month, year

Specimen-H
Approval sheet for Ph.D
APPROVAL SHEET

Title of Thesis__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Name of student ______________ ___________________________________
Accepted by the Faculty of _____________________________in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in
_________________ with specialization (if any) in ______________________
Viva Voce Committee.
__________________________
Dean
__________________________
Chairman/Chairperson
__________________________
Advisor
__________________________
Member (if required)
Dated: day, month, year

APPENDEX
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)
(Specimen)
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF URBAN-RURAL EDUCATION
AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL IN N.W.F.P AND ITS
IMPLICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION
PLAN FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF 2010 - 2015
TARGETS
1.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Elementary education is the fundamental right of every child. This fundamental

right has been recognized throughout the world. Investment in education makes
a vital contribution to socio-economic development and improvement of
quality of life. Elementary education, which is a bed-rock of educational
pyramid contributes too, towards social stability and economic well-being of
the country. Educationally developed countries of the Asian Region have
achieved tremendous progress in elementary education so that they could
secure and sustain high percapita gross national product and have narrowed
down the gaps to considerable extent between urban-rural and gender
disparities.
Government of Pakistan is making efforts to eradicate illiteracy and promote
elementary education all over the country. Both in individual capacity and in
collaboration with other foreign agencies, all education policies and plans have
been based on an agreed agenda such as removing urban-rural disparity,
improving quality, expanding access for out of school children, improving
management and supervision, capacity building, institutional development and

financial sustainability. These goals and targets have been set from time to time
in all successive educational policies, plans and development programmes but
could not be achieved due to various reasons.
The initiatives taken by the government of N.W.F.P for the development and
improvements of elementary education, can be revealed from its efforts made
during the past two decades. The government had been executing a long range
project Elementary Education Development Programme N.W.F.P. (1989-99)
since 1990 which had been sponsored by the Federal Government (Islamabad)
with the assistance of USAID worth of Rs. 3200.00 millions. The broad goals
of the programme were to establishing a foundations for sustained economic
reforms in elementary education, to strengthen the institutional capacity of the
province, to formulate and implement policy that would improve
accessequity and quality of elementary education and thus leading to the
removal of grave disparity which existed between urban and rural areas and in
male female education.
The planners of the programme had taken in view some related facts while
formulating the plan of development. The most important feature of the
development efforts were to raise the participation rate which in (1988-89) of
male was 81.0 percent (78.0 percent urban and 83.0 percent rural) and of
female children, it was 24.0 .percent (49.0 percent urban 19.0 percent rural).
The total participation rate of both sex was 54.0 percent (64.0 percent urban
and 52.0 percent rural). Similarly, the dropout rate indicated in the plan was
63.0 percent, urban (60.0 percent, male and 70.0 percent female) and 71.0
percent rural (70.0 percent, male and 78.0 percent female) which was higher as

compared to other provinces. In 1989, there were 207 shelterless schools, most
of them were in the rural areas.
The planners had further pointed out major issues like low participation and
poor standard of education at elementary level, lack of proper accommodation,
absence of permissive atmosphere, poor teachers training, defective and
unrelated curricula, unattractive text books, lack of proper administration and
supervision, defective methods of recruitment and training,
the shortage of teachers and lack of facilities in schools in rural areas. Now this
project and other similar projects have been completed. What changes and
improvement have been brought about, needs thorough investigation. The
present study concentrates on such basic issues. To what extent gaps in
education at the fist level in urban and rural areas, and in male and female
education, still exist? What is the nature of such unbalanced situation? How are
such disparities challenging and demand changes and improvement in future?
And how a balanced education system at elementary level could be developed
and sustained in future? And how can an Action Plan of development be
devised to meet such target by 2010 and 2015? These are such questions which
have stimulated the researcher to undertake such type of study.
2.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

The problems of this study is to undertake a detailed comparative study on

conceptual as well as on situational analysis of the state of elementary
education in N.W.F.P with special reference to highlight the gaps with
multifarious dimensions that exist in male and female education, urban and

rural education and to ascertain its implications for forwarding a development

action plan for the achievement of 2010 2015 targets.
3.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This study will be directed by the following objectives:

a. To analyze in depth the government policies and initiatives on the
development of elementary education in the country.
b. To analyze in detail the policy and programmes of the provincial
government on the development of elementary education in the region.
c. To analyze the specific situation contributing towards disparities in the
development of elementary education in the province.
d. To analyze the specific situation of the development of elementary
education in Nowshera District.
e. To propose an Action Plan for improving of the situation with special
reference to removing the existing disparities in elementary education and
achieving the targets laid in the National Policy for 2010.
4.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study can be justified on the following grounds.

a. While analyzing the situation of the development of elementary education
in the country, and also in the region, some crucial factors have come into
limelight which have always been irritating the minds of policy makers,
planners. administrators, teachers and the beneficiaries. Low enrolment,
high wastage, poor facilities, shelterless schools, lack/absence of basic

facilities, unattractive school environment, irrelevant curricula, unwilling

teachers, inefficient supervisors, centralized administration and absence of
community involvement etc. are such factors which have characterized the
sad state of primary education in the region. The situation has been further
aggravated by the grave disparities that exist in urban-rural and male and
female education.
b. Inspite of the fact that the government of N.W.F.P has accorded top priority
to elementary education, innovative techniques have been adopted to
improve the infrastructure, teaching-learning environment and supervisory
system, to enhance the professional competence of teachers and to
restructure the traditional set up of the system, but, little have been achieved
so far against such high expectations. Such paradoxical situation which
despite of all out efforts being made by the government, does not come up
to the expectations of the society. It obviously demands a thorough and
objective inquiry into the existing situation. Such inquiry will be in line
with the policy of the government, intending to give right direction to the
development of education, particularly, at the first level in the province.
c. The study is hoped to provide guidelines to all concerned with the
development of elementary education, particularly for female in the rural
areas of the region.
d. The study could also be of value for perspective teachers, teacher-educators
and training institutions in the region and in the country.
e. The study is further expected to prove useful for foreign educationists and
students who are interested to study the problems and issues obstructing the

pace of development of education and more particularly of primary

education in the developing countries like Pakistan.
5.

ASSUMPTIONS

There are disparities in education system in Pakistan. These are in terms of

provision of facilities, in urban and rural areas, male and female education, in
the medium of instruction and in varying standards of physical facilities and
environment. This situation has been clearly exposed in all education policies
since 1970.
Therefore, it is assumed that disparities of varied dimensions listed below exist
in education in general and in primary education in particular.
The imbalance situation can be revealed from:
a. The access and equity of urban-rural, male and female education
b. The quality of education
c. The delivery system
d. The mechanism of supervision
e. The mode of administration and management
f. The preparation of teachers
g. The institutional development of financial sustainability
h. The physical and instructional facilities
i. The retention capability of the school instructional and physical
environment

6.

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED IN THE STUDY

Questions to be answered in the study are primarily based on the concept and
underlying assumptions of the study. These however, concentrate on the
specific nature, issues and concerns of the problems, such as:
a. What main concerns have been expressed by policy makers regarding the
existing disparity in education?
b. What are the main issues in the existing urban and rural disparities
particularly at elementary level?
c. What are the contributing factors for the existing gender disparities in
education?
d. What is the nature and extent of such disparity that exists in the selected
area of NWFP?
e. Which are the variables that reflect the gravity of situation relating to the
disparity in question?
f. What would be the socio-economic implications of narrowing down such
disparities?
g. What would be the implications for policy formulation and future planning
for removing the gaps so exist in the target level?
h. How would this research influence the policy of the government regarding
the development of education in general and primary education in particular
in future? And

i. What type of a workable Action Plan could be developed to correct the

situation on one hand and achieve the development targets as laid down in
the National Education Policy 1998-2010.
7.

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

a.

The Nature of Study

The study is descriptive in nature and scope, focusing on the system analysis
and other situational factors, obstructing the developments of elementary
education in the region.
b.

Dimensions of the Study

The study is of two-dimensional so far as the situational analysis of the

problems is concerned. It will be conducted both at regional and district.
Beside an intensive deskwork on the conceptual aspect of the problem, a
through analysis of the related statistical documents issued by government of
NWFP on the development of education and socio-econmic sectors, will also
be studied.
8.

LITERATURE SURVEY/REVIEW

The following documents which will be specifically consulted for the study
are:

National Education Policies (1979-1998)

National Educational Plans (1978-1998)

Development of Education in Pakistan (1978-1980)

Primary Education Development Programmes (1989-99)

Provincial NWFP Profile Regarding Government Primary Schools

(1997)

NWFP Development Statistics (1997-1999)

District Wise Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP. (1996-1999)

Any research done on the subject

Any national/international report available on the subject

9.

PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

The following procedure will be adopted for the study:

a.

Guidelines:

Guidelines will be prepared for collection of information on the development

of primary education in NWFP from all sources mentioned in literature.
b.

The Questionnaires:

The data relating to the development of primary education in NWFP.,

Nowshera , Chitral will be obtained through separate questionnaires.. Five
percent schools both male and female each from urban and rural areas, will be
randomly selected for the study at district level.
c.

Organization and interpretation of data:

The data obtained through a documentary analysis and from the field will be
organized, tabulated and interpreted according to the standard design of
research. The method of percentage will be used for the interpretation of
statistical data collected from the field. On the basis of findings of research, a
set of recommendations will be forwarded to the government to correct the

situation in future. An Action Plan for Development of Elementary Education

to achieve the target of National Education 20 10-2015 will be forwarded.
10. REFERENCES
1. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1947) All Pakistan
Education Conference November, Karachi
2. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1959) Report of the
Commission on National Education Rawalpindi
3. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1970) The New Education
Policy Islamabad
4. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1972) The Education
Policy (1972-80) Islamabad
5. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1978) The National
Educational Education Policy, Islamabad
6. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1992) The National
Educational Policy, Islamabad
7. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1998) The National
Education Policy. Islamabad
8. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Fifth Five Year Plan
(1978-83) Islamabad
9. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Sixth Five Year Plan
(1983-85) Islamabad

10. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Seventh Five Year Plan
(1988-93) Islamabad
11. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Eight Five Year Plan
(1993-98) Islamabad
12. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1996)
Peshawar
13. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1997)
Peshawar
14. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1998-99)
Peshawar
15. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics SocioEconomic Indicators of NWFP (1997-98) Peshawar
16. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics SocioEconomic Indicators of NWFP (1998-99) Peshawar
17. Khan Namdar, (1970), Some Aspect of Planning for Primary Education in
Pakistan, Islarnabad.
18. Qureshi M.H. (1980) Universalization of Primary Education in Pakistan
Islamabad.

19. UNESCO (1972) Education in Asia UNESCO Regional Office Bangkok.

(Thailand).
20. UNESCO (1975) Educational Planning in the Asian Region UNESCO
Regional Office Bangkok (Thailand).
21. UNESCO (1978) Progress in Education (Statistical Report) UNESCO
Regional Office Bangkok (Thailand).
22. NESCO (1979) Universalization of Education UNESCO Regional Office
Bangkok (Thailand).
23. APIED (1979) Universalization of Education UNESCO Regional Office for
Education in Asia and Oceania Bangkok (Thailand).
24. The Social Action Programme (1999) Allocation and Priorities Rawalpindi

Specimen-B

ASSESSING THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS (GOS
AND NGOS) TOWARDS POVERTY
ALLEVIATION IN THE RURAL AREAS OF
NWFP
1.
i.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The Poverty Syndrome:

Poverty is a big denier with many facets. It denies comfort, dignity, freedom
and participation; somewhere it is relative where every person is provided with
the basic needs of food, shelter and dress, whereas, somewhere likes ours it is
absolute. Some segments of the society have every opportunity to avail what
they want and some are so helpless and powerless to get a two square meals a
day. This condition is growing in our society for the last more than half a
century and the plight of haves not is worsening.
Despite decades of development assistance received through a complex system
of lending institutions, multilateral agencies, bi-lateral aid programmes and
foreign NGOs, Pakistan remains in the grip of grinding and persistent poverty.
During the past fifty years, approaches to development have been varied,
influenced by the prevailing geo-political climate, shifting ideologies and everchanging fashions in thinking about development and poverty alleviation. From
modernization theories to basic needs, from import-substitution to export- led
growth, from technology transfer to sustainable development and participatory
approaches - There had been no shortage of models that had shaped
development planning.

What have not changed, are the basic facts of poverty in Pakistan, where large
number of people continue to live in conditions of absolute poverty. If poverty
alleviation initiatives have, indeed, been a failure on the large scale, it is not
because reaching the poor and securing for them wider opportunities have not
been the focus of development, but because the development programmes have
not rightly identified the main causes of poverty. Instead, they have been
treating the symptoms all along. The UNDP and many other programmes from
trickle down to targeting the poor approach can be more strengthened if it is
directed after the real understanding of causes of the problem.
The simple idea, which has not always been acknowledged when planning to
alleviate poverty is that we need to know the underlying sources and social
explanation of our poverty because policies, even if targeted directly to the
poor, can hardly succeed unless they are directed at the root causes of the
poverty. And such causes vary from country to country and society to society. A
strategy followed by one country need not be appropriate with the same
packages and ways of implementation for another.
ii.

The Human Distress:

Despite tremendous advances made in science and technology, the majority of

nations are still trapped in abject poverty. It implies a severe lack of material
and non-material goods, which impedes the normal development of the
individual to the point of absolute poverty.
Some indications of this unfortunate condition with special references to our
country are reported as: tow thirds of our adult population are still illiterate.
Sixty million people do not have access to any health facility. Thirty million

people are without safe drinking water and ninety million people are deprived
of basic sanitation facilities. The death of eight lakh children every year is
linked with malnutrition. Half of them are usually dropped out before
completing the cycle of primary education as revealed by the official statistics.
In fact, poverty has many social dimensions as well.
Poverty is the central problem of the Third World. Most of these countries are
poor and their people are subject to many different forms of deprivation,
powerlessness, hunger, urban squalor, landlessness, illiteracy, avoidable ill
health, familial deprivation, the exploitation of women and so on. Most of the
poverty in underdeveloped countries is concentrated in the rural areas where
almost 70% people live. Various aspects of poverty interact. For instance
inequality in education perpetuates inequalities in status and life chances,
squalid living condition adversely affect health and life expectancy, inequality
of power stands in the way of any steps towards greater social justice. Their
interactions are endless.
iii.

Policy Initiative of the Government:

The current millennium will see more & more advances in the field of science
technology and information. The real potential of future will be found in the
three billion people, living in poverty that collectively represent the greatest
potential for growth and opportunity the world has ever seen.
The development strategies, being devised by the government in the prevailing
critical condition, center around the enhancement of social and economic
welfare of the people. They are being pursued at time of fundamental changes
in domestic and global economic scenario. The intended adjustments or

reforms include decontrol, deregulation, liberalization, privatization, marketorientation, community involvement and conservation of physical environment.
These initiatives have altered both in concept and nature of planning prevalent
in Pakistan. The government has not only considered the main vehicle for
economic change but also a catalyst, and a motivator of change. The future
plans of development are expected to be more pragmatic and relevant in view
of the pressing demands of the society. Besides these issues, poverty alleviation
is the most strategic and crucial one and is fortunately on the top of the agenda
of the present government. Ghurbat Mukau (Eradicate Poverty) is the clarion
call of the day.
iv.

The Focus of the Study

As the persistent presence of poverty in the country poses impeding threats to

the future of the economy and society as a whole, some questions do agitate
our mind to see how these have been equitably answered in the past and in
present plans of development. This study intends to concentrate particularly on
some of the following issues:
a. Why poor human development in Pakistan is attributed to the failure of
government in public society?
b. How far the governments anti-poverty programmes, particularly in social
development sector, have been successful in the past?
c. What specific role is being played by non- government organizations
towards eradication of poverty, particularly in social sector?
d. What gaps and deficiencies are still found in the opportunity and
availability structure in the country?

e. As a social policy concern, what should be the best solution of the problem?
These are some of the issues which have inspired the researcher and which
make the differences of the proposed study.
2.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this study is to assess the role of both government and nongovernment organizations towards poverty alleviation in the rural areas of
NWFP.
3.

Objectives of the Study

The following objectives have been set for the study.

a. To find out the extent of utilization of human resources for the achievement
of organizational goals,
b. To look into the extent of opportunities provided to people for the full
expression of their talent and potentialities within the framework of
development of human resources,
c. To look into the nature of improvement of physical infra-structure in the
rural areas of the region,
d. To find out the extent of contribution made by government and nongovernment organizations towards raising literacy, improvement of basic
health care facilities, sanitation and environmental protection,
e. To concentrate on specific programmes launched by these organizations
such as promoting small enterprises, development for employment and
income generation sustainable agriculture development,

f. To ascertain the nature of services rendered by these organizations towards

drug control, recreational activities, awareness of the prevailing social
issues and rehabilitation of the handicapped and drug addicts,
g. To analyze the role of the organizations towards attending the key issues of
females with particular reference to their empowerment, participation in
economic activities and preventing them from further exploitation,
h. To find out problems, issues and other constraints faced by these
organizations in carrying out their activities effectively,
i. To determine the margin, if any, left for the improvement in their functions
and making further provision for their capacity building, and
j. To suggest a comprehensive strategy based on the above analysis for
dealing effectively with the problem of alleviation of poverty of the rural
people and the region.
4.

Need and Importance of the Study

a. The need and importance of the study is attributed to its greater contribution
both in academic and practical terms towards better understanding of the
requirement of human resource development, removing gender disparities,
and improving the life style of the people living in rural areas of the region.
b. The study is expected to highlight problems, issues, weaknesses and
deficiencies in achieving the goals of human development, particularly
eradication of poverty among the rural community.
c. The study is expected to influence the social policy towards adopting better
and workable strategies for the achievement of their objectives by

improving the physical and socio-economic infrastructure of the backward

areas of the region.
d. The study is aimed at benefiting academicians from its results.
e. The study may have international value for all concerned with the
development of education in the developing countries, and may get first
hand information about the efforts made by various organizations in
Pakistan towards easing the problem of poverty in rural society.
5.

Delimitation of the Study

The problem of the study will be delimited to the selected popular government
and non-government organizations involved in multifarious activities in the
backward areas of the region.
The thrust of the activities will be further looked into crucial problems such
as:
a. Literacy, formal and non-formal education,
b. Health and sanitation,
c. Family welfare,
d. Improvement of physical infrastructure,
e. Agriculture and livestock,
f. Community participation,
g. Women empowerment,
h. Income generating activities, and

i. Environmental protection
6.

Sample of the Study

As indicated earlier, two of the most popular and reliable government and nongovernment organizations will be selected for the study. Their projects about
poverty alleviation in the rural areas of the Province completed during the last
five years (1995-1999) will be evaluated.
7.

The Nature and Procedure of the Study

The nature of the study is descriptive and may involve a variety of research
activities, ranging from wide review of the related literature to making a
comprehensive survey of the activities performed by their organizations. The
research activities will involve:
a. Undertaking an intensive review of literature to highlight the concept of
development and its relation to poverty,
b. Preparation of a comprehensive questionnaire for collection of both
quantitative and qualitative information from the GOs and NGOs on the
subjects,
c. Formulation of an Interview Schedule for all concerned who have executed
various activities,
d. Formulation of an interview guide for the community people, the
beneficiaries of projects to ascertain their views and future aspirations

REFERENCES
Australian International Development Assistance Bureau. Poverty Alleviation
Through

Australian

Development

Cooperation.

Australia:

Australian

Govemment Publishing Service. International Development Issues, No.15.

Bagachwa. M.S.D ed. (1994). Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania, UK: African
Books Collective,
Cassan, Robert. (1996). Strategies for Growth and Poverty Alleviation. UK:
Commonwealth Secretariat; Economic paper, No.29.
Cederroth, Sven. 1997.Basket Case of Poverty Alleviation: Bangladesh
approaches the twenty first century. Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian
Studies.
DSilva, Emmanul H: Bysouth. Kaye. 1993 Poverty Alleviation Through
Agricultural Projects: Report on a Seminar Held Jointly by the Asian
Development Bank. The Centre on Integrated Rural Development. USA: World
Bank,.
Demery; Lionel; 1987. Addison and Tony. The Alleviation of Poverty Under
Structured Adjustment. USA: World Bank,
Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAQ). Rural Policies and Trends
& Agriculture UN (FAQ), 1993; FAO Economic and Gaiha, R. Design of
Poverty Alleviation Strategy in Rural Areas. Italy: Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAQ), Economic & Social Development Paper.

Getubigjr et. Al. Improving the Design, Management and Implementation of

Poverty Alleviation Programmes. (Asian and Pacific Development Centre,
Malaysia, 1991).
Glaessner, Philip J.; Lee, Kenwood and Sant Anna, Anna Maria. World Bank
Discussion Papers: 1994. The Latin America Experience: Poverty Alleviation
and Social Investment Funds: No.261. USA: World Bank,
Griffith, Geoff. 1994. Poverty Aleviation for Rural Women, UK: Avebury,
Hanumantha. 1996. Economic Reforms and Poverty Alleviation in India. USA:
Sage Publications, Herring, Cedric. 1998. Empowerment in Chicago:
Grassroots Participation in Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation.
Edited by Jen Kins, Noah Temaner: Gills, Dough; Bennett, Michael; Herring,
Cedric. USA: University of Illionis Press, Jan
Holcombe, Susan. 1995. Managing to Empower: The Grameen Banks
Experience of Poverty Alleviation. Foreword by Speth, James Gustave. UK:
Zed Books,
Khan, M. Adil. 1996. Economic Development. Poverty Alleviation and
Governance: The Asian Experience. UK: Averbury,
Ling, Z; Zhongyi, J. 1996. Publications and Poverty Alleviation in Rural. USA:
Nova Science Publishers, Mudahar. Mohinder S. Kyrgyz Republic: 1998
Strategy for Rural Growth and Poverty Alleviation. USA: World Bank,
December; World Bank Discussion Paper: 394.
Mullen, Joseph ed. 1995. Rural Poverty Alleviation. UK: Avebury,

Perrings, Charles. 1996. Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation in

Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Botswana. USA: ST. Martins Press Text,
Perrings, Charles. 1995. Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation in
Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Botswana. The ILO Studies Series. UK: Mac
Millan Press,
Rao, Ch. Hanumantha ed, and Linnemann, Hans ed, 1996 Economic Reforms
and Poverty Alleviation in India. Indo- Dutch Studies on Development
Alternatives Series, V.17, UK: Sage Publications Ltd..
Robinson, Mark and Riddell, Roger C. 1995. NonGovernmental Organization
and Rural Poverty Alleviation. UK: Clarendon Press,
Templer, Guy and Payne, Polly. 1994 Indias Employment Programmes for the
Alleviation of Poverty: An Annotated Bibliography. UK: Institute of
Development Studies, IDS Development Bibliographies, No.9.
Thomas, Leo and Sahley, Carol, Squaring the Urban Circle: NGOs and Urban
Poverty Alleviation in Ethiopia. UK: INTRAC, September l998 Occasional
Papers. 24.
Thomas, Leo, ed. 1998 Partners in Urban Poverty Alleviation. NGO
Management and Policy lO.UK: INTRAC, December.
Vosti, Stephen A. ed and Reardon, 1997. Thomas, ed. Sustainability, Growth
and Poverty Alleviation: A Policy

and Argroecological

Perspective

International Food Policy Research Institute. USA: The John Hopkins

University Press,

Wahid, Abu, N.M. ed. 1993 The Grameen Bank of Bangladesh: A New
Dimension in Poverty Alleviation. USA: West view Press,
World Bank. Colombia: 1990 Social Programs for the Alleviation of Poverty:
World Bank Study, USA: World Bank,.
World Bank. Namibia: 1992 Poverty Alleviation with Sustainable Growth:
World Bank Country Study. USA: World Bank,.
World Bank. 1988. World Banks Support for the Alleviation of Poverty. USA:
World Bank,

Specimen-C

THE IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

INTRODUCED BY GOVERNMENT ON
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NWFP SINCE 1999
1.

BACKGROUND

Primary education in the region is beset with multifarious problems.

Dilapidated buildings, absence of basic amenities, ill-prepared teachers, unattractive curricula, inefficient supervision and poor management, are the
common features of the system. The situation of girls primary schools in rural
areas in more depressing because teachers are unwilling to serve in these
schools. Their absenteeism is a serious problem. Large number of children
dropout from schools for various reasons. Other factors, like non-availability of
physical, instructional, facilities and accommodation for teachers non existence
of comfortable transport arrangement, medical facilities and insecurity etc.
have further aggravated the situation. Owing to these reasons the country has
not so for been able to achieve universal primary education.
Similar is the depressing situation with respect to the training of teachers,
curriculum development, and instructional material, community participation in
the affairs of the school and more importantly bringing about qualitative
improvement in teaching learning situation in the classroom.
The Government of NWFP has accepted these challenges and has shown
commitment to improve the situation. It has initiated reforms in all these areas
since 1999. Now the question is what kind of reforms and changes have been
brought about in the system? And more importantly, what is the impact of such

reforms on the development and improvement of primary education in the

region? These are such questions which have stimulated this study.
2.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study will be directed by the following objectives:

a. To undertake an intensive deskwork on the conceptual aspect of primary
education in the country and in the region.
b. To analyze the policy initiatives and strategies of the government on the
development and improvement of primary education in Pakistan and in the
region.
c. To bring out in lime-light the reforms undertaken by the Provincial
Government of NWFP in primary education with specific reference to

Access

Physical facilities

Teacher training

Material development

Community involvement and

Other institutional reforms

d. To examine critically the impact of these reforms on the development of

primary education and improvement of teaching learning environment in
the classroom

3.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

As stated earlier, primary education in plagued with serious problems and

hence universal access has not been achieved so far. The government is giving
priority to primary education and more specially to education of girl child in
the rural areas.
The government is also showing keen interest in qualitative improvement of
the system in general and of the class room teaching learning situation in
particular: consequently, large number of innovations have been introduced
towards this direction. The study is justified on the ground to ascertain what
efforts have been made by the government so for to bring about change and
improvement in the system and to what extant tangible results have been
obtained of these efforts. The study is further justified on the ground that it will
influence the policy and other development plans of the government on the
development and improvement of primary education in the region in future.
4.

PROJECT BENEFICIARIES WITH REFERENCE TO

STRENGTHENING OF THE DEPARTMENT/INSTITUTE

Teachers and students of institute/department will be directly benefited through

undertaking such important project. They will get first hand knowledge about
what is going on in the system. They will be equally aware of the problems and
constraints, affecting the proper implementation of the policy of the
government. More importantly, teachers and students will get skill and
experience of conducting research work in the field. Through this project, the
institute/department will be able to develop a nucleus of experts in research
who will be in batter position to guide their students and colleagues in research
activities in future. The institute/department will also have exposure to the

government and non-government organizations activities and sharing their

experiences in development and improvement of education in the province.
5.

OUT PUT OF THE STUDY

The output of the project can better be judged in qualitative terms. This
institute is expected to play a leadership role in the development of trained
manpower and research experts. This project will provide such opportunities as
already mentioned, to teachers and students to acquire, knowledge, skill and
attitude as how to investigate scientifically problems and suggest solutions for
them. An other main output of this study will be that it will influence the
development strategies of the government relating to primary education and
will provide a supplementary reform parkage to all concerned with policy
formulation, planning and implementation of educational programmes at first
level.
6.

DURATION OF THE STUDY

12 Months

7.

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES TO BE CARRIED OUT IN THE

STUDY

The project will consist of the following research activities to be conducted by

the researchers.
a. Documentary Analysis of policy initiatives of the government on the
development and improvement of primary education in Pakistan and in the
region.

b. Collection of background data on all Reforms initiated by the provincial

government from concerned offices and other organizations offices.
c. Preparation and administration of questionnaires for the selected primary
schools for collection of relevant information on the nature of the reforms,
introduced in primary schools and the impact they have exerted on primary
schools and on the teaching learning environment in the classroom.
d. Preparation of Interview Schedules for all stakeholders to ascertain their
views on the effectiveness of changes proposed and brought about in the
system.
e. Preparation of Interview Schedules for policy makers; planners and
implementers of the reforms activities, so undertaken by the government
functionaries.
f. A team of field workers will be selected and oriented in the collection of
data from the field and conducting interviews with concerned people
g. One thousand (500 male and 500 female) primary schools will be randomly
selected as sample from 22 districts of the region.
h. The research team as proposed will supervise, guide and coordinates all
research activities in the project.
i. The involvement of young teachers and students of the institute is the main
characteristics of this project.
8.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

Physical facilities i.e. space, furniture, storage, phone, electricity and other
secretarial equipment like computer, photo copier, etc. will be available in the

institute free of charges. However, typing photo stating, stationary and field
work expenses will be met from the proposed project budget.

Specimen-D

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INSERVICE TRAINING PROGRAMME AVAILED

BY UNIVERSITY TEACHERS IN THE STAFF
TRAINING INSTITUTE (STI) UNIVERSITY OF
PESHAWAR
1.

INTRODUCTION

A teacher plays a pivotal role in the system of education. His position is central
and carries the major responsibility for influencing the education policies,
effecting change and innovations in the system and ensures the quality in
teaching learning environment in the classroom. If depends upon teachers
competence and resourcefulness to provide flesh and blood to the bare bones of
curriculum which he deals with in the class room
In fact, teachers are neither adequately equipped nor motivated to bring about
desirable change in the system. This is because of inadequate pre-service
professional preparation and lack of facilities of in service education. It is,
therefore, almost important that any reforms to be introduced for widening the
base of education, improving the content and teaching learning process, should
focus particularly on the training of teachers. There would be little hope of
advocating and advancing the quality aspects of education unless the teacher
revives commitment for his/her profession and is also given place of honour
and recognition in the society.
Teachers knowledge skill and attitude and his/her commitment depend upon
his/her professional preparation through both types of pre-service and in-

service education. All education policies have expressed in unequivocal terms

that the quality of public instruction would be given high priority. Major
changes should be brought about in the content, teaching methods and
evaluation. The role of the teacher would be redefined. The National Education
Policy 1979 has clearly laid down that separate units for organizing teacher
training would be set up at provincial and federal level. Such training
institutions would be equipped and strengthened and their would be provided
training, upto date their knowledge and skill. A regular in- service training
programme would be launched for teachers at all levels.
The idea of in-service training for teachers at higher level, is not new. It was
first forwarded in National Education Policy 1979 and was materialized in the
shape of establishment of Academy of Higher Education and Academy of
Educational Planning & Management under the auspices of University Grant
Commission and Federal Ministry of Education respectively. In NWFP a
Management Unit for System and Training (MUST) was established in 1980
for providing in- service training to college teachers, principals and
administrators of education department. Peshawar University also took the
lead. It established an in-service training unit on its premises for the newly
recruited teachers in 1985. Later on it was renamed as Staff Training Institute
(STI) and was manned by a full time Director. It was provided a separate
building equipped with essential facilities for the training purpose.
Almost one and half decade has passed of the existence of the Institute which
had been providing in-service training to the young teachers during vocations
at Bara Gali Campus. The question arises how effectively the STI contributes
towards raising the professional competence of teachers? And in what respects

the Institute needs changes and improvement in its programme? These

questions in mind, the researcher intends to undertake a detailed investigation
on the problem.
2.

STATEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of this study in to assess the effectiveness of in- service training
programme availed by University teachers in the Staff Training Institute (STI,
University of Peshawar.
3.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study will be directed by the following objectives:

a. To study the policy of the Government on the development of teacher
education with special reference to in-service training of teachers at higher
level.
b. To study the policy of University of Peshawar for the promotion of
professional competence of University teachers in future.
c. To determine the relevance and effectiveness of in- service training facilities
provided to the teachers serving in the University.
d. To identify deficiencies and weaknesses in the training programme
organized by STI from time to time to the university teachers,
e. To forward recommendations for improvement and consolidation of the
programme based on the results of the study.

4.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The University of Peshawar, inspite of its financial constraints. has taken a bold
step to institutionalize in-service training programme for its young teachers to
bring about qualitative Improvement in their teaching learning situation. The
University is investing due financial resources of its budget in the programme
but no attempt has been made so far to assess the effectiveness of its output and
determine the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. The study,
therefore, hoped:
a. To influence the policy of the Government and University authorities
intending to bring about change and improvement in the programme.
b. To replicate the experiment in other Universities if it is carried on
successfully.
c. To bring out in lime light the deficiencies and shortcomings of the
programme so that the situation could be corrected in further.
d. To provide a rationale for restructuring of the training programme on sound
lines in future.
e. To prove a useful documents for University teachers planners, organizers
and research students on teacher education in the region.
5.

ASSUMPTIONS

The following assumptions are made in the study:

a. It is assumed that the professional competence of teachers is as important as
their academic preparation is considered, therefore, both should be treated
on equal terms.

b. It is assumed that the idea of staff development programme at higher level

is new in the traditional system of education and much would have been left
for improvement in future.
c. It is assumed that due to lack of co-ordination between the Staff Training
Institute, University of Peshawar and other organization of the Federal
Government the programme may not be achieving its objectives in effective
manner.
d. It is assumed that relevance flexibility and effectiveness of the programme
can bring about change and improvement to the knowledge, skill and
attitude of the teachers and can impact the teaching learning environment in
the classroom.
6.

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED IN THE STUDY

The following questions will be answered in the study. These questions are
based on the very spirit of objectives formulated for the study.
a. What is the nature of the policy of the Government on the development of
teacher education in Pakistan?
b. What problem and constraints the Government is facing in the organization
and implementation of the In-Service Training Programme?
c. What is the policy of University of Peshawar for the development of teacher
training programme in future?
d. How far the curriculum offered in the staff training institute is relevant and
based on modern concepts and trends in education.
e. How far the existing facilities of the STI are adequate?

f. How far the teacher educators of STI are themselves fully oriented with the
modem techniques of teaching?
g. What in the impact of the incentives given to teachers who avail the
training opportunity in the STI on raising their professional competence,
moral and commitment to their profession?
h. How the idea of in-service training for University teachers has been
appreciated and supported by the heads of the departments or deans of
faculties of the University?
7.

i.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY THE

METHODS AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY IN
BRIEFLY STATED:
The Nature of the Study

The nature of the study is descriptive. It will involve intensive study of the
related literature and field work on the problem. A descriptive study approach
suits the problem under investigation because it interprets what is? It is
concerned with the conditions or relationship that exist, opinion that are held,
process that are going on, effects that are observed and trends that are
developing. The present problem of the study aims at a thorough analysis of the
existing situation and conditions of an rn-service programme and pin pointing
all the related factors and forces affecting the effectiveness of the programme.
ii.

Delimitation of the Study

The study will be delimited to the teachers of various departments of

University of Peshawar who have undergone in-service training in the Staff
Training Institute during the last five years (1996-2001).

iii.

Sample of the Study

The sample of the study will include teachers (as mentioned above), Director of
the Institute. Chairmen of Departments, Deans of Faculties and concerned
administrators as respondents of the study.
iv.

Instrument to be used in the Study

Various types of instruments will be used in the study. These will mainly
include:
a. Questionnaire for collection of factual information front the office of the
Director of the Institute.
b. Interview Schedule for Director of STI to ascertain problems and
constraints facing the institute and future programmes being planned.
c. Interview schedule for participants elicit their views on the effectiveness of
the training programme available by them.
d. Interview schedule for the chairmen of the departntents deans of faculties,
the key administrator of the University to ascertain their view on the
relevance, and effectiveness of the training prograrnnte launched in the STI
by the University of Peshawar.
v.

Organization and Interpretation of data

The data both of quantitative and of qualitative nature will be collected

personally by the researcher. It will be organized. tabulated and interpreted
accordingly.

8.

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

As it is a descriptive study. review of the literature will be an integral part of

the study, which will provide deep insight into the problem. The review will
mainly include both official and non-official documents such as:
a. National Education Policies
b. National Education Commissions
c. Education Conferences
d. National Development Plans
e. Development of Education in Pakistan (Country Reports)
f. Development of Teacher Education in Pakistan
9.

SOURCE BOOKS ON TEACHER EDUCATION

(PREPARED BY AIOU ISLAMABAD)

10.

STATUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR (ON

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF STI IN THE UNIVERSITY)

Specimen-E

RE-ORIENTING BASIC EDUCATION TOWARDS

POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND IMPROVEMENT
OF QUALITY OF LIFE OF THE PEOPLE OF
JABBI VILLAGE NORTH-WEST-FRONTIER
PROVINCE (PAKISTAN)
1.

RATIONALE

The Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) Project was initiated through collaborative
efforts of the provincial government and WHO in a small union council of
MandorilJabbi in the area of Nizampur District Nowshera North-West-Frontier
Province in 1994. About 14000 people of the area live below the poverty line in
the target area. The village Jabbi having population of 6588 was selected on the
basis of being most backward area and the availability of potential resources to
be developed as the pilot site for the implementation of BMN programme.
Later on the BMN activities were extended to other five adjoining villages
including Mandori.
The BMN is an innovative and bold initiative of human resource development.
It aims at to alleviate the poverty of the people and promises a better quality of
life. The priorities set in the project are the solution of irrigation problem,
introduction of cash crops, development of diary activities, starting forestation
of land in the target village. So far as education and health are concerned, a
general assessment of the situation has been made by the planners and grey
areas have been identified for improvement. The project is in its second phase
of implementation indicating encouraging impact on the improvement of socioeconomic situation of the village. Such impact is attributed to the financial

support of WHO, community share, and bottom up planning of selfmanagement and community participation.
As revealed from the BMN project, Jabbi village holds 1830 (997 male and 833
female) population of schools going children 25.0 percent of which are enrolled
in six primary schools (4 for boys and 2 for girls). The situation is grave.
Children dropout for various reasons. The main contributing factors are
poverty, malnutrition, other physical disabilities, lack of instructional facilities,
poor scholarship and unstimulating school environment. Teachers academic
and professional preparation is low. The phenomena of untrained teachers
exists in schools. Most of teachers are matric and have undergone short inservice courses which are inadequate.
In view of the importance of basic education providing firm bedrock to the
socio-economic development of a poor society, an integral part of the BMN
project, the grave situation that prevails in the institutions, the interest of
UNESCO to provide technical assistance for its re-orientation in the village
seems essential. The UNESCO therefore approached Institute of Education and
Research (IER) University of Peshawar as a research center to help it in
identifying the orientation mandate for which it could provide technical
assistance in planning and implementation of reorienting basic education
towards poverty alleviation and improvement of quality of life of the people of
village Jabbi.
According to the terms of reference of the TSS-I given to the researcher i.e. to
review the governments poverty alleviation policy and practices, the basic
education delivery system, the current status of teaching-learning situation with

reference

to

facilities,

teacher

preparations,

supervision,

curriculum,

participation of children and learning achievement problems, issues affecting

basic education and to identify programmes and kind of intervention that suit
reorientation of basic education in Jabbi. The researchers have been able to
conduct a three dimensional study on the specific educational situation and the
socio-economic conditions of the target group. Both the survey and field
observation provided researchers an insight into the crucial issues affecting
basic education and the socioeconomic aspect of life of the people.
lhe survey had also provided rationale to look for an integrated approach in
which education could play pivotal role towards poverty alleviation and adopt
alternatives for income generation of the community and mobilization of their
human and material resources and their support in developmental efforts. These
are such issues which have also been addressed in the BMN project. On the
basis of findings of this study, a strategy, will therefore; be proposed for the
implementation of the pilot project in the target village.
2.

OBJECTIVES

Under the education for all (EFA) goals and the basic minimum needs (BMN)
project objectives are:
a. To

develop

strategy

to

introduce/implement

community-based

programmes (innovations) in basic education to provide educational

opportunities to the population of Jabbi village.
b. To develop a comprehensive technical and vocational programme aiming at
empowering the community by enhancing their income levels, resulting in
better quality of life.

c. To strengthen the existing educational institutions at basic education level,

by diversifying the curricula according to basic living needs, developing
teaching-learning materials and supplementary information and enhancing
the professional skills of teachers/facilitators, and relevant policy-makers in
the target area.
d. To mobilize the human/institutional and material resources at the
community level towards improving capacity building, encourage good
governance and developing self-reliance for massive basic education and
improvement of quality of life.
3.

EXPECTED OUTCOME

The implementation of the project is hoped to contribute in the manner:

a. To abridge the gap between what is available and what is needed for the
improvement of basic education in the target village.
b. To makeup the deficiencies that exist in teachers preparation, orient policy
makers, planners, administrators and supervisors in the emerging trends and
development in basic education.
c. To help realize the goals of BMN project through development and
strengthening of basic education as an integral component of the project.
d. To influence the policy of the government and other interested agencies for
replicating such activities in other backward areas of the region.
e. To provide opportunities to the community to participate in various
activities and mobilize their resources both human and physical for raising

their socio-economic status and help in making basic education effective at

local level.
f. To help in opening multifarious avenues for income generation of the
community through availing productive basic education.
4.

ACTIVITIES AND TIME FRAME

The project will be implemented by UNESCO, WHO with support and

involvement of government and people/parents of village Jabbi. A
decentralized approach will be adopted through which:
a. Community elected people/parents will be identified to work as School
Management Committee (SMC) for supporting the execution of the
scheme.
b. The IER would provide assistance in arranging inservice training to
teachers, orientations programme

to administrators, planners, policy

makers, and supervisors.

c. It would also extend its assistance in preparation of innovative learning
material i.e. modules, low-cost audio-visual aids, guides books, model
lessons and item pools for testing and evaluation for formal and non formal
education.
d. The non-formal education for women, girls children, already introduced in
the target village, will be strengthened and similar programme will be
arranged for adults, and children of the target group.

e. Such activities will be monitored by the collaborating agencies i.e. WHO,

UNESCO and IER. For evaluation purpose, the acquisition services of an
expert external body/other university is better to be considered.
Phases

Activities

Phase-I

This phase will comprise of the activities of

Preparing Plan of

preparation of a working paper by UNESCO

Action

addressing the implementation strategy to the

government and WHO preparation of a plan of
action with prioritization of different activities,
briefing authorities (already involved in BMN) on
different aspects of the plan of action and giving
final shape to the plan of action in the light of above
exercise. Such activities are expected to be
completed in four weeks period of time.

Phase-II
In-Service
Training/Orientation
Programme

This phase covers activities like the arrangement of

in-service

training for teachers and orientation

programme
planners

for

and

policy
community

makers

administrators

leaders. These

are

expected to be completed in six weeks after

promulgation of the project.
Phase-III

This phase includes activities like provision of

Improving
instructional aspect of
Basic Education

equipment/teaching material for strengthening the

existing non-formal education for female/female
children and for establishing new vocational centers
for boys and adults, supplementary instructional

material to school children. These activities are

expected to be In 12 completed in four weeks.
Phase-IV

This phase relates to the activities Preparation of

Preparation of
preparation of guide-books for Instructional
Instructional Materials
Relating to School
Materials school teachers and instructors of Relating
Curriculum
to School literacy centers modules on various
Curriculum subjects and model lessons on various
topics for teachers of primary schools. These
activities to be completed in 12
5.

TARGET GROUP

The people of village Jabbi will be directly benefited by this pilot project. The
facilities so developed in the village if not utilized by the people of Mandori
and other villages included in BMN project can be replicated in these villages.
People who had sent their children away from their homes for education and
work, would bring them back because of their enhanced confidence on quality
and productive nature of basic education.
The people of Jabbi when are given opportunities to lead more productive life
and play leadership role in the community affairs, would invariably, find
positive impact on their socioeconomic life and would banish the feelings of
dependency, deprivation and resignation to frugal and poverty stricken life.
6.

COLLABORATION PARTNERS

The project is not intended to be implemented in isolation, UNESCO, WHO,

provincial government and IER. University of Peshawar will be collaborating
partners in the implementation of the scheme.

The participation of the people at grass root level will also be insured. With
reference to reorientation of basic education a School Management
Committee composed of elected people among parents and other influential
persons, will be set up for the specific purposes of helping to increase
enrolment eliminate wastage, maintaining effective supervision. generatmg
their own resources for meeting the immediate needs of institution, and
motivating people to send children to school and to take part in the welfare
activities for their schools and children.
7.

PROJECT
COORDINATION,
EVALUATION

MONITORING

AND

The implementation process would involve a mechanism whereby the changes

brought about in basic education are regularly monitored to assess their impact
and visualize the amount of work which remains to be accomplished to achieve
the desired objectives. The activities carried out in the broad context of BMN
project between the government and WHO and UNESCO will be coordinated
through joint effort of all the sponsoring agencies concerned with project.
However, our periodic evaluation of the activities in the project will also be
done so that the people could obtain feed back results on the project
implementation and compare them with their goals. For the purpose of
evaluation the services of some external agency/university as already indicated
are desirable to be obtained so that an imported assessment of the outcome
could be made. For all these activities Task Force is proposed to be setup.

8.

LINKAGE TO OVERALL WORK PLAN OF UNESCO!

WHO/OBJECTIVES

The basic principles and mandate given to WHO and UNESCO for their
multifarious activities relating to improving the living standard of the people.
providing basic knowledge and skills for making the life of poor people
creative and productive, and to change the attitude of the people towards their
dependent life etc. are common and agreed and hence need joint efforts for
their attainment. This project is not only in line with the goals of WHO with
special reference to BMN activities but also of the strategies of other
international bodies functioning under the aegis of UN and is hoped to achieve
the desired objective through such collaborating efforts.