F

Module P5.2 Energy, damping and resonance in harmonic motion

1 Opening items
1.1 Module introduction
1.2 Fast track questions
1.3 Ready to study?
2 Energy in oscillating systems
2.1 Gravitational potential energy for the simple
pendulum
2.2 Strain potential energy in a stretched or
compressed spring
2.3 Total potential energy for a mass suspended on a
spring
2.4 Energy oscillations in SHM

3 Damped and driven harmonic oscillators

3.1 The mechanisms of damping: friction
3.2 Frictional forces as dissipative forces in
mechanical SHM
3.3 Lightly damped harmonic motion
3.4 Qualitative discussion of general damping
3.5 Qualitative discussion of forced vibrations
resonance
4 Closing items
4.1 Module summary
4.2 Achievements
4.3 Exit test
Exit module

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

1 Opening items
1.1 Module introduction
When an object vibrates there are always some points in its oscillatory motion where it is momentarily at rest
and other points at which it is moving with maximum speed. Consequently, the kinetic energy of the system is
sometimes zero and sometimes a maximum; if the motion is periodic then so too is the kinetic energy. However,
if the oscillator is isolated from its surroundings, so that the principle of energy conservation applies, its total
energy will be constant. Such an oscillator must therefore have potential energy and this too must be periodic in
order that the sum of kinetic and potential energy can be constant; the potential energy is maximum when the
kinetic energy is minimum and vice versa. Section 2 deals with the energy in vibrating mechanical systems,
particularly systems in one-dimensional simple harmonic motion (SHM); among other things it provides a
mathematical expression for the kinetic and potential energy in an isolated simple harmonic oscillator.
It is a matter of common experience that the amplitude of any mechanical vibration tends to decrease with time,
until the motion eventually stops. The total energy of the vibrating system is clearly not constant in this
situation. However, the principle of energy conservation still applies on a larger scale, so the vibrating system
must be transferring energy elsewhere, and cannot be treated as an isolated system. When a vibrating system
loses mechanical energy in this way it is said to be damped. Any vibrating system will have some damping,
although it may be very small.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

The damping of vibrations is of great technological importance and many engineers spend time designing
systems to have particular levels of damping either low or high or optimal. For example, in a mechanical
clock the oscillations of the balance wheel or pendulum should be as lightly damped as possible, to minimize the
energy input needed to sustain the oscillations. In contrast, a car suspension system uses heavily damped shockabsorbers to prevent the car and its passengers being driven into excessive vertical oscillations or being jolted to
destruction by bumps in the road surface; the main function of the suspension system is to absorb and dissipate
(as heat) the energy from unwanted vibrations. Electrical meters and weighing balances are other examples
where the correct level of damping is important too much damping and the instrument will be too slow to
respond to a changing reading, too little damping and the instrument will oscillate about the true reading.
Section 3 describes damped harmonic motion. It provides a mathematical treatment of lightly damped harmonic
motion, in which the amplitude of the oscillation decays gradually, and a qualitative discussion of more heavily
damped oscillations. The module closes with a brief qualitative introduction to driven oscillations and
resonance.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Although the mathematical expressions introduced in this module are developed in the context of mechanical
oscillations, the results are equally applicable to many other situations, including the oscillations of electric
charge in circuits some of these applications are covered elsewhere in FLAP.
1

Study comment Having read the introduction you may feel that you are already familiar with the material covered by this
module and that you do not need to study it. If so, try the Fast track questions given in Subsection 1.2. If not, proceed
directly to Ready to study? in Subsection 1.3.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

1.2 Fast track questions

Study comment Can you answer the following Fast track questions?. If you answer the questions successfully you need
only glance through the module before looking at the Module summary (Subsection 4.1) and the Achievements listed in
Subsection 4.2. If you are sure that you can meet each of these achievements, try the Exit test in Subsection 4.3. If you have
difficulty with only one or two of the questions you should follow the guidance given in the answers and read the relevant
parts of the module. However, if you have difficulty with more than two of the Exit questions you are strongly advised to
study the whole module.

Question F1
An object of mass 0.20 kg is suspended from the end of a spring with a spring constant of 125 N m1 and is set
into simple harmonic motion (SHM). Calculate the angular frequency of the resulting oscillation, in the
absence of damping. The system is then damped and the magnitude of the damping force is linearly proportional
to the speed, with a damping constant of 1.4 s1. Explain what this statement means. Calculate the Q-factor for
this oscillator.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question F2
The object described in Question F1 is displaced by 0.1 m from its equilibrium position and then released.
Sketch graphs showing how (i) the amplitude, (ii) the kinetic energy, (iii) the potential energy, and (iv) the total
energy vary with time for (a) the undamped situation, and (b) the damped situation as given in Question F1.
1

Study comment
Having seen the Fast track questions you may feel that it would be wiser to follow the normal route through the module and
to proceed directly to Ready to study? in Subsection 1.3.
Alternatively, you may still be sufficiently comfortable with the material covered by the module to proceed directly to the
Closing items.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

1.3 Ready to study?

Study comment
In order to study this module you will need to be familiar with the following terms: acceleration, component (of a vector),
displacement, energy transfer (or work done) by a force, equilibrium, kinetic energy, mass, momentum, Newtons laws of
motion, potential energy, principle of energy conservation, speed, tension, velocity and weight. In addition you should be
familiar with the general description of one-dimensional simple harmonic motion (SHM) and the concepts of amplitude,
angular frequency, cycle, force constant, frequency, pendulum, period, phase, phase constant, restoring force and spring
constant. The module also assumes you are familiar with the expressions for displacement, velocity and restoring force in
one-dimensional SHM. These expressions are developed elsewhere in FLAP and, if necessary, you can review them through
the Glossary entry for simple harmonic motion. The module also requires familiarity with the following mathematical
concepts: exponential function, gradient, linear function, modulus, natural logarithm, parabola, quadratic function and
trigonometric function. The trigonometric identities sin2 = 12 [1 cos (2 )] and sin2 + cos2 = 1 are used, together with the
1

approximation cos = 1 2 /2 for small . You do not need to be fully conversant with differentiation in order to study this
module, but you should be familiar with the calculus notation dx/dt used to represent the rate of change of x with respect to t.
If you are unsure about any of these items you should refer to the Glossary, which will also indicate where in FLAP they are
developed. The following Ready to study questions will allow you to establish whether you need to review some of the topics
before embarking on this module.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question R1
Write down the values of the phase constant that make the function
x(t) = A cos (0 t + )
1

x(t) = A sin (00t)

equivalent to

Question R2
Sketch the graph of the function
x(t) = A cos (0 t + )
1

over the time interval from t = 0 to t = 4/ (i.e. t = 2T) for the situations where (a) = 0, (b) = /2, and
(c) = /2.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question R3
Using the function x(t) given in Question R2
x(t) = A cos (0 t + )
1

for the case = 0, sketch dx(t)/dt, its derivative with respect to t, as a function of t.
(dx(t)/dt denotes the rate of change of x with respect to t.)

Question R4
A body of mass 0.40 kg is suspended from the end of a spring of spring constant 160 N m1.
Calculate the angular frequency, the frequency and the period of small oscillations of the system about
equilibrium. If the body is pulled down to a position 0.05 m below its equilibrium position, and released from
rest at time t = 0, write down an expression which gives the displacement in the subsequent oscillation as a
function of time.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

2 Energy in oscillating systems

In a mechanical oscillation the moving mass m has kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. In the case where the
object is in one-dimensional motion along the x-axis, with velocity of magnitude vx, the kinetic energy Ekin is:
Ekin =

1
2

mvx 2

(1)

In addition to this, the mass has potential energy by virtue of its position. Potential energy might arise from a
variety of sources. For example, the mass may change its height above the Earths surface (as for a swinging
pendulum bob), in which case there will be corresponding changes in the gravitational potential energy.
Alternatively, the mass may be attached to a spring or to some other elastic body and there will then be changes
in the stored strain potential energy during the motion. In this latter context we use the term elastic to describe
a body which will deform when subjected to appropriate forces but which fully recovers its original form when
the forces are removed; the deformation does not produce any permanent distortion. The fact that energy can be
stored in a compressed or stretched elastic body is well known to any archer or child with a catapult!

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

In physics, it is generally true that the calculation of potential energy poses far greater difficulties than the
calculation of kinetic energy does . Kinetic energy is simply determined from the mass and speed whereas
potential energy calculations require some knowledge of the forces acting and these are often not simple.
In the case of strain potential energy in particular, the internal forces involved in a deformation may be very
complicated and the energy difficult to calculate. A second but less serious problem is that while kinetic energy
has an obvious zero, when the particle is stationary, potential energy often has no obvious zero. For example,
when dealing with gravitational potential energy we might choose the position of zero potential energy to be at
the Earths surface, or at the height of our laboratory floor or maybe even at the centre of the Earth, or totally
remote from any gravitating body such as the Earth. This problem may be simplified because it is only changes
in potential energy that have physical significance, so the zero point can be chosen arbitrarily. When dealing
with strain potential energy there is an obvious zero point at the position where the elastic body is not
deformed. Nonetheless, the choice of zero point remains arbitrary and we may always choose some other zero
point in order to simplify the problem in hand.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

If the position of zero potential energy of an oscillator is chosen in such a way that it is also the position at which
the oscillator has its maximum kinetic energy, then the total energy itself will oscillate between being totally
kinetic and totally potential. It is the purpose of this section to provide mathematical expressions for the total
energy of a mechanical oscillator that show how this energy oscillation occurs. As a first step towards this goal
we will investigate the behaviour of the potential energy in three particular oscillators; a simple pendulum, a
mass attached to a spring and sliding on a table, and a mass hanging from a spring. We will then combine the
general expression for potential energy that emerges from these investigations with the general expression for
kinetic energy to find a general expression for the total energy of any one-dimensional simple harmonic
oscillator.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

2.1 Gravitational potential energy for the simple pendulum

We can approach the problem of potential energy in vibrational motion by considering a simple example in
which the potential energy involves only gravitational energy the swinging of a simple pendulum. As the
pendulum bob rises and falls during its oscillation, its gravitational potential energy changes in proportion to its
height above a chosen reference level, such as the surface of the Earth. If the height of the bob (mass m) above
the surface is h and the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is g then the gravitational potential energy
Epot is:
1

Epot = mgh

(2)

This expression may be interpreted as a special case of the formula for the energy transferred (or work done) by
a force Fx when it acts through a displacement sx:
Epot = Fx0sx

(3)

In our case F x is the gravitational force downwards of magnitude mg and sx is h, measured upwards as positive.
If we take the point where h = 0 to be a point of zero gravitational potential energy, it follows that the energy
transferred when Fx acts over a displacement sx is equal to mgh the gravitational potential energy at height h.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

We may apply Equation 2

Epot = mgh

(Eqn 2)

to the simple pendulum, as shown in Figure 1. When the bob is displaced a

distance s along the arc from the equilibrium position the additional height h
is given by
h = L L cos = L(1 cos )

L cos

If we take the equilibrium position of the bob (h = 0) as the point of zero

potential energy
Epot = mgh = mgL(1 cos )
During the oscillation the angle varies and with it the potential energy.
We could also express in terms of the displacement along the arc s by
noting that in radians = s/L and by using the approximation for small that
cos 1 2/2 thus:
1

s
Figure 1

The simple pendulum.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

The stored gravitational potential energy, when a pendulum is displaced by a small amount = s/L from its
equilibrium, is given by

1 mg 2
2

s2
s
Epot = mgL 1 1
= mgL 2 =

2L
2
2 L

(4)

where L is the length of the pendulum.

Notice that this motion can still be described as one-dimensional motion along the arc, even though the motion
is not along a straight line. Restoring forces and stored energy can be written in terms of a single variable s, the
displacement along the arc from equilibrium.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question T1

potential
energy

Figure 2 shows the potential

energy of the simple pendulum as a
f unc tion of the ( small)
displacement along the arc, as
given by Equation 4.

2
Epot = mgL 1 1

2

s 2 1 mg 2
s
= mgL 2 =
2L 2 L
(Eqn 4)

E pot = 2

mg 2
s
L

s 0
Figure 2

s0
See Question T1.

The potential energy is taken as zero at the equilibrium position. What is the shape of the graph?
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

2.2 Strain potential energy in a stretched or compressed

spring

x
Fx

Potential energy may also appear as stored strain potential energy in a

stretched or compressed spring. An illustration of an oscillator based on
this idea is shown in Figure 3a. Here a mass is attached to a spring and
rests on a horizontal frictionless surface. If the mass is initially displaced
by stretching the spring and is then released, it will oscillate producing
alternately, compressions and extensions in the spring.
We can find the stored strain potential energy by using Equation 3
Epot = Fx0sx
to calculate the energy transferred by the tension force Fx in compressing
or extending the spring from its unstretched length. The calculation is a
little more complicated than for the previous example because the
magnitude of the tension force increases as the extension increases, and
so it is not constant throughout the energy transfer. Extensions and
compressions take place along a single axis, the x-axis, so the problem is
one-dimensional with the x-components of displacement and force given
by x and Fx, respectively.
FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

frictionless surface

(Eqn 3)

Fx

(a)
Figure 3a Motion of a mass attached
to a spring and oscillating along a
horizontal frictionless surface.
3

Provided the spring is not stretched too far, this tension force is linearly proportional to x, but has the opposite
sign since it is directed towards the origin.
Thus,

Fx = ksx

(5)

Equation 5 is a statement of Hookes law.

Suppose the spring is stretched to some maximum extension x = xmax. Equation 3
Epot = Fx0sx

(Eqn 3)

then gives the potential energy of the system when the mass m is at the position x = xmax as
(Epot0)max = 0 Fx xmax = Fx xmax
1

(6)

where we have replaced the varying tension force Fx over the range from x = 0 to x = xmax by its average value
Fx over this range. Since F x varies linearly with x the average force Fx is just half the final force
(Fx)max = ksxmax.
1

Equation 6 then gives

(Epot0)max =

1
2

2
ks x max

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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(7)

Aside If you are familiar with integral calculus you will perhaps
recognize Equation 7
(Epot0)max =

1
2

2
ks x max

Fx

Fx = k s x

k s xmax

(Eqn 7)

as the integral of Equation 3

Epot = Fx0sx

(Eqn 3)
x

2
area = 1 k s x max

over the extension x, i.e. Epot = F x dx = ks x dx =

1
2

ks x 2

If you are unfamiliar with this approach it is not essential here it

amounts to finding the area under the graph in Figure 3b; by
integration we have done this here directly from the graph. Details of
integration can be found in the maths strand of FLAP.
A related point is that there is a general relationship between the
conservative force acting on an object and the way its potential energy
dEpot
changes with position. The general relationship is: F x =
. If
dx
we differentiate the general form of Epot ( i.e. 12 ks x 2 ) with respect to x
we obtain the tension Fx = ks x as in Equation 5.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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xmax

(b)
Figure 3b Motion of a mass attached to a spring
and oscillating along a horizontal frictionless
surface; minus the tension force, plotted against
displacement for this oscillator.
3

It can be seen that the quantity in Equation 7

(Epot0)max =

1
2

2
ks x max

Fx

Fx = k s x

k s xmax

(Eqn 7)

is equal to the area under the graph of Figure 3b between x = 0

and x = xmax. It is straightforward to generalize Equation 7 for
any extension x as:

2
area = 1 k s x max

xmax

(b)
Figure 3b Motion of a mass attached to a spring
and oscillating along a horizontal frictionless
surface; minus the tension force, plotted against
displacement for this oscillator.
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

The stored strain potential energy when a spring is stretched (x > 0) or compressed (x < 0) by an amount x
from its original length is given by
Epot =

1
2

ks x 2

(8)

where ks is the spring constant.

Notice that since x appears as a squared quantity in Equation 8 the magnitude but not the sign of x is important;
the energy stored is the same for an extension or a compression of the same magnitude.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

The potential energy of the horizontal spring oscillator

as a function of the displacement, as given by Equation
8,
Epot =

1
2

potential
energy

ks x 2

(Eqn 8)

is shown in Figure 3c. The similarity between Figure

3c for the spring oscillator and Figure 2 for the
pendulum is obvious both relationships describe
parabolic curves and for the pendulum the quantity
mg/L plays the same role as the spring constant ks. This
similarity in the mathematical expressions for potential
energy of the pendulum and the spring oscillator will
be useful at the end of this section where we set up a
mathematical model for the general energy oscillations
in any SHM.
1

Epot = 1 ksx2
2

x0

x0

(c)
Figure 3c Motion of a mass attached to a spring and
oscillating along a horizontal frictionless surface; graph
showing the potential energy of this oscillator as a function
of its displacement from the equilibrium position (Equation
7).

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question T2
A spring-powered gun fires a pellet of mass 0.1 g using a spring of spring constant 5 103 N m1.
If the maximum compression of the spring is 0.1 m and 30% of the strain potential energy is given to the pellet,
calculate its speed on leaving the gun.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
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2.3 Total potential energy

for a mass suspended on a
spring
A vertical spring oscillator, with a
mass hanging from a light spring
, is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4a shows the unstretched
spring, with the mass attached but
supported externally, rather than
by the spring; Figure 4b shows
the mass hanging freely at rest at
its equilibrium position x eq and
Figure 4c shows the mass
displaced to some position xeq + x
below its equilibrium position, as
it might be at some point during
an oscillation of the spring.

reaction
Fx = k sxeq
1

(a)

Fx = k s(xeq + x)

xeq

mg

xeq + x
1

(b)

mg
(c)

mg

Figure 4 A light coil spring shown (a) unloaded (with a supported mass held at the
unstretched spring position), (b) at the position of equilibrium under the load, and
(c) loaded and displaced below its position of equilibrium.
Note that x is taken to be positive in the downward direction.
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
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S570 V1.1

Calculating the potential energy of this oscillator requires some care, since the gravitational energy of the mass
must be added to the strain energy of the spring. Moreover, we have to choose zero points for both the strain
energy and the gravitational energy, and they need not be the same. Should we choose the zero point of the
strain energy so that it corresponds to the unstretched length or to the equilibrium position? What position of the
mass should correspond to the zero point of gravitational energy? From what was said at the start of Section 2
we can choose these zero points arbitrarily, but we would be wise to choose them in such a way that they make
the calculations as simple as possible. Let us investigate some possible choices to see what is best.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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If we take the unstretched spring

(Figure 4a) as having zero strain
potential energy, as we did in
Subsection 2.2, the strain
reaction
potential energy at the
Fx = k sxeq
Fx = k s(xeq + x)
equilibrium position (Figure 4b)
is ksxeq2 /2 and at displacement x
xeq
below the equilibrium position (a)
mg
2
(Figure 4c) it is k s(xeq + x ) /2.
xeq + x
If we take the zero of
(b)
mg
gravitational potential energy
(c)
mg
with the mass at the equilibrium
position (Figure 4b) then at
4 A light coil spring shown (a) unloaded (with a supported mass held at the
displacement x below the Figure
unstretched spring position), (b) at the position of equilibrium under the load, and
equilibrium position (Figure 4c) it (c) loaded and displaced below its position of equilibrium.
is mgx. When the mass is at the Note that x is taken to be positive in the downward direction.
equilibrium position, the net force
on it is zero and its weight, mg downwards, is balanced by the spring tension, ksxeq, upwards.
So, mg = ksxeq
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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We may therefore write the gravitational energy at displacement x as mgx = ks0xeq0x.

Table 1 summarizes the potential energy situation as shown in Figure 4, taking these potential energy zeros.

Table 1 Potential energies for Figure 4 with the gravitational potential energy zero at
the equilibrium position and the strain potential energy zero for the unstretched spring.
Position

Gravitational
potential energy
Egrav

Strain
potential energy
Estrain

Total
potential energy
Epot

As in Figure 4a

mgxeq = ks (xeq )2

ks (xeq )2

As in Figure 4b

As in Figure 4c

mgx = ks xeq x

ks (xeq

)2 /2

ks (xeq + x)2 /2

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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ks (xeq )2 /2
ks (xeq )2 /2 + ks x2 /2

Question T3
For the system shown in Figure 4,
construct a table similar to
Table 1 but with both the strain
potential energy zero and the
gravitational potential energy zero
for the unstretched spring, as
shown in Figure 4a.
3

reaction
Fx = k sxeq
1

(a)

Fx = k s(xeq + x)

xeq

mg

xeq + x
1

(b)

In the next question you will need

to think carefully about how to
deal with a potential energy zero
defined where the spring is
already stretched. You must
remember that it is the r e a l
extension from the unstretched
length which controls the stored
energy.

mg
(c)

mg

Figure 4 A light coil spring shown (a) unloaded (with a supported mass held at the
unstretched spring position), (b) at the position of equilibrium under the load, and
(c) loaded and displaced below its position of equilibrium.
Note that x is taken to be positive in the downward direction.
3

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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Question T4
For the system shown in Figure 4,
construct a table similar to
Table 1 but with the gravitational
potential energy zero for the
unstretched spring and the strain
potential energy zero at the
equilibrium position.

reaction
Fx = k sxeq
1

xeq

(a)

Fx = k s(xeq + x)

mg

xeq + x
1

There are two lessons to be

learned from Table 1 and
Answers T3 and T4. First, it is
clear that although any choice for
the zero point of the strain energy
is equally valid, the most natural
choice is that in which the spring
is neither stretched nor
compressed.

(b)

mg
(c)

mg

Figure 4 A light coil spring shown (a) unloaded (with a supported mass held at the
unstretched spring position), (b) at the position of equilibrium under the load, and
(c) loaded and displaced below its position of equilibrium. Note that x is taken to be
positive in the downward direction.
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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The reason for this is that the strain potential energy is a quadratic function of displacement, so the graph of
Estrain against x is a parabola with a unique minimum at x = xeq .
It makes good sense to let this minimum value of Estrain correspond to the zero point of the strain energy to avoid
assigning a negative value to the strain energy of the unstretched spring.
The second lesson from Table 1 and Answers T3 and T4 is that when the mass has been displaced by an amount
x from the equilibrium position the total potential energy is always a quadratic function of the form
Epot =

1
2

ksx2 + constant

where the value of the constant depends on the choice of zero points for the gravitational and strain energies.
Now you may find this surprising since the gravitational potential is a linear function of x, yet there is no term
proportional to x in the expression for Epot. It is worth noting how this comes about.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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If we take the unstretched spring as having zero strain energy, then

Estrain =

1
2

ks(x + xeq )2

while the gravitational potential energy is given by

Egrav = mgx + E0
where E0 is a constant determined by the location of the zero point of the gravitational potential energy. Hence
Epot = Estrain + Egrav =
i.e. Epot =

1
2

ksx2 + E0 +

1
2

1
2

ks(x + xeq )2 mgx + E0

mgx eq

Note that the linear terms, proportional to x alone, have cancelled. Also note that Epot becomes especially simple
if E0 = 12 mgx eq . In other words the expression for the total potential energy becomes as simple as possible if
we require that
Egrav = mgx

1
2

mgx eq

So Egrav = 0 corresponds to x = xeq/2.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

 If the zero point of the strain energy corresponds to the unstretched spring, and the zero point of
gravitational energy corresponds to x = xeq/2, what value of x corresponds to the zero point of Epot = Estrain +
Egrav?
The stored potential energy when a mass suspended from a spring is displaced by a small amount x from its
equilibrium position is given by
Epot =

1
2

ksx2

(Eqn 8)

where k s is the spring constant and the equilibrium position (x = 0) is the position of zero point of potential
energy.
Question T5
The introduction to Section 2 claimed that we were free to choose any position of zero of potential energy since
it was only the differences in potential energy which were significant. Look at the data in Tables 1, 3 and 4,
which encompass two different choices of the zero for each of the two types of potential energy. What support
for this claim can you find in these tables?
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Study comment This subsection draws on the results of the general mathematical description of one-dimensional SHM
in particular, the expressions for the displacement, velocity and restoring forces. These equations are developed elsewhere in
FLAP and if you are unfamiliar with the results you should review them now through the Glossary entries under simple
harmonic motion.
1

2.4 Energy oscillations in SHM

The results of Subsections 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 have all shown that the potential energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator can be written in the form
Epot =

1
2

kx2

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

(9)

provided we interpret k and x appropriately (see Table 2), and provided we take due care over the choice of the
zero point of potential energy.
Table 2
Oscillator

pendulum

mg/L

displacement, s along the arc from the

equilibrium position

sliding mass on a spring

ks

displacement from the unstretched

position

suspended mass on a spring

ks

displacement from the equilibrium

position

This common form for the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator given in Equation 9
Epot =

1
2

kx2

(Eqn 9)

is in fact quite general. It follows directly from the force law that characterizes one-dimensional SHM.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

SHM is generally characterized by a restoring force and an acceleration that is linearly proportional to the
displacement from some stable position of equilibrium. The implication of this is that for any one-dimensional
SHM we may write
Fx = kx

(10)

and that this is consistent with the general relation between a conservative force and potential energy
dEpot

Fx =
which also gives

dx
Epot =

1
2

kx2

(Eqn 9)

where k is the general SHM force constant and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position, provided we
choose Epot = 0 when x = 0.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Let us now move on to consider the kinetic energy and then the total energy of an oscillator in SHM.
From Equation 1
Ekin =

1
2

mvx2

(Eqn 1)

and we may write the general expression for the total energy of any one-dimensional simple harmonic oscillator
Etot = Ekin ( x ) + Epot ( x ) =

1
2

mvx 2 ( x ) +

1
2

kx 2 4

Here we have recognized that both kinetic and potential energies vary with displacement x although the total
energy should not vary with x, to be consistent with the principle of energy conservation. Since x itself is an
oscillatory quantity it must be a function of time, we can write:
Etot = Ekin (t ) + Epot (t ) =

1
2

mvx 2 (t ) +

1
2

kx 2 (t )

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

(11)

To take the discussion further we need to use the general expressions for x(t) and vx(t) in one-dimensional SHM.
These expressions are:
2t
x(t) = A cos
+ = A cos ( t + )
T

(12)

dx(t)
= A sin ( t + )
dt

(13)

vx (t) =

where A is the amplitude, the initial phase or phase constant, the angular frequency, T the period or
periodic time and (1t + ) the phase.
Expressions for the acceleration and the force acting can be obtained by further differentiation and by Newtons
second law, respectively:
dvx (t )
d 2 x (t )
a x (t ) =
=
= A 2 cos ( t + ) = 2 x (t )
(14)

dt
dt 2
and

Fx (t) = ma x (t) = m 2 x(t)

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

(15)

A comparison of Equation 15
and

Fx (t) = ma x (t) = m 2 x(t)

(Eqn 15)

with Equation 10
Fx = kx

(Eqn 10)

identifies the force constant k with m 2 and so the angular frequency is determined by the force constant k
and the mass m of the oscillating object:
1

k =

Fx (t )
= m 2
x (t )

so

k
m

and

T =

2
m
= 2

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

(16)
(17)

It is important to note that Equations 12 to 17

2t
x(t) = A cos
+ = A cos ( t + )
T

dx(t)
= A sin ( t + )
dt
dvx (t )
d 2 x (t )
a x (t ) =
=
= A 2 cos ( t + ) = 2 x (t )
dt
dt 2

vx (t) =

Fx (t) = ma x (t) = m 2 x(t)

=
T =

k
m

(Eqn 12)
(Eqn 13)
(Eqn 14)
(Eqn 15)
(Eqn 16)

2
m
= 2

(Eqn 17)

are valid for any one-dimensional SHM, irrespective of the specific system, providing k is interpreted as the
appropriate force constant this universality is the great power of the mathematical model.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Now we can return to our discussion of energy in SHM by using Equations 12 and 13
2t
x(t) = A cos
+ = A cos ( t + )
T

(Eqn 12)

dx(t)
= A sin ( t + )
dt

(Eqn 13)

vx (t) =

to eliminate x(t) and vx(t) from Equation 11.

Etot = Ekin (t ) + Epot (t ) =

1
2

mvx 2 (t ) +

1
2

kx 2 (t )

(Eqn 11)

We find:
Etot =
i.e. Etot =

1
2

m [ A sin ( t + ) ] +
2

1
2

k [ A cos ( t + ) ]

A2
A2
m 2 sin 2 ( t + ) +
k cos 2 ( t + )
2
2

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

in which we can identify the kinetic and potential energy expressions:

A2
Ekin =
m 2 sin 2 ( t + )
2
A2
Epot =
k cos 2 ( t + )
2
The relationship between and k as given in Equation 16
k
=
m

(18)
(19)

(Eqn 16)

allows the total energy to be written in either of two equivalent forms:

or

Etot =

A2
A2
m 2 [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
m 2
2
2

(20a)

Etot =

A2
A2
k [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
k
2
2

(20b)

In Equations 20a and 20b we have used the trigonometric identity that sin2 + cos2 = 1 for any angle .
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Study comment We can now draw some important conclusions from Equations 18, 19, 20a and 20b. This will be done via
Questions T6 to T9. You should be sure you understand the answers to these questions before moving on.

Question T6
Are Equations 18, 19, 20a and 20b
A2
Ekin =
m 2 sin 2 ( t + )
2
A2
Epot =
k cos 2 ( t + )
2
A2
A2
Etot =
m 2 [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
m 2
2
2
A2
A2
Etot =
k [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
k
2
2

(Eqn 18)
(Eqn 19)
(Eqn 20a)
(Eqn 20b)

consistent with the principle of the conservation of energy in an isolated system?

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question T7
For the special case where the phase constant is zero, draw graphs (on the same piece of graph paper) showing
the behaviour of the kinetic, potential and total energies over two periods of the displacement. What is the period
of any oscillations in these energies? Describe what is happening over the time interval.
3

Question T8
By inspecting your answer to Question T7 determine the average values of each of E pot and Ekin over a full
period of the oscillation.
3

Question T9
Explain, in your own words, what factors determine the total energy in the oscillation; are these dependencies
linear?
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

3 Damped and driven harmonic oscillators

Our discussions in Section 2 have assumed that in SHM the amplitude is constant. From Equations 20a and 20b
A2
A2
Etot =
m 2 [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
m 2
(Eqn 20a)
2
2
A2
A2
Etot =
k [ sin 2 ( t + ) + cos 2 ( t + ) ] =
k
(Eqn 20b)
2
2
or from Answer T9 you will appreciate that it is the amplitude (together with the force constant) that determines
the total energy in SHM. If the amplitude is constant the total energy is constant and vice versa. Now, the total
energy is certainly constant if the oscillating system is completely isolated from its environment since no energy
can then pass to or from the oscillator. In practice, however, this condition is never rigorously true for any
oscillator; there is always some exchange of energy with the environment. In this section we will examine the
consequences of such energy exchanges.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

There are two situations in which changes in the energy of an oscillator are of particular importance.
The first arises when we deliberately put energy into the oscillator this is the case of the driven oscillator or
of forced vibrations, which will be discussed in Subsection 3.5. The second is where energy is transferred out
of the oscillator and the total energy of the oscillator (and hence its amplitude) decreases with time. This is
the case of the damped oscillator and the process by which energy is transferred out of the oscillator is called
damping; this will be discussed in Subsections 3.1 to 3.4. All natural oscillations are damped to some extent and
there are many cases where we wish to change this damping artificially. For both these reasons, damping is an
important topic.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

3.1 The mechanisms of damping: friction

There are several mechanisms by which energy may be transferred away from a moving object.
These mechanisms frequently involve frictional forces or, more succinctly, simply friction. Frictional forces
act to prevent or reduce relative motion between two parts of a system and hence produce a reduction in kinetic
energy. The origin of frictional forces is complex, involving intermolecular interactions between materials in
close contact. Fortunately for our purpose here we need not understand the details of these processes, provided
we appreciate the following characteristics of frictional forces:
o Frictional forces occur whenever there is relative motion between two surfaces or where there would be
such motion if it were not being prevented by friction. The frictional forces are generally different in these
two situations. When relative motion does occur it is said to be opposed by dynamic friction which is
usually less than the static friction that acts to prevent relative motion. This difference explains why it is
usually easier to keep something moving (thus overcoming dynamic friction) than it is to start the object
moving in the first place (thus overcoming static friction). An example of dynamic friction would be the
force that opposes the motion of a book sliding down a steeply inclined plane. An example of static friction
would be the force that stops a book from sliding down an inclined plane when the angle of inclination is
small.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

o
o
o

Frictional forces always act in a direction that opposes relative motion or the tendency to begin relative
motion.
In dynamic friction the general mechanism of the force is that momentum is exchanged between the surfaces
or particles at the molecular level so that their relative velocity is reduced.
The magnitude F of the dynamic frictional force often (but not always) depends on the relative speed v.
Sometimes this dependence can be approximated by a linear relationship:
F = bv

(21)

where b is a positive constant (known as the damping coefficient).

The effect of dynamic friction is to reduce the relative motion and to convert the kinetic energy of directed
motion into kinetic energy of random motion at the molecular level that is, into heat energy.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

In this section we are concerned with damping which is attributable to friction between the moving parts of a
system that is to dynamic friction. Within the general principles outlined above it is possible to identify several
types of dynamic friction which may be involved in damped SHM:
1 Friction between two solid surfaces in relative motion. For example, a mass sliding on a surface as in our
horizontal spring oscillator of Subsection 2.2. Equation 21 is not valid in such cases

F = bv
(Eqn 21)
and the sliding friction is almost independent of the relative speed v.
Friction between a moving solid and a liquid (or vice versa). For example, a ship rolling in a rough sea.
Friction involving liquids (and sometimes gases) is often called viscosity and the forces involved are termed
viscous forces. Equation 21 works quite well here.
Friction affecting solids or liquids moving through gases. For example, a swinging pendulum in air or a
vehicle travelling through air. This is usually referred to as air friction or air resistance.

All of these processes result in the relative motion being reduced and heat being produced. Because the kinetic
energy is dissipated by friction, frictional forces are often called dissipative forces.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

3.2 Frictional forces as dissipative forces in mechanical SHM

The rate at which a damped oscillator loses energy depends on the nature of the damping force. As an example,
let us consider the energy transferred from an object that oscillates along the x-axis while subject to a damping
force that satisfies Equation 21,
F = bv

(Eqn 21)

that is, one where its magnitude is proportional to the instantaneous speed of the oscillator.
What is the x-component of such a damping force at a time when the x-component of the instantaneous
velocity is vx?

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

If we consider a very short interval of time, t, we can assume that the instantaneous velocity is effectively
constant throughout that interval, so the oscillator will change its position by an amount x = vx t and the
energy transferred to the oscillator by the damping force will be
1

E = Fx x
1

If we substitute for Fx and x, we find

E = bvx vx t = bvx 2 t

(22)

vx2

In Equation 22 both b and

are positive, so the energy transferred to the moving object must be negative.
Thus the effect of the damping force is to reduce the energy of the oscillator, irrespective of its direction of
motion. (Reversing the sign of v x does not change the sign of E.)
The instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred to the oscillator by the damping force is obtained by
rearranging Equation 22 to find E/t and then considering the limit in which t tends to zero. In terms of
calculus notation this instantaneous rate is
E
dE
= lim
= bvx 2
dt t 0 t

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

(23)

E
dE
= lim
= bvx 2

t
0
t
dt

(Eqn 23)

Notice that dE/dt is also negative, as we would expect for a damping force that reduces the energy of the
oscillator.

At what stage in the oscillatory cycle is energy transferred most rapidly according to Equation 23?

Of course, Equations 22 and 23 only apply to the particular case where the damping force is given by Fx = bv x,
but similar analyses can be applied to other cases.
E = bvx vx t = bvx 2 t

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

(Eqn 22)

Question T10
Suppose that a one-dimensional oscillator is subject to a damping force of constant magnitude.
(a) Write down an expression for the damping force.
(b) Find an expression for the instantaneous rate of energy transfer to the oscillator by this force.
(c) At what stage in the oscillation is energy transferred most rapidly because of the damping?

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

3.3 Lightly damped harmonic motion

We now return to the case of a one-dimensional oscillator subject to a damping force Fx = bvx, and consider the
influence of the damping on the motion itself. Equation 23
E
dE
= lim
= bvx 2
dt t 0 t

(Eqn 23)

has already shown us that the energy of such an oscillator decreases continuously, and it follows from this that
the amplitude of the oscillation must also decrease with time. What we now want to do is to develop a
mathematical expression for x(t), the displacement of the oscillator as a function of time, which will (among
other things) show us exactly how the amplitude diminishes as times passes.
The general solution to this problem involves some quite challenging mathematics. Instead of undertaking this
task we will follow a simpler approach by assuming that the energy is transferred slowly, so that the total energy
of the oscillator is almost constant over any one cycle even though it will change appreciably over many cycles.
This amounts to assuming that the damping force is weak, so that the oscillator is certain to undergo many
oscillations before the damping brings it to rest. Because of this limitation we can only claim to be dealing with
the motion of the oscillator in the case of light damping. More will be said about the general case where the
damping force may be strong or weak in the next subsection.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Since Equation 23
E
dE
= lim
= bvx 2
dt t 0 t

(Eqn 23)

is true moment by moment, it must be the case that the average value of the right-hand side of Equation 23,
taken over a full period of oscillation, is equal to the average value of the left-hand side taken over the same
period. Thus, using angular brackets to indicate the mean:
dE
dt

= bvx 2

but b is a constant and vx2 = 2Ekin /m, so

1

dE
dt

= b

2 Ekin
m

2b
Ekin
m

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Now, Subsection 2.4 and Question T8 have shown us that in SHM the average kinetic energy and the average
potential energy over a full oscillation are each equal to half the total energy so, over a full oscillation it must
still be the case that
Ekin =
Thus

dE
dt

1
E
2

b
E
m

Now, if we introduce the light damping assumption so that the total energy only changes slowly with time, the
average rate of change of energy will be equal to the rate of change of the average energy, i.e.
dE
dt

d E
dt

Moreover, if we represent the slowly varying average energy E by E(t) then we have
1

dE(t )
bE(t )
=
= E(t )
dt
m
where the positive quantity b/m has been written as .
FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

(24)

Study comment Equation 24 is an example of a differential equation. Such equations are the subject of a block of modules
in the maths strand of FLAP. If you are already familiar with differential equations you will probably know how to solve
Equation 24 and you will be able to consider the following question. If not, you should simply read the question and its
answer, and pursue the topic of differential equations on some other occasion.

dE(t )
bE(t )
=
= E(t )
dt
m

(Eqn 24)

Equation 24 tells us that the function E(t) is such that its rate of change is proportional to the instantaneous
value of E(t) at any time t. What is the form of such a function?

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Graphs of E(t) = E0 e t for two different values of are shown in

Figure 5. It is apparent that the larger value of corresponds to a more
rapidly decaying average energy for the oscillator. The coefficient
= b/m is called the damping constant of the oscillator. Over any time
interval of duration 1/ the value of E(t) changes by a factor of e1
(from e t to e (t + 1/ ) = e1e t0).
1

1 1

11

11

E0

E0 exp (1t)
E0 exp (2t)
1 > 2

11

Thus, determines the rate of exponential decay of the average energy.

The time required for any exponentially decaying quantity to decrease
by a factor of e1 is known as the time constant of the decay, so in our
example the time constant is 1/ and we may write
E(t) = E0 e t = E0 e t /
where = 1/ represents the time constant.
1

E(t)

1 1

(25)

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

t
Figure 5 Graphs of E(t) = E0e t for
different values of the damping constant
. (01 > 02 )
3

E(t)

Question T11
Confirm that the function E(t) = E0 e t satisfies Equation 24,
1

E0

E0 exp (1t)

dE(t )
bE(t )
=
= E(t )
(Eqn 24)
dt
m
and explain the physical significance of the constant E0 .
(If you are familiar with the process of differentiation you can use it to
show that Equation 25
E(t) = E0 e t = E0 e t /
(Eqn 25)
provides a solution to Equation 24. If not, you should add arbitrary
scales to Figure 5, select a point on one of the curves, determine the
gradient of the curve at that point (this corresponds to dE/dt at that
point) and then confirm that at that particular point dE/dt = E(t).)
1

1 1

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

E0 exp (2t)
1 > 2
t
Figure 5 Graphs of E(t) = E0e t for
different values of the damping constant
. (01 > 02 )
3

Question T12
For damped one-dimensional harmonic motion, write down expressions for (a) the damping constant for the
energy and (b) the time constant of the energy decay, in terms of the damping coefficient b and the oscillator
mass m.
3

Question T13
Use the SHM relationship between total energy and amplitude to derive expressions for (a) the amplitude A(t)
and (b) the time constant of the amplitude decay, in terms of the damping coefficient b and the oscillator
mass m.
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Question T14
In Question T13 you derived an expression for A(t). Use this result as the amplitude in Equation 12
2t
x(t) = A cos
+ = A cos ( t + )
T

(Eqn 12)

to write down an expression for x(t) for damped one-dimensional SHM. Sketch the graph of this function.4

Study comment
The rigorous mathematical treatment of damped harmonic motion shows that the introduction of damping, even light
damping, modifies the angular frequency of the motion as well as its amplitude. The changes for light damping are very
small so we will continue to use the values of angular frequency and period that pertain in the undamped situation, but in
recognition of this we will henceforth denote the undamped angular frequency by 0 and use T0 to represent the
corresponding period (00 2 = k/m and T0 = 2/ 00 ). You should not forget that in the case of damped harmonic motion, 0
and T0 are only approximations to the true angular frequency and period.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

In the case of damped harmonic motion, the natural logarithm of the ratio of two successive maximum
displacements (i.e. one period apart) is known as the logarithmic decrement of the decay. Question T13 shows
that the damping constant for the amplitude is half that for the energy, since E(t) A2 (t). This gives the damping
constant for the amplitude as /2 and it follows that

T0

=
logarithmic decrement = log e exp

1
2

T0 =

(26)

The case of light damping applies well to the important class of applications where engineers seek to minimize
the natural damping of an oscillator in order to prolong its natural oscillation or to minimize the energy input
needed to maintain the oscillations a pendulum clock, for example. In such cases, the quality of the oscillator
is determined by the fraction of its energy which is lost per cycle of the displacement (remember from
Question T7 that one displacement cycle corresponds to two cycles of the energy oscillation). The larger this
fraction, the poorer the performance of the oscillator, so its reciprocal can be taken as a figure of merit for the
oscillator. This inverted fraction, when multiplied by 2, is known as the quality factor or Q-factor of the
oscillator.
1

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

So, Q =

2E(t)
( E )T

(27)

where E(t) is the average energy at time t and | (E)T | is the energy transferred from the oscillator in one
complete oscillation at time t.
1

A very lightly damped oscillator has a Q >> 1, while a more severely damped oscillator has a Q of order 1.
An oscillator with a large Q -factor damps slowly and oscillations are maintained for many periods.
A high Q-factor mechanical oscillator, such as a tuning fork, might have a Q-factor of several thousand.
Now, according to Equation 24
dE(t )
bE(t )
=
= E(t )
dt
m

(Eqn 24)

the average rate of energy transfer from the lightly damped oscillator is dE(t)/dt = E(t), so the energy
transferred from the lightly damped oscillator over one period of duration T0 is
1

(E)T = T 0

dE(t)
2
= T 0 E(t) =
E(t)
dt
0

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

so

Q=

2E(t)
2
=
= 0
T0

(E)T

(28)

We can now summarize our results as follows:

In lightly damped harmonic motion
E(t) = E0 exp ( t) = E0 exp ( 0 t Q)

(29)

A(t) = A0 exp ( t 2 ) = A0 exp ( 0 t (2Q))

(30)

and
x(t) = A0 exp ( t 2 ) cos ( t + ) = A0 exp ( 0 t (2Q)) cos ( t + )

(31)

Question T15
By what factor does the energy of a damped oscillator decrease in Q cycles?
3

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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We see from Answer T15 that when a high Q-factor oscillator is excited it completes Q/2 cycles before its
energy has fallen by a factor of 1/e. If we call this time the ringing time then Q is 2 the ringing time of the
oscillator, expressed in periods.

3.4 Qualitative discussion of general damping

When the damping can no longer be considered to be light, the mathematics becomes quite complicated.
This topic is dealt with elsewhere in FLAP. Here, we will describe the results qualitatively, so that you can
identify and describe the types of behaviour that damped oscillators exhibit.
We have already covered light damping quantitatively in this module. In that discussion we were able to use the
undamped angular frequency 00 as an approximation to the angular frequency of the damped motion.
The full mathematical treatment shows that the angular frequency of the damped motion is slightly different
from 00 , but not significantly so in the case of light damping. However, as the damping is increased this
approximation begins to break down, and we need to distinguish between and 00 .

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

As the damping is increased progressively, fewer

and fewer oscillations are completed before the
oscillator comes to rest; the various forms of
behaviour that might arise are shown in Figure 6.
The most familiar is illustrated by curve (a) and is
generally known as underdamping; light damping
is an extreme case of this. If we increase the
damping beyond a certain level we eventually find
the behaviour indicated by curve (b) in which the
oscillator fails to complete even a single full
oscillation. It may overshoot the equilibrium
position once only, after which its displacement
decays exponentially as it returns to the
equilibrium position. This situation is generally

x
A0
(c)

2/

/
(a)

known as overdamping.
Figure 6 The effect of different damping levels on the
one-dimensional oscillator: (a) underdamped,
(b) overdamped, (c) heavily overdamped,
(d) critically damped.
3

A0

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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3/

5/
4/

(d)

(b)

If we continue to increase the damping further we

reach an extreme case of heavy overdamping
(curve (c)) in which the system does not pass
through the equilibrium position at all, but decays
exponentially and very slowly back to the
equilibrium position. The situation between
underdamping (curve (a)) and overdamping (curve
(b)) is called critical damping and is shown in
curve (d). In the case of critical damping, the
damping force has the minimum value that will
avoid an oscillation and, after one overshoot, the
displacement decays exponentially to reach the
stable equilibrium position in the shortest overall
time. This condition of critical damping is the one
sought by designers of electrical meters and shockabsorbers.
Figure 6 The effect of different damping levels on the
one-dimensional oscillator: (a) underdamped,
(b) overdamped, (c) heavily overdamped,
(d) critically damped.
3

x
A0
(c)

2/

/
(a)

A0

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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3/

5/
4/

(d)

(b)

3.5 Qualitative discussion of forced vibrations: resonance

If the oscillations of a damped oscillator are to be maintained at a constant level then we must apply an external
force which will, on average, transfer energy to the oscillator at the same rate that energy is transferred into heat
by friction. This external force is called a driving force and the oscillator is then a driven oscillator.
In this subsection we present a qualitative treatment of this problem; the quantitative treatment is covered
elsewhere in FLAP.
A familiar example of a driving force is the force that every child learns to apply to a swing to establish and
maintain its motion. If we ask how best to apply this driving force in order to minimize effort and maximize the
amplitude then, as every child discovers, the answer is that the force should be applied periodically and should
be timed to coincide closely with the natural motion of the swing. In other words, a driven oscillator responds
most strongly when driven by a periodically varying force, the frequency of which is closely matched to the
frequency with which the system would freely oscillate if left to itself. This frequency is called the
natural frequency of the oscillator.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

A one-dimensional oscillator of mass m and force constant k, has a natural frequency 0 = k m .

It can be shown that this system, when subject to a damping force F x = bv x and a periodic driving force
Fx = F0 sin (0t), will eventually exhibit displacement oscillations described by
1

x(t) = A0 sin (0t + )

1

where

A0 =

(32)

F0 m
(0
2

2 )2

( )2

and

= arctan 2

0 2

Note that the angular frequency of these steady oscillations is determined by the angular frequency of the driving
force and not by the natural frequency of the oscillator. Also note that the amplitude of the driven oscillations A0
is independent of time but does depend on the amplitude and angular frequency of the driving force.
In particular, the amplitude will be large when 00 .
(It can be shown that the maximum value of A0 actually occurs when 2 = 00 2 2 /2.)
1

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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The eventual steady amplitude of the driven oscillator for a range of

driving frequencies is shown in Figure 7. There are two curves in the
figure, corresponding to different values of the damping constant .
As you can see, although the location of the peak is mainly determined
by 0 , the height and width of the peak both depend on . The role of
in determining the amplitude is not surprising. Most damping losses
increase with the speed of the oscillator and so the dissipative losses rise
as the oscillation amplitude grows. With any given driving force
applied, the oscillation amplitude will grow until the energy transferred
from the oscillator by the damping force exactly balances the energy
transferred to the oscillator by the driving force. Steady oscillation
conditions are then established.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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A0

(a)

(b)

Figure 7 The resonant response of a

driven damped oscillator under two
levels of damping. (a) The steady state
amplitude established in a high Q-factor
oscillator with very small , (b) the
steady state response in a low Q-factor
oscillator with larger . The effect of
on the resonant frequency has been
ignored in this graph.
3

The condition in which an oscillator responds with maximum amplitude to a periodic driving force is called
resonance. For a lightly damped oscillator this condition occurs when the angular frequency of the driving
force is close to but slightly less than the natural frequency of the oscillator and corresponds to the state of
affairs in which the energy transferred to the oscillator by the driving force is a maximum.
If we refer back to Equation 32,
x(t) = A0 sin (0t + )
1

(Eqn 32)

you will see that there is a phase difference between the displacement oscillation and the driving force.

What is the value of when the resonance condition is satisfied?

So, in resonance, in the steady condition, the displacement of a lightly damped oscillator lags 90 behind the
driving force. You may find it surprising that the displacement is not in phase with the driving force, but you
saw in Subsection 3.2 that the power transferred to an oscillator depends on the velocity of the oscillator, not its
displacement. A phase lag of 90 between the driving force and the displacement ensures that the driving force is
in phase with the oscillators velocity rather than displacement.
FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Thus a given force gives the oscillating mass its greatest rate of transfer of energy (i.e. power) just when its
speed is greatest. This is exactly the principle most children learn to apply when pushing a swing.
There are many important illustrations and applications of resonance. Mechanical resonance plays a crucial role
in many pieces of machinery, such as when one part of a machine vibrates and drives another part into vibration.
If the driven part is underdamped, the resonant response can build up a very large amplitude, which might end in
the destruction of the machine. The suspension bridge across the Tacoma Narrows on the western coast of the
USA was driven into resonance by unusually violent winds in 1940; it was destroyed. A similar incident took
place in 1850 at Angers (in France) where the marching of about 500 soldiers across a bridge resonantly excited
the structure, with the resultant death of more than 200 soldiers.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

Perhaps some of the most important applications of resonance occur in electrical oscillations. Electrons are
charged particles and electrical forces can be exerted on them by electric fields. In an electrical conductor some
electrons are free to move and this motion can constitute an electric current. In an electrical circuit,
electrical energy can be stored as potential energy, by electrons in electric fields, or associated with the kinetic
energy of the moving electrons, through the magnetic field caused by the electric current. Electrical energy
oscillations can be produced by the action of electric or magnetic fields on the electrons in a conductor. A good
example of this process is when the oscillating electric and magnetic fields associated with an
electromagnetic wave (such as a radio wave or a light wave) interact with electrons in a circuit. An electrical
oscillator has a natural frequency and a resonant response when driven at this frequency. The driving force for
an electrical oscillator can be provided by the currents from an aerial. At the circuits resonant frequency large
oscillatory currents may be produced, and these can easily be detected. We have described here a radio or TV
receiver, which must be set or tuned to the required resonant frequency.
A surprising example of electrical resonance is the response of the electrons in an atom to an incoming light
wave. At some characteristic resonant frequencies (or wavelengths of light) these electrons respond strongly,
absorbing the light. This is why materials absorb some colours of light but not others.
Resonance is an extremely widespread and important topic in physics. Although we have been concerned with
mechanical oscillators in this module it is important to remember the wide applicability of all the ideas discussed
here.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

4 Closing items
4.1 Module summary
1

In simple harmonic motion, the displacement of an oscillator may be described by the sinusoidal function
x(t) = A cos ( t + ) where A is the amplitude, is the phase constant, and the angular frequency is given
by = k m , where k is the force constant and m the mass. The period of such an oscillator is
1

2
m
= 2
(Eqn 17)

k
Kinetic energy and potential energy are associated with SHM. In one-dimensional mechanical oscillators
the kinetic energy 12 mvx 2 is associated with a moving mass and the potential energy 12 kx 2 with
gravitational or strain energy. The zero of strain energy is best taken where the elastic body is
un-deformed, the zero of gravitational energy should be chosen to simplify the problem.
In undamped SHM the kinetic energy and potential energy each oscillate with time at a frequency which is
twice that of the displacement oscillation, but the sum of kinetic and potential energy, the total energy,
remains constant.
T =

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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The average values for kinetic energy and potential energy over one cycle of undamped SHM are each
equal to half the total energy which is itself determined by the square of the amplitude through the
expression:
A2
A2
Etot =
k =
m 2
(Eqn 20)
2
2
When dissipative forces, such as friction, are present the energy of an oscillator is gradually transferred to
the environment, often as heat, and the amplitude falls with time. The oscillator is then said to be damped.
Frictional forces often depend on the relative motion and oppose this motion; in some cases their magnitude
is linearly proportional to the relative speed and then the power loss from the damped oscillator is
proportional to the square of this speed.
1

5
6

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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In light damping the oscillation takes many cycles to damp away and, to a good approximation, the motion
remains periodic with the undamped frequency. The energy decays exponentially with a damping constant
given by
E(t) = E0 exp ( t)

(Eqn 29)

where = b/m (and b is a positive constant). The amplitude also decays exponentially, as given by
A(t ) = A0 exp ( t 2)

(Eqn 30)

and the displacement is given by

x (t ) = A0 exp ( t 2) cos ( t + )
8

(Eqn 31)

The degree of damping is indicated by the Q-factor of the oscillator, which is 2 times the reciprocal of the
fractional energy loss per cycle
2E(t)
Q=
(Eqn 27)
( E )T
For a lightly damped oscillator Q = 0 / and oscillations take many cycles to decay away.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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In general, three levels of damping can be identified. Underdamping, when the oscillator completes several
oscillations before being damped to rest. Overdamping when the displacement is no longer periodic but
decays exponentially, or where it may overshoot the equilibrium position once, before decaying
exponentially to the equilibrium position. Critical damping, when the displacement decays to rest without
oscillatory behaviour but does so in the minimum time, passing through the equilibrium position no more
than once.
10 When a damped oscillator is subject to a periodic external driving force at or near to its natural undamped
frequency it exhibits resonance. In resonant behaviour the amplitude builds up to a high value, until the
power lost through dissipative forces equals the power input from the driving force. The amplitude at
resonance and the sharpness of the response near 0 are each determined by the damping constant (or the
Q-factor), and with low damping (high Q-factor) this amplitude can be very large and the response very
sharp. Resonance is an important and widespread process in physics and engineering.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
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S570 V1.1

4.2 Achievements
Having completed this module, you should be able to:
A1 Define the terms that are emboldened and flagged in the margins of the module.
A2 Account for and describe, qualitatively, the oscillations of kinetic and potential energy in undamped onedimensional SHM, and explain why the total energy is constant.
A3 Derive and use expressions for the kinetic, potential and total energies in undamped one-dimensional SHM,
from an expression for the displacement as a function of time. Show how the total energy depends on the
amplitude.
A4 Sketch the variations in kinetic and potential energy in undamped one-dimensional SHM and identify their
average values over one oscillation.
A5 Describe the operation of frictional forces and their qualitative effect on one-dimensional harmonic motion.
A6 Describe the motion of lightly damped one-dimensional harmonic motion in terms of an energytime graph,
an amplitudetime graph and a displacementtime graph.
A7 Use the approximation of light damping, with a damping force which is proportional to the velocity, to
derive expressions for the energy and displacement in one-dimensional harmonic motion.

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

A8 Describe and identify the general behaviour of damped one-dimensional harmonic motion when conditions
are no longer those of light damping.
A9 Describe the process of driving and resonance in harmonic motion, explaining its significance and its
dependence on the damping constant or the Q-factor.

Study comment
You may now wish to take the Exit test for this module which tests these Achievements.
If you prefer to study the module further before taking this test then return to the Module contents to review some of the
topics.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1

4.3 Exit test

Study comment
Having completed this module, you should be able to answer the following questions each of which tests
one or more of the Achievements.

Question E1
(A2) For the system shown in
Figure 4,
3

reaction

Figure 4 A light coil spring shown

(a) unloaded (with a supported mass
held at the unstretched spring
position), (b) at the position of
equilibrium under the load, and
(c) loaded and displaced below its
position of equilibrium. Note that x is
taken to be positive in the downward
direction.

Fx = k sxeq
1

(a)

xeq

mg

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Fx = k s(xeq + x)

xeq + x
1

(b)

mg
(c)

mg

Table 1 Potential energies for Figure 4 with the gravitational potential energy zero at
the equilibrium position and the strain potential energy zero for the unstretched spring.
Position

Gravitational
potential energy
Egrav

Strain
potential energy
Estrain

Total
potential energy
Epot

As in Figure 4a

mgxeq = ks (xeq )2

ks (xeq )2

As in Figure 4b

As in Figure 4c

mgx = ks xeq x

ks (xeq

)2 /2

ks (xeq + x)2 /2

ks (xeq )2 /2
ks (xeq )2 /2 + ks x2 /2

construct a table such as Table 1 but with the gravitational potential energy and the strain potential energy both
zero at the equilibrium position.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

Question E2
(A3 and A4) Show that in a one-dimensional SHM the kinetic energy, potential energy and the total energy all
depend on the square of the amplitude. Sketch each of these energies over one cycle of the displacement
oscillation and give their average values over this interval.
3

Question E3
(A5 and A6)
conserved.

Describe the motion of a lightly damped oscillator, and explain why its total energy is not

Question E4
(A5) A body of mass 0.30 kg is suspended from the end of a spring with a spring constant of 120 N m1.
When oscillating, it is subject to a damping force that varies in proportion to the velocity, with constant of
proportionality b = 0.60 N s m1.
3

Calculate the damping constant, logarithmic decrement and Q-factor of the system.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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S570 V1.1

Question E5
(A7) A lightly damped oscillator with undamped angular frequency 16 s1 is set in motion by releasing it from
rest at a displacement of 0.10 m from its equilibrium position. It is found that the turning point at the end of the
first cycle has a displacement of 0.08 m. What are the logarithmic decrement, damping constant and Q-factor of
the system? Estimate the amplitude of the oscillation after five cycles.
3

Question E6
(A8) For one-dimensional damped harmonic motion explain what is meant by (a) underdamped, (b)
overdamped, and (c) critically damped, explaining how these conditions might be established.
3

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Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
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Question E7
(A9) Describe the process of resonance in SHM and its significance. Describe qualitatively how resonant
behaviour depends on the level of damping.
3

Study comment
This is the final Exit test question. When you have completed the Exit test go back to Subsection 1.2 and
try the Fast track questions if you have not already done so.
If you have completed both the Fast track questions and the Exit test, then you have finished the module and may leave it
here.

FLAP P5.2
Energy, damping and resonance in harmonc motion
COPYRIGHT 1998
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
S570 V1.1