HVDC

AN INTRODUCTION TO HVDC TRANSMISSION

One of the most exciting new technical development in electric power system in
the last three decades has been High Voltage Direct Current transmission. From the
first of HVDC links to the recent, the voltage has increased from 100 KV to 800 KV, the
rated power from 20 MW to 6300 MW and the distance from 96 km to 1370 km.
Preceding and accompanying this rapid growth of Direct Current Transmission
were developments in High Voltage, High power valves, in control and protection
system, in DC cables and in insulation for overhead DC lines.
In India three HVDC projects are in operation.
(i)

The Rihand-Delhi HVDC transmission project having 1500 MW capacity

and 500 KV DC voltage is the first commercial long distance DC
transmission project in India.

(ii)

Vindhyachal 2x250 MW Back to back DC converter station which

asychronously connect the Northern and Western regions for exchange of
power.

(iii)

The Nation HVDC experimental line project, which links Lower Sileru in
A.P. to Barsoor in M.P. Phase 1 of this project is capable of transmitting
100 MW at 100 KV DC.

The main advantages of High Voltage Direct Current transmission are

(1)

Asynchronous operation

(2)

Controllability

(3)

Stability

(4)

Reliability

(5)

Low right of way requirement

(6)

Economy on overall basis

(7)

Greater power per conductor

(8)

Simple line construction

(9)

No skin effect, charging current and less corona loss and interference

(10)

Ground return can be used

(11)

Cables can be worked at a higher voltage gradient

(12)

May inter connect AC systems of different frequencies

(13)

Low short circuit current on DC line.

VII I

Principal Applications of DC Transmission

1.

For cables crossing bodies of water wider than 32 km. [Ex Sweden-Got land link,
a 20 MW, 100 KV DC single conductor submarine link to supply power to the
island of Got land.]

2.

For inter connecting AC systems having different frequencies or where

asynchronous operation is desired.

3.

For transmitting large amounts of power over long distances by over head lines.

4.

In congested urban areas where it is difficult to acquire right of way for overhead
lines and where lengths involved make AC cables impracticable.

Economic Factors
The cost per unit length of a DC is lower than that of an AC line of the same
power capability with comparable reliability, but the cost of the terminal equipment of a
DC line is much more than that in an AC. A graph is plotted between the cost of
transmitting an amount of power by onemethod and the distance over which it is
transmitted, below:

The vertical intercept of each curve is the cost of the terminal equipment alone.
The slope of each curve is the cost per unit length of the line and of that accessory
equipment which varies with length. The curve for AC transmission intersects that for
DC transmission at an X axis which is the break even distance, Transmission by DC is
cheaper than AC for distance above 500 km.
Type of DC Links
HVDC back to back link: This link is used to connect two AC grids, each AC grid
can have its own load frequency control. Direction of power flow can be controlled by
adjusting the characteristics of convertor valves. There is no increase in fault level and
cascade trippings in the network are avoided. [Ex. Vindhyachal Back to Back HVDC
link].
VII 2

Monopolar link: This links has one conductor, usually of negative polarity, and ground
or sea return.
Bipolar link: This link has two conductors one positive, the other negative. Each
terminal has two convertors of equal rated voltages in series on the DC side. The
neutral points (junction between convertors) are grounded at one or both ends. If both
neutrals are grounded, the two poles can operate independently. Normally the operate
at equal currents: then there is no ground current. In the event of fault on one conductor,
the other conductor with ground return can carry upto half the rated load.
Homopolar link: This links has two or more conductors all having the same
polarity, usually negative, and always operate with ground return. In the event of a fault
on one conductor, the entire convertor is available for connection to the remaining
conductor or conductors, which, having some over load capability, can carry more than
half of the rated power and perhaps whole rated power, at the expenses of increased
line loss. In a Bipolar scheme reconnection of the whole convertor to one pole of the line
is more complicated and is usually not feasible because of graded insulation. In this
respect a Homopolar line is preferable to a Bipolar line in cases where continuous
ground current is not objectionable. An additional advantage, through minor is less
corona loss and negative polarity is preferable to have less radio interference.

HVDC back to back link

VII 3

VII 4

Figure shows HVDC Bipolar system in which there are two poles one is negative
and the other is positive. Each pole consists of one 12 pulse covnertor at both ends in
which sending end will act as rectifier and receiving end will act as invertor. The 12
pulse convertor consists of two series connected 6 pulse bridges which are connected
to two convertor transformers. The transformers are of Y/Y and Y/D to provide 30
phase shift for 12 pulse operation.
HVDC Bipolar System Layout
HVDC Rectifier and invertor station in HVDC Bipolar systems consists of
following parts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

AC switchyard
AC filter area
Convertor transformers
Valve hall and control room
DC switchyard and smoothing reactor
Electrical and mechanical ausiliaries

AC Switchyard
The AC switchyard is generally at 400 KV or 760 KV voltage level corresponding
to the standard of EHV/UHV transmission voltage. The AC yard is of one half breaker
bus system. The advantage of one and half a breaker system is it permits use of only
three breakers for two circuits. In one and half a breaker system the circuits one and
two can take supply either from Bus I or Bus II, thus in the event of fault on any bus the
supply is maintained in the circuits by unfaulty bus. Hence, high security against loss of
supply.

One and Half Breaker Scheme

VII 5

The insulation coordination of the AC yard is correlated with that of DC yard and
over voltages approaching from DC side. Metal oxide arrestors are used in AC yard and
DC yard. The AC yard is designed in similar principles like usually EHV AC switchyards
with following additional considerations:
-

A large area on AC yard is covered by AC harmonic filter bank.

More space is provided for movement of large convertor transformers and
cranes.
No. of surge arrestors are provided at strategic locations in AC yard.
Protection and control of an eneterprise with valves and DC yard.

The circuit breakers used in HVDC substation have preinsertion resistors to

reduce switching over voltage and to reduce large magnetic inrush current during
switching of convertor transformers.
AC Harmonic Filter Area
A large portion of the area in AC yard is covered by AC filter bank. The filters are
required to filter out harmonics generated due to the operation of 3 phase AC/DC
conversion which generates kp 1th harmonic on AC side, p is the integer and K is the
number of pulses of convertor valve. This is derived using fourier analysis.
Harmonics in AC for 12 pulse system for which K = 12 are 1, 11, 13, 23, 25 th, 5th
and 7th harmonics are of 10% to 25% which are generated due to the formation of 12
pulse by series connection of sixpulse connection. Each filter bank has the following
components.
AC filter capacitor bank
Reactor
Resistor bank
Current transformers
Circuit breakers
These AC harmonic filters are essential to reduce the harmonic contenet in the
AC voltage within the limits. AC filter capacitor also provide the leading reactive power
consumed by the convertor (shunt compensation). AC harmonic filters comprise RLC
series circuit connected in shunt with the AC busbard. Separate branches are provided
for predominant 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th Harmonic and a high phase filter for higher than
23rd harmonic and above.

A C Harmonic Filter Circuit

VII 6

Reactive power demand and compensation :- The operation of the convertor

requires a certain amount of reactive power. This is due to
--

The manner of controlling HVDC convertors introduces a phase shift between the
fundamentals of AC current and voltage. The magnitude of this phase shift is
strongly dependant on the firing angle and in rectifier and extinction angle y in
invertor.

--

The commutation process, in which the DC current is connected from one valve
to another, also introduces further displacement of the AC current.

Covertor consumes reactive power both when it operates as rectifier as well as

invertor. Besides the reactive power demand is also due to magnetizing current of
convertor transformer. Considering normal valves of a (rectifier) firing angle and
extinction angel y (Invertor) the reactive power demand usually in the range of 50% 60% of the transmitted active power.

Convertor Reactive Power Demand

This reactive power in the range of 50% to 60% of the transmitted active power
(each convertor station) is compensated by several ways depending on the quality of
the connecting AC network. The different possibilities for suitable reactive power
production are mentioned here.
--

Ac filters

--

Shunt capacitors

--

Excessive reactive power from the AC network

--

Static compensation

--

Synchronous condensers

When choosing reacting power generation equipment one must consider both
economic and technical aspect. The least costly solution is shunt capacitor. However, if
AC network is weak a synchronous condenser is required a static compensator.

VII 7

A C Voltage

Co
nverter Transformer
The convertor transformers are connected between the AC busbars and the
converter valves. Converter transformers have AC supply on primary side and DC load
of the valves on the secondary side. The secondary side has high voltage DC
component in addition to the transformed AC voltage component. Thus the insulation of
windings in specially designed. The converter transformer is fitted with on load tap
changers.
A twelve pulse conversion requires one star-star and star-deltatransformer to
create a phase different of 30 in feeding AC power. The pulsation of direct voltage in
one bridge are staggered with respect to the other giving a 12 pulse convertor. The
following are four alternatives available for convertor transformer considering phase
winding arrangement:

VII 8

The choice of convertor transformer is made after studying the complete

transportation weight and project. The best choice of convertor transformer is
considered as 3 winding single phase transformer.
Valve Hall and Control Room
The valve hall and control room are located between AC yard and DC yard. The
valve hall houses quadruple thyristor valves, air core reactors, terminal bushings
associated bus bars and surge arrestor. The control room building houses control
panels for AC yard, DC yard and valves etc. in Bipolar HVDC substation there are two
valve halls, each valve hall houses three quadruple valves. The control room is in
between two valve halls. The valve hall is provided with uniform earthing mat in the
flooring and uniform earthed screen in the wall and the roof. The screen protects the
control circuits from the electromagnetic interference produced by the operation of
thyristor valves. The valve hall is provided with air conditioning system. The temperature
inside the valve hall is high due to valve losses and the lowest temperature of valve hall
maintained is 10C and the highest temperature of valve hall maintained is 55C.
The control room houses the following control panels:
--

protection, metering and control panels for AC yard, DC yard and

convertor transformers.

--

control panels for valves

--

PLC communication and tele control panels etc.

--

monitoring panels.

The auxiliary switchgear, low voltage switchgear, DC supply systems is generally

installed in a separate floor of the control room building. The convertor valves are either
supported on the valve hall floor on insulator columns or are under hung from the roof
by means of insulators.
Thyristor Valves
Since the individual thyristors has a limited voltage ratings nearly 7 KV, several
thyristors are connected in series to achieve desired rated voltage. The assembly
formed is called a thyristor valve. A thyristor valve for an HVDC convertor comprises of
the following:
--

Several thyristors connected in series to achieve the required insulation

level. Each thyristor has its associated thyristor control unit.

--

Snubber (voltage grading) circuit for equal distribution of voltage across

thyristors and protection of thyristors in the string.

--

Cooling system to removal heat from the cathode silicon wager. In HVDC
system pure deionised water is circulated in a closed cycle to remove heat
from heat sinks.
VII 9

A valve is made up of stacking four valve modules in a vertical formation is called

a quadruple valve. The valve is supported on procelain insulator parts or is suspended
vertically from the roof by means of glass fibre reinforced plastic rods.

A typical Bipolar twelve pulse convertor substation has two valve halls, one for
each pole. Each valve hall houses three quadruple valves.
The active part of thyristor is a semi conductor mono crystalline silicon wafer with
a thickness of half a milli meter and an area in the range 8 to 60 cm. The wafer has
been treated to obtain P-N-P-N with desired current and voltage properties. The junction
temp. with stand capability is 100 to 125C. the water cooled wafer has 45 cm area
and a threshold voltage drop of 0.8 to 1.0 V. the thyristors are mounted on heat sinks.
The modules are cooled in parallel with two cooling circuits in each module giving equal
coolings. As the water should be insulating a special water processing unit is installed to
deionise the water to limit the amount of oxygen in the water. The valve losses are
about 0.5 percent of DC power transfer.

VII 10

Cooling System for Water Cooled Thyristor Valve

Triggering of Thyristors
A thyristor needs positive pulse at the gate to start conducting. Such triggering
pulses are necessary for each thyristor and for each cycle of the AC wage throughout
the service life. In normal control applications, the triggering pulses from control panel to
the thyristor gate are via insulated copper control cables. In case of HVDC valve this
method is not suitable because individual thyristors are at higher potential and galvanic
connection between high potential and control devices at nearly ground potential is not
practicable. This problem is solved by using optical firing for triggering the thyristors.

Optical Firing System

In Optical firing system the electrical pulses at the source are converted to light
signal and transmitted through fibre optical cables and then converted to electrical
signal units in the thyristor control unit for triggering the thyristors.
DC Yard
The DC yard has the following essential equipment:DC smoothing reactor
DC filters
DC busbars and isolators, earthing switches, current transducers, voltage
dividers, surge arrestors.
Switchgear for switching from ground return to the metallic return.

VII 11

Smoothing Reactor: HVDC smoothing reactors of a 0.4 henrys to 1 henry are

generally used. There are oil filled reactors. Smoothing reactor is connected in series
with the convertor bridges in order to reduce the current harmonics in the direct current
and to reduce valve stresses due transients such as DC line faults and commutation
failures by limiting the fault current and the rate of rise current.
A DC smoothing reactor is located on the low voltage side and air core reactors
on the line side of the convertors. The later to limit any steep front surger entering the
station from the DC side. Additional air core reactors are installed in each phase on the
AC side to reduce the rate of rise of current during thyristor turn on.
DC Harmonic Filters
Using Fourier analysis we can evaluate the harmonicas on DC side for 12 pulse
connector which is Kp, p is the integer and K is the pulse number. For 12 pulse system
the harmonics generated on DC side are 0, 12, 24, etc. a high pulse DC filter turned to
12th harmonic is usually provided on DC side.

Single Line Dia of Single Pole Giving Details of DC Yard

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Surge arrestor
Converter trfr.
Air core reactor
Thyristor valve
Smoothing reactor

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Direct voltage measuring device

DC filter
Current measuring transducer
DC line
Electrode line

The measuring equipment i.e. a voltage divider, current measuring transducer

and current transformer, provide the necessary input signals for the control and
protection circuits.
Earth Return
In monopolar configuration, the return path is usually through earth or sea. Earth
return or sea return reduces the cost of transmission system.

VII 12

In Bipolar system the normal power flow is through pole conductors and only
negligible out of balance current flow through earth. The mid points of convertors at both
ends are earthed. In monopolar the return is through earth. The earth electrode station
is usually built 10 to 25 km from main HVDC substation to avoid galvanic corrosion of
pipes, foundation structures, cable theatres, earthing material due to cathodic corrosion.
The connection between mid point of convertor valve and a distant earth
electrode is an electrode line. Electrode line is insulated from earth and connected to
the earth electrode.

1.
2.
3.

Neutral Bus Switch

Switch for Metallic to Ground Transfer
HVDC Breaker of Ground to Metallic Return Transfer

DC circuit breaking is difficult due to non-availability of current zero in the DC.

Hence links do not have any provision of DC circuit breakers. HVDC links do not have
parallel lines and T off lines due to lack of HVDC circuit breaker. HVDC circuit breaker
using artificial current zero is produced by discharging a precharged capacitor bank
through the breaker contacts has been developed but it is complex and not economical.
Metallic Return: In the case of fault on a pole the power transfer taken place in
Monopolar mode using ground return in addition to this the line of the pole which is out
of order can be used for return path. This type of current return is called Metallic return.
Electrical and Mechanical Auxiliaries
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Cooling water system for convertor valves

Ventilation and air conditioning system for valve hall, control room etc.
Auxiliary low voltage DC supply for protection and control.
Auxiliary low voltage and medium high voltage AC supply for auxiliaries.
Station lighting system
Fire fighting system
Internal telephone system
Power line carrier communication system (PLCC)

VII 13

Control of A HVDC Link

In a direct current control of the HVDC link, the transmitted current is given by
Id = Vd1-Vd2
R
Id is changed by changing the difference between Vd 1 and Vd2.
The methods available for changing the terminal voltage difference:
1.

Change the tap position of convertor transformer.

2.

Change the delay angle of thyristors.

The tap changers are slow. The tap changing issued for slower variation of DC
voltage. For rapid variation, the delay angle is controlled. Angle a must be kept near
zero to reduce KVAV demand of the convertor. In practice the valve between 15 and
18 is chosen to ensure that valves of the bridges are ignited at the same instant of time
and secondary to allow small voltage margin for an immediate small increase in power.
Both tap changer control as well as delay angle control is used at both stations. But
delay angle control is used initially for rapid variation of voltages. This is followed by tap
changer control. The fig. Gives basic control system of control in HVDC.

Each convertor has a closed loop current control system . the input controlling
parameter to this system is called current order. Thus, the convertor tries to adjust the
DC voltage until there is no difference between current order and current response (DC
current) or the maximum voltage is reached when fixing at minimum delay angle.

VII 14

On the other hand if the current response is larger than the current order the
direct voltage is correspondingly decreased. The decreasing action is limited when
fixing at the least permitted commutation margin invertor operation.

Ud / ID Characteristics of the Converter

By giving the two convertors different current orders, the convertor with highest
current order will output a positive voltage and the other a negative voltage. Thus the
convertor with highest current order will operate as rectifier and the other as inverter.
Further, the converter which can create the highest voltage will also control the
current. Normally the control angle may be smaller in rectifier (a = a min) than in
Inverter (y = y min) and the rectifier will control the current. The other convertor,
consequently normally the inverter, controls the DC voltage with constant control angle
y = y min. In simple words the terminal with the highest voltage limit will control the
current, and the terminal with the lowest voltage limit will determine the voltage.

Normal Operation Rectifier Controls the Current

Normal Operation
In practice the controls are adjusted so that under normal conditions the rectifier
controls the current and the inverter controls the voltage. This is arranged in the
following way.
Both terminals are basically given the same current order. the power director is
then established by applying a small additional negative current order to the converter
which is intended to be run as an inverter. The effective current order will thus lower for
this converter, which according to the foregoing will operate as inverter. The negative
current order contribution is called the current margin and is an important feature for
the operation of an HVDC link.

VII 15
In fact that the current order of the inverter is lower than that of the rectifier
means that the inverter is forced to fire at the highest permitted firing angle. For this
mode of operation the control system keeps the margin of commutation constant, i.e. at
y=yo and accordingly the inverter defines the voltage on the DC line. The direct voltage
is kept at the desired reference in the inverter by adjustments of tap changers of the
converter transformers. In the rectifier the firing angle is measured and maintained at
approximately 15 by making adjustment to the rectifier transformer tap changers. The
current is kept constant by the current control loop. Sudden changes in transmission
parameters will of course lead to immediate changes in firing angle in an effort to keep
the transmitted power constant when steady state condition prevail again the tap
change control will bring the firing angle back to within the region of a =15
Operation during disturbance: If suddenly the AC voltage in the rectifier drops,
then also the DC voltage drops to such a value that the horizontal part of rectifier Vd/Id
characteristics fall below that os the inverter.
In the inverter the AC voltage still is normal and the current will decrease. When
the current has dropped to a value equal to the current order to the inverter, the inverter
will start to reduce its voltage by increasing its y so as to maintain this current level. The
inverter takes over control of the current and the inverter voltage will be reduced to a
value equal to the voltage which is defined by the rectifier with reduced Vd and working
at (a = x min).
The current will now be less than the original current transmitted between the
terminals by an amount equal to the current margin. The firing angle of the rectifier will
be at its extreme minimum since this terminal is trying to increase the DC voltage so as
to increase DC current, whereas in the inverter the firing angle has now been decreased
in order to control current. This new point B is shown in figure below for the case of
inverter controlling the current.

Inverter controls the current

HVDC back to back station is similar to HVDC Bipole station. The only
differences are in back to back station. Both rectifier and inverter stations are at one
place and there is no DC line between these two and earth electrode station is not
required as the distance between rectifier and inverter is nothing.

VII 16