Amoo

TITLE PAGE
ANALYSIS OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA: A CASE STUDY OF OSUN RIVER

SAND, OSOGBO OSUN STATE.
BY
AMOO, AFEEZ OLADEJI

(CVE/06/7931)
A Thesis submitted to the School of Post Graduate Studies, The Federal University of
Technology Akure, Nigeria, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Masters
Degree (M.Eng.) in Civil and Environmental Engineering (Water Resources and Environmental
Engineering Option)
June, 2015
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Thesis was written by me and is a correct record of my own research
work. It has not been presented in any previous application for any degree of this or any other
university. All citations and sources of information are clearly acknowledged by means of
references.
AMOO, AFEEZ OLADEJI

CVE/06/7931
SIGN: .
DATE:
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this Thesis entitled Analysis of Flow through Porous Media: A Case Study
of Osun River sand Osogbo, Osun state is the outcome of the research carried out by Amoo,
Afeez Oladeji (CVE/06/7931) in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Federal University of Technology, Akure.
Dr. C.S. Okoli
Date
(Major Supervisor)
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to determine the index properties and hydraulic characteristics of
the porous media. The porous media was dug from river bed of Osun river at eight (8) different
locations at five (5) metres interval during the November period. Specific gravity, moisture
content, particle size distribution (PSD) and permeability test of the porous media were
determined in accordance with the International Standard IS: 2720. Data from the abovementioned tests were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The specific
gravity of the sand (2.65 to 2.67), coefficient of curvature (0.54 to 1.35) and uniformity
coefficient (1.25 to 2.77) show that the sand samples are well graded and uniformly distributed.
The
models
generated
for
the
locations
were
7 2
5
3
6 2
f f =1.314 ln , =59.755 Q1.627 e Q 4.642 e i=55.919 e v 120.821e v 4.666 .
The hydraulic conductivity of the river sand sample ranges from
1.14 1.43 102 cm/ s for
the various locations considered and location A at upstream of the river bed which is about 1m
depth from sea level has the highest value ( 1.43 102 cm/s
is the best location and location
G at downstream of the river bed which is about 1.5 m depth from sea level has the lowest value
( 1.14 102 cm/s
is the worst location. It is recommended that proper attention should be
given to the friction factor, velocity of flow, flow rate and the Reynolds number as these are the
main products that result in flooding of embankment thereby resulting in environmental hazard
and seepage of water through dams.
DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the one who makes ocean to flow in
the desert, and to my parents ALH. & MRS. AMOO for the love and care they show to me
during the project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To begin with, I thank the ALMIGHTY GOD the unchangeable changer for His infinity
mercy and grace upon my life during my stay in The Federal University of Technology, Akure.
My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. C.S. Okoli for his guidance, commitment
and encouragement throughout the entire period of the research project. His immeasurable
support assisted me to remain focused on the research investigation from the beginning of the
research work to the very end, for all the time spent on coordinating and supervising the whole
thesis.
I also appreciate my parents Alh. & Mrs. Amoo without whom my academic pursuit
would have been unaccomplished. Your prayers, encouragement and financial support are
appreciated. May you live long to reap the fruits of your labour in the name of Allah.
I cant but express my sincere appreciation to my beloved fianc Onifade Soliat for her
prayer, encouragement and financial support during the course of this work, may God bless and
keep us together in love.
I also acknowledge the support of my siblings Olanrewaju Yusuf and Alabi Ibrahim. Its
really being a blessing having you around, you are the best.
I cant fail to acknowledge my family, most especially Mr & Mrs A.A. Amoo, Mr & Mrs
M.G. Amoo, Surv. & Mrs N.B. Amoo, Mr & Mrs Sokoya, Mr & Mrs Olaitan, Amoo Basirat,
Amoo Abdul_azeem & Fathiat, for their support morally, financially and prayerful during the
course of this work. I cannot say how much am indebted to them but pray that the ALMIGHTY
GOD continue to bless them.
Above all, I remain deeply indebted to all my friends who have made my stay in the
University environment a memorable one, they are: Engr. Adavi, Laoye Rahmon, Engr.
Tanimola, Akinola Tunde, Chris, Jerry, Ilori Boluwatife, Gabriel Busayo, Ajayi Olawale, Popoola
Tosin, Oladipupo Kola, Uduebor Micheal, Mayowa, Kayode, Khadijat, Azeezat, Idayat, Fatimah,
Usman, Nafizat, Memunat, Ilelaboye Adeleke, Mama Alarobo, Oyebade, NASFAT Akure
branch, MSSN FUTA, I love you all.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE....................................................................................................................................i
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................iv
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................xii
LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................xv
LIST OF PLATES.........................................................................................................................xvi
NOTATION.................................................................................................................................xvii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
1.0
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1
1.1
BACKGROUND..............................................................................................................1
1.2
PROBLEM STATEMENT................................................................................................3
1.3
AIM AND OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................4
1.4
PROJECT JUSTIFICATION............................................................................................4
1.5
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA........................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................8
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................8
2.1
GENERAL........................................................................................................................8
2.2
OVERVIEW OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA................................................8
2.2.1
Darcy Law and Laminar Flow...................................................................................9
2.2.2
Validity of Darcys Law...........................................................................................11
2.2.3
Comparison between Darcys Law and Stokes Law..............................................13
2.2.4
Permeability and Porosity........................................................................................17
2.3
POST-DARCY FLOW....................................................................................................19
2.3.1
Steady Flow Experiment..........................................................................................19
2.3.2
Flow.........................................................................................................................20
2.3.3
Flow Regimes..........................................................................................................21
2.3.4
Flow in Conduits......................................................................................................22
2.3.5
Non Stationary Laminar Flow.................................................................................23
2.4
POROUS MEDIA...........................................................................................................26
2.4.1
Types of Porous Media............................................................................................27
2.4.2
PROPERTIES OF POROUS MEDIA.....................................................................28
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................31
3.0
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS.......................................................31
3.1
MATERIALS..................................................................................................................31
3.2
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE..................................................................................31
9
3.2.1
Preliminary Test.......................................................................................................32
3.2.2
Engineering Property Test.......................................................................................38
3.3
SOFTWARE USED........................................................................................................42
3.3.1
Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS)................................................42
3.3.2
Regression Analysis.................................................................................................42
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................43
4.0
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.........................................................................................43
4.1
NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT RESULT.............................................................43
4.2
SPECIFIC GRAVITY RESULT.....................................................................................47
4.3
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (PSD) RESULT.....................................................52
4.4
PERMEABILITY OF SAND.........................................................................................63
4.5
SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION TEST ON SAMPLES................................68
4.6
SUMMARY RESULT OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF SAMPLES............70
4.7
OBSERVATIONS OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES............................................71
4.8
ANALYTICAL MODEL IN POROUS MEDIA............................................................71
4.8.1
The Model Summary for the relationship between Friction factor and Reynolds
Number (Re) in Flow through Porous Media.........................................................................71

4.8.2
The Model Summary for the relationship between Reynolds Number (Re) and
Flow rate (Q) in Flow through Porous Media........................................................................74
10
4.8.3
The Model Summary for the relationship between Hydraulic gradient () and
Velocity of flow (v) in Flow through Porous Media..............................................................77

CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................79
5.0
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................79
5.1
CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................79
5.2
CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE..........................................................................80
5.3
RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................80
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................81
APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................86
11
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
Natural moisture content result of sample from location A 43
Natural moisture content result of sample from location B 44
Natural moisture content result of sample from location C 44
Natural moisture content result of sample from location D. 45
Natural moisture content result of sample from location E 45
Natural moisture content result of sample from location F. 46
Natural moisture content result of sample from location G 46
Natural moisture content result of sample from location H 47
Specific gravity result of sample from location A.. 48
10
Specific gravity result of sample from location B.. 48
11
Specific gravity result of sample from location C.
49
12
Specific gravity result of sample from location D.
49
13
Specific gravity result of sample from location E.. 50
14
Specific gravity result of sample from location F..
50
15
Specific gravity result of sample from location G.
51
12
16
Specific gravity result of sample from location H.
51
17
Particle size distribution result of sample from location A
53
18
Particle size distribution result of sample from location B
54
19
Particle size distribution result of sample from location C
55
20
Particle size distribution result of sample from location D
56
21
Particle size distribution result of sample from location E. 57
22
Particle size distribution result of sample from location F.. 58
23
Particle size distribution result of sample from location G. 59
24
Particle size distribution result of sample from location H. 60
25
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location A. 64
26
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location B. 64
27
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location C. 65
28
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location D. 65
29
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location E. 66
30
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location F. 66
31
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location G 67
32
Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location H 67
13
33
Standard values of range for Specific gravity of soil.
34
Standard values of range for Uniformity coefficient and Coefficient of
68
curvature..
68
35
Summary of the results for the classification test on all sample location 69
36
Summary of the results of the hydraulic properties on all sample

location........................................................................................................
70
37
Model summary relationship between friction factor and reynolds

number....
71
38
Model summary relationship between reynolds number and flow rates 74
39
Model summary relationship between hydraulic gradient and velocity of

flow
77
14
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Map of Nigeria showing Osun state..
Map of Osun state showing all the local government
Morphological map showing the sample location on Osun River in

Osogbo
7
4
Porous medium & Sphere in Unbounded fluid...
14
Porous medium elemental volume in E...
16
Period-dependent Permeability
26
Falling head test permeability arrangement
39
Combined particle size distribution curve of sample location A, B, C &

D..
61
9
Combined particle size distribution curve of sample location E, F, G &

H...
62
10
Regression curve between friction factor and reynolds number

curve..........
73
15
11
Regression curve between reynolds number and flow rates curve...
12
Regression curve between hydraulic gradient and velocity of flow
76
curve.......................
78
LIST OF PLATES
Plate
Page
Sample location for A....
86
Sample location for B.......
86
Sample location for C.......
86
Sample location for D...
86
Sample location for E...
87
Sample location for F....
87
Sample location for G...
87
Sample location for H...
87
Permeability test in the laboratory.
88
10
Specific gravity test in the laboratory....
88
11
Placement of sample A H
88
12
Sample inside sack bag in the laboratory before test.
88
16
13
Sieve analysis test in the laboratory...
NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this research:
Symbols
Notation
D, dc
Inside diameter of capillary;
Head loss through medium;
Depth of the river bed;
Length of the capillary;
Darcy coefficient;
Flow rate through medium;
Area of filter bed in the plan;
Dynamic viscosity of the fluid;
Density of the fluid;
Acceleration due to gravity;
Vc
Velocity of fluid in capillary;

17
89
Bulk porosity of bed of the porous media;
Volume flux across a unit area of the porous media in unit

time;
Tortuosity of flow path in porous media;
Vv
Volume of voids;
Pp
Particle density;
Mp
Mass of voids;
Vp
Volume of particles;
Distance in the direction of flow;
Permeability of the medium;
Vertical coordinate;
p/s
Pressure gradient along s at the point to which v refers;
Pressure gradient of the medium;
Viscosity of water;
Density of water;
Diameter of pipe;
Velocity of flow;
Slope of the energy line or hydraulic gradient;

18
h1
Head loss at initial;
h2
Head loss at final;
Length of soil;
fk
Friction factor using square root of permeability as

characteristics length;
Re
Reynolds number;
Gradient operator;
AT
Cross sectional flow area;
Dimensionless constant;
Hydraulic radius of pore spaces;
Porosity of porous media;
Specific surface of the flow tube;
Time taken;
Friction manning coefficient;
Fr
Froude number;
Total force;
Coefficient of proportionality;
Volumetric shape factor;

19
Factor incorporating effects on particles;
C1
Acceleration coefficient;
Magnitude of the gradient;
CD
Drag coefficient;
Phase shift induced between the velocity and energy

gradient;
Rp
Total resistance force;
Random variable;
Non-random variable;
Concept or Intercept team;
Coefficient or Slope parameter;
Un-observed random variable;
Da
Diameter of average particles; and
Some factors related to dimensional property a
20
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
Flow through porous media is a subject of interest in many branches of
science, i.e., hydrogeology, chemical engineering, and in the field of

petroleum extraction. The investigation of its features plays a major role in
the comprehension of many phenomena, as the subsidence caused by water
shortage, or the process of crystallization of the ores in a well thermal exit,
which makes them unusable for the extraction of the heat. Moreover, it is
important to investigate both the correlation between seismo-genesis and
the introduction of fluids in the subsoil, studied in the Rangeley Colorado
experiment (Raileigh et al., 1976), and the link between the increase in the
seismic activity and the growth of the water level in wells (Bell and Nur
1978). The steady flow through filter having sand bed of various thickness and under various
pressure is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient and the Darcys equation in the
following commonly used (except at high velocities when turbulence occurs) is:
H 1 Q
=
(1)
L K A
where, H= head loss through medium (L), L= depth of filter bed (L), Q= flow rate through
medium (L3/T), A= area of the filter bed in plan (L2) and = Darcys coefficient (L/T).
Poiseuille equation can be applied to estimate the head loss from the velocity of flow in
each individual capillary as follow:
H
Vc
=32
(2)
L
g d c 2
( )
Vc
Q V.
= (3)
nAb n
n=
v
(4 )
where,
L= length of capillary (L),
= dynamic viscosity (M/L.T),
= density (M/L.T),
g = standard acceleration of gravity, (9.81 m/s2),
dc= inside diameter of capillary (L),
Vc= velocity of fluid in capillary (L/T),
n = bulk porosity of bed of porous media (L3/L3),
v = volume of the voids (L3),
= total volume of the bed (L3), and
V = velocity of fluid
= tortuosity (L/L).
Control of the movement of water and prevention of the damaged caused by the
movement of water in soils are vital aspects of soil engineering (Leonard, 1962). The study of
seepage patterns in cross section with soils having more than one permeability is one of the most
worthwhile and rewarding applications, especially in selecting a protective filter or seepage
control in man-made constructions (Elsayed and Lindly, 1966). Excessive seepage is caused by
high permeability or short seepage path. Its permeability can be reduced by a proper selection of
materials, for example, mixing a small amount of clay with the sand (protective filter) used for
construction can reduce the permeability greatly (Sower and Sower, 1970). A filter or protective
filter is any porous material whose opening is small enough to prevent movement of the soil into
the drains and which is sufficiently pervious to offer little resistance to seepage (Jacob, B. 2001).
The permeability is the most important physical property that determines the porosity of a
medium, which is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluid through it. Frequently, a
soil is employed as a filter and in preparing a good filter, knowledge of permeability of
homogeneous and heterogeneous media is very essential. A medium is homogeneous if the
permeability is constant from point to point over medium while it is heterogeneous if
permeability changes from point to point in the medium. The permeability can be determined or
computed from hydraulic conductivity (Domenico and Schwartz, 2008).
Since porous media can either be natural or artificial and the natural type can readily be
available, this research will be based on the laboratory test of determining the hydraulic
properties of sand (an example of natural porous media).
1.2
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The design of dams and hydraulic structures depend on the flow through porous media
i.e., the soil. Since soil are porous and the presence of voids in the soil allow the flow of fluids
through the soil particles, the construction of roads and structures is affected by the flow through
the media. Failures of structures are also caused by the impermeability of the soil to water.
In order to avoid this menace of failures on these hydraulic structures, there is need to
analyse flow through porous media, so that the hydraulics characteristics of the soil can be
3
determined for the stability of these structures. The nature of the flow is also determined and
models are also generated to give the relationship between the flow parameters.
1.3
AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to determine the index properties and hydraulic characteristics
of the porous media (Osun river sand).

The specific objectives are to:
a) determine the flow rates of the porous media (Osun river sand);
b) determine the hydraulic properties of the Osun river sand; and
c) compare the relationship between the obtained flow rates and the hydraulic properties of
the porous media in accordance with international standards of soil classification.
1.4
PROJECT JUSTIFICATION
The hydraulic properties of soil are of great importance to civil engineers and the rate of
flow of water through a sand medium is a function of permeability, porosity, hydraulic gradient
and hydraulic conductivity of the soil governed by Darcys law.
This research will help to determine the:
a) rate of recharge of wells, underground of flows and its characteristics;
b) design and construction of hydraulics structures such as dam and spillways;
c) possible way of preventing or controlling environmental hazards; and
d) water losses from the river due to seepage.
1.5
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Osogbo is the capital city of Osun state, south western Nigeria. It is some 88 kilometers by
road Northeast of Ibadan. It is also 100 kilometers by road south of Ilorin and 115 kilometers
Northwest of Akure. It is situated on latitude on 9.7 N and longitude 4.5 E. The soil samples is
gotten from eight (8) different location at five (5) metres interval at the river bed of Osun river
beside Old Governor office along Gbongan-Ibadan expressway, Osogbo, Osun State.
CHAD
NIGER REPUBLIC
LAKE
CHAD
SOKOTO
KATSINA
SOKOTO
KATSINA
BIRNIN-KEBBI
JIGAWA
GUSAU
KANO
ZAMFARA
KEBBI
KANO
BORNO
YOBE
DUTSE
MAIDUGURI
DAMATURU
Bajoga
KADUNA
KADUNA
BAUCHI
GOMBE
GOMBE
BAUCHI
NIGER
JOS
ADAMAWA
MINNA
YOLA
ABUJA
KWARA
FCT
LAFIA
ILORIN
PLATEAU
NASARAWA
OYO
TARABA
OSOGBO
LOKOJA
EKITI
ADO EKITI
IBADAN
ABEOKUTA
OGUN
OSUN
KOGI
MAKURDI
AKURE
BENUE
ONDO
LAGOS
ENUGU
EDO
IKEJA
KWARA
OYO
OSOGBO
ENUGU
BENIN CITY
AWKA
ASABA
EKITI
ABAKILIKI
EBONYI
OSUN
ANAM.
IMO ABIA CROSSRIVER
DELTA
ONDO
OGUN
OWERRI UMUAHIA
Bight
o f Be n i n
YENEGOA
RIVERS
BAYELSA
P. HARCOURT
UYO
AKWA- CALABAR
IBOM
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Figure 1:
State Capital
State Boundary
National Boundary
ANAM -
Map of Nigeria Showing Osun State

Source: OSRBDA 2014
5
Rivers
ANAMBRA
8 15'
4 00'
4 05'
4 15'
4 10'
4 20'
4 25'
4 30'
4 35'
4 40'
4 45'
4 50'
8 10'
4 55'
5 00'
5 05'
8 10'
KWARA STATE
OYO STATE
8 05'
8 05'
ILA
OKUKU
ILAORANGUN
ODO-OTIN
IFEDAYO
8 00'
IFELODUN
.IKIRUN IRAGBIJI BOLUWADURO
OROLU
EJIGBO
7 55'
8 15'
8 00'
OKE-ILA
7 55'
IFON-OSUN
EJIGBO
EGBEDORE Erin
Dagbolu
7 50'
7 50'
IGBONA
OLA OLUWA
AWO
IBOKUN
OSOGBO
OFATEDO
OBOKUN
OSOGBO
7 45'
EDE
IWO
7 40'
EDE NORTH
IJEBU-JESA
ILESA WEST
IKOYI
IWO
EDE SOUTH
ILE-OGBO
EREJA
7 45'
7 40'
OSU
IFE
CENTRAL
IPETUMODU
7 30'
ILESA
ILESA EAST
Ile-Oogi
IPETU-JESA AYEDAADE
L.G.A.
7 35'
EKITI STATE
IKONIFIN
7 35'
ATAKUNMOSA
WEST
ILE-IFE
ORIADE
GBONGAN
7 30'
IPERINDO
MODAKEKE
IREWOLE
OYO STATE
7 25'
7 20'
IFE EAST
7 25'
OWENA
IKIRE
IFE NORTH
7 20'
ATAKUNMOSA
EAST
APOMU
ISOKAN
7 15'
7 15'
IFE SOUTH
7 10'
7 10'
ARAROMI-OWA
IFETEDO
AYEDAADE
7 05'
7 05'
ONDO STATE
5
10
15
20
25
SCALE: 1:250000
7 00'
OGUN STATE
7 00'
................. STATE BOUNDARY

.................LOCAL GOVT. AREA BOUNDARY
6 55'
6 55'
.................STATE HEADQUARTER (OSOGBO)

.................LOCAL GOVERNMENT HEADQUARTERS
N
6 50'
.................OTHER TOWNS
6 50'
.................VILLAGES
.................River
Compass
6 45'
4 00'
Figure 2:
4 05'
4 10'
4 15'
4 20'
4 25'
4 30'
4 35'
4 40'
Source: Ministry of Lands and Housing, Osogbo, (2007)

4 45'
4 50'
Map of Osun state showing all the Local Government

Source: Google Maps, 2014
4 55'
5 00'
5 05'
6 45'
4 35'
7 50'
4 40'
BORIPE
LGA
OLORUNDA
L.G.A.
OSOGBO
OBOKUN
LGA
EDE NORTH
LGA
7 45'
ATAKUNMOSA
WEST LGA
4 35'
4 40'
upstream
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
downstream
N
W
E
S
Compass
Figure 3:
................. STATE BOUNDARY
................. SAMPLE LOCATION
.................LOCAL GOVT. AREA BOUNDARY
.................SAMPLE POINTS
.................STATE HEADQUARTER (OSOGBO)
.................Road
.................River
.................River
Source:fieldwork, (2014)
Morphological map showing the sample location of Osun river

Source: Amoo Afeez Research 2015
7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
GENERAL
For the past 150 years or so, investigations into porous media flow have yielded a great
deal of understanding of the phenomenon. Much of the work has been empirical in nature,
similar to the well-known contribution of Darcy law. Such investigations have identified the
parameters relevant to the phenomenon and have provided some useful relationships between
them. The majority of the analytical work has been directed towards deriving such empirical
relationships from the equations of motion and continuity (with appropriate simplifications and
approximations), thereby isolating the effects of, and the relative importance of, individual terms
(Rumer & Drinker 1966).
The goal of this research is of course to produce a reliable predictive description of the
phenomenon of flow through porous media (river sand). It is therefore useful to review previous
theoretical and empirical results in order to better understand the nature of the present
investigation and this begins with a general overview of the concepts of porous flow followed by
a brief review of Darcy's law, including a description of the parameters comprising this law, its
upper limit of validity and the reasons for its failure after this limit.
2.2
OVERVIEW OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA

A porous medium acts as a resistance to flow; it is the goal of research to describe the
form of the resistance coefficient. Fluid particles flowing through the pore spaces pass through
expansions and constrictions to the flow and experience other convectional inertia effects caused
by the curvilinear flow paths. Given that resistance coefficients for pipe flow through
expansions, contractions, etc., are determined by empirical means, the complexity of defining
resistance coefficients for a generalized, random porous medium is readily apparent.
A porous medium is generally visualized as a continuum having properties of dimension
and porosity (Shih, 1990). The permeability of the porous medium is usually described in terms
of directly measurable quantities, most commonly the porosity and a large body of work has
been (and is still being) directed towards relating permeability and porosity. The permeability is
however, obviously dependent upon other properties including particle size, shape, orientation
and surface roughness. Analytically, the continuum approach requires averaging of the terms in
the equations of motion and continuity, as these quantities cannot be used directly owing to the
complex boundary conditions of flow through the pore spaces of the medium. Thus, the
properties of velocity and pressure must be averaged over a volume which is large enough for the
averaging procedure to be valid and yet small enough so as to be considered infinitesimal with
respect to the total sample volume (Scheidegger, 1960; Bear, 1972; Le Mehaute, 1976). This
requires that the magnitude of the flow be much greater than the pore volume. Therefore, flow
through large pores (or past large obstructions), such as waves passing through the armour layer
of a breakwater, cannot be validly described by this approach. Gray and O'Neill (1976) described
such a technique of "local averaging" to obtain generalized porous flow equations and Le
Mehaute (1976) illustrated how such an averaging of the terms in the Navier-Stokes equations
can result in Darcy's law.
2.2.1
Darcy Law and Laminar Flow

Darcy's experiments yielded the results that over a limited range of flowrates (Q),
Q=K AT
(h2h1 )
(5)
l
where;
9
AT
= cross-sectional flow area,
l = length of the sample,

h1and h2 are the piezometric heads at locations 1 and 2 at elevations z, i.e.
h1
P1
+ Z 1 (6)
g
= the density of water,

g = acceleration due to gravity and;
k = constant of proportionality which Darcy called the permeability of the material.
Expressing (5) in terms of pressure and noting that the average or "bulk" or "superficial" velocity
is q=
Q
AT
q=K .
Darcy's law can be written as:
( gP +Z )=(7)
= gradient operator,
= slope of the energy grade line (i = dh/dx), commonly termed the hydraulic gradient,
fluid density,
acceleration due to gravity and the permeability,
k = function of the fluid and the porous medium; these two aspects can be separated yielding.
=
K (8)
g
10
where, is defined as the intrinsic permeability of the material (because it depends only on
properties of the material) and has dimensions of (Length)2 and
the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid.
Hence, Darcy's law states that the energy loss across a porous medium due to friction is
directly proportional to the averaged or "bulk" velocity. However, this law applies only to a
limited range of flowrates where effects of inertia are negligible compared to those due to
viscous forces (Wright, 1968; Scheidegger, 1960; Philip, 1970; Dybbs and Edwards, 1982).
2.2.2
Validity of Darcys Law

It was discovered that Darcys law of linear dependency between velocity of flow (v) and
hydraulic gradient () is only valid for laminar flow conditions in soil. Reynolds number found
that the flow is laminar as far as the velocity of flow is less than a lower critical velocity (v c)
expressed in terms of Reynolds number by the expression;
VC
dw=2000( 9)
g
where;
VC
= lower critical velocity in the pipe (cm/sec)
d = diameter of pipe (cm)

w = Density of water (g/cm3)
Viscosity of water (gsec/cm2); and
11
g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2).

Based on the analogy above, the flow through soils is assumed to depend on the
dimensions of the pore spaces. It was seen that in coarse grained soils, where the pore
dimensions are larger, there is a possibility of flow being turbulent. Francher et al (1993)
demonstrated that flow through sands remain laminar and that Darcys law remain valid as the
Reynolds number as seen in the expression below, is equal to or less than unity, that is:
V D a
1(10)
g
where;
V = velocity of flow (cm/sec)
D a = diameter of average particle that is effective size mostly D10 (cm)
From Darcys concept it is seen that;
V =(11)
h1 h2
(12)
l
V=
(h1h2)
(13)
l
It is established that in laminar flow f depends only on the Reynolds number and it is given by
f=
64
(14)
Re
where;
12
f = friction factor,
Re = Reynolds number,
h1= head loss at initial,
h2 = head loss at final,
l = length of the soil sample and;
k = permeability of the soil.
2.2.3
Comparison between Darcys Law and Stokes Law

Similarities between Darcy's law and Stokes' law for flow past a single obstruction have
been noted by many researchers (Wright, 1968; Scheidegger, 1960; Philip, 1970). Both are
solutions to the Navier-Stokes' equation for an incompressible fluid and negligible inertia. Both
Darcy's and Stokes' laws fail when the effects of inertia cease to be small; this occurs when the
Reynolds' number (q.D/v, with D chosen as some characteristic grain diameter) attains values of
about 1 and the departure from the linear law is a gradual one. The connection can be illustrated
by the use of dimensional analysis as follows: Figure 4(a) and (b) shows, graphically, the flow
patterns being compared. Figure 4(a) is a homogeneous, isotropic porous medium comprised of
equal sized spheres of diameter D (which is small compared to the container dimension H) with
porosity (n). A uniform steady laminar flow of magnitude VP is passing through the medium.
Figure 4(b) shows a single circular cylinder of diameter (D) in an unbounded laminar flow of
magnitude (U).
For the porous medium, the phenomenon can be completely described by the
characteristic parameters (D. n. q) along with the fluid viscosity and density (Yalin and Franke,
13
1961). Expressing these parameters in terms of dimensionless variables by using the

"Buckingham-Pi Theorem", (Yalin, 1971), and choosing basic quantities D, q and p), any given
dimensionless property (Ya), can be described by the relation:
Y a= a
( qDv n)(15)
where a represents some function related to the dimensional property "a" and the geometry of
the medium under consideration. For the case of filtration flow the velocity heads are neglected
as q2/2g
0. Although this is not the case for flow through rockfill structures, the velocity heads
remain small compared to other energy losses, even in prototype (Parkin et al 1966; Hall, 1990).
For the case of waves plunging on a breakwater the velocity heads in the armour layers are likely
not negligible. In addition, other effects such as air entrainment and fully turbulent flow require a
different method of solution to be adopted. Therefore; the influence of the velocity heads will not
be considered in this analysis of porous media flow.
Figure 4:
(a) Porous medium
(b) Sphere in Unbounded fluid
14
If the flow is laminar (small Re) viscous forces dominate over the convective inertial
forces, which are represented by . If the inertial forces are not to be considered then (thus R e)
cannot be included in the functional relation but the viscosity, , must remain. If the quantity (a)
is the pressure gradient (dH/dx = g = 1), then application of dimensional analysis (by choosing
basic quantities as D, q, ) provides the relationship:
Y 1=
D2
I =1 ( n ) (16)
q
Equation (16) can be written in terms of the hydraulic gradient, , as

2
g D
=1 ( n ) (17)
q
Or equally,
=
fr
v
1 ( n )=
( n ) q (18)
2 1
Re
gD
(where Fr is the Froude number) which is identical to Darcys law if 1/K = v/gD 2 1(n). In
addition, the quantity i/Fr is proportional to 1/Re. The term i/Fr is a common expression for the
friction factor. If the property under investigation is the total force (F) on the porous medium
then, as above, for small Reynolds numbers,
F=
2
qD
F
n (19)
where, for laminar flow, p is not a parameter and must vanish as above. To accomplish this; Fr
must be linearly proportional to Re and therefore;
F=qD ( n ) (20)
where
is the coefficient of proportionality; and equation (20) is seen to be identical to
Stokes' law for a single particle, that is except that for a porous medium a term for the porosity
(which is commonly used to represent the permeability) must be included.
15
F=C D D q (21)
For the flow situation in Figure 4b, the analysis proceeds identically to that given above
except that the porosity term is not present. Therefore, any property under investigation becomes
a function of the Reynolds number only (other properties such as surface roughness are
incorporated into the functional relationship for all geometrically similar configurations). For the
case of the total force, F, on the particle, this becomes
F=
2
UD
F
(22)
and for laminar flow the density term is neglected, leaving the result (Stokes' law)
F=DC D U (23)
where CD is the proportionality constant commonly called the drag coefficient.
Rumer and Drinker (1966) used this similarity to show that Darcy's law can be derived from a
simple force balance if Stokes' law can be assumed to apply to a porous medium (with
appropriate modifications). They considered a cylindrical element (E), (Figure 5) with porosity (
n ), length ds and inclined at an angle
to the vertical so that cos
balance (stationary flow) is then

RF
H
=0(24)
s
nA T s
16
= dz/ds. The force
Figure 5:
Porous medium Elemental Volume E

Source: Gregory. M. Smith 1991
where, H is the pressure head and Rp is the total resistance force of all the grains within the
volume (dA)(ds). For the case of laminar flow all energy is dissipated by friction, as shown
above, and the resistance of the solid particles can be described by Stokes' law, modified to
account for the effects of many particles, i.e.,
f p=D v p (25)
where fp is the drag force per unit volume acting on one particle, D is a characteristic length,
diameter for a sphere, Vp is the actual fluid pore velocity, and is a factor incorporating effects of
the neighboring particles (max = 3 for a single sphere in an unbounded fluid). Considering N
particles within the volume element E, then
N=
(1n)As
(26)
D3
where is a volumetric shape factor (/6 for a sphere). Substituting equations (25) and (26) into
(24) and assuming the relationship vp = q/n, then
17
q=
n
g H
D2
(27)
(1n)
s
The term n2/((1-n) is a function of the pore system only and can thus be replaced by the
dimensionless coefficient c. Recalling that the (constant) intrinsic permeability k has
dimensions of L2, as does the constant cD2, then the product cD2 can be replaced by the constant
k and equation (27) becomes identified with Darcy's law, equation (17) as
q=k
g H
(28)
s
Note that here the permeability k is a function of the term (n 2/(1-n)). This is the form of the
pororsity function (n) derived on a semi-theoretical basis.
2.2.4
Permeability and Porosity

The intrinsic permeability term () in Darcy's law (equation 8) is dependent upon the
configuration of the granular matrix; the size and shape of the particles, their size distribution
and orientation and the porosity of the sample. Owing to the fact that these properties are
difficult to measure and control in laboratory and prototype, most effort has been concentrated on
the last factor, porosity, as a descriptor of the permeability of the sample. In addition, most
studies assume an isotropic porous medium so that () is a constant; for anisotropic media () is
a tensor quantity.
Early analytical attempts at defining the permeability led to the development of models
that represented the porous medium as a series of capillary tubes, and common pipe flow laws
were applied to describe the hydraulics of the system. Scheidegger (1960) gives a good review of
these models and most are based upon the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in straight,
circular pipes, (which is also a solution to the Navier-Stokes equation for these specific boundary
conditions) i.e.
18
dp
V
=32 2p (29)
dx
D
For porous media flow Vp is replaced by the bulk velocity q, and the diameter D, is
usually replaced by a typical grain diameter, D 50 for example, because of the difficulty in
assigning a typical pore size. This approach is limited because the nature of flow through a
porous medium is quite different from that in pipes. At Reynolds numbers of about one
convective acceleration terms in the Navier-Stokes equation can no longer be neglected as the
fluid must follow curvilinear paths through the granular matrix (Scheidegger 1960; Wright 1968;
Dudgeon 1964; Philip 1970). When applied to flow in straight, circular pipes, equation (21) is an
exact linear equation (non-linear convective terms are identical to zero) which applies to a
specific geometry and breaks down suddenly at the onset of turbulence, commencing at
Reynolds numbers of about 2000 (Streeter and Wylie, 1981). In a porous medium, however, the
linear flow law (Darcy's law) is conditional upon the non-linear convective terms being "small",
i.e. at Reynolds numbers less than about 1 to 10 (Philip 1970; Dybbs and Edwards 1982; Yalin
and Franke, 1961). One application of pipe flow analogies to a porous medium is the series of
models named hydraulic radius theories that make use of the fact that the intrinsic permeability
has dimensions and is described by a length term, the hydraulic radius, R. The hydraulic radius is
defined as the ratio of sample volume to the surface area of the pores (again, difficult to assess
for most porous media). The basic form of the permeability relation is:
k =c
R2
(30)
()
where, c is a dimensionless constant and
represents some function of the porosity. Of
the hydraulic radius theory and that of Kozeny (1993) is the most widely used description of
19
permeability. Kozeny's theory couples the steady-state, Navier-Stokes equation (neglecting

inertia terms) with Darcy's law and describes the permeability as:
k=
cn2
(31)
S2
where, c is a dimensionless shape factor, analytically derived to be approximately 0.5, and S is

the specific surface of the flow tube - a measure of the hydraulic radius.
2.3
POST-DARCY FLOW
2.3.1
Steady Flow Experiment

Darcy's law is only valid over a limited range of conditions and is commonly referred to
as the Darcy or linear laminar regime of flow. Outside of this range the relation between flowrate
and energy loss is not linear. It is the "Post-Darcy" regime that is relevant for consideration in
this law. Two forms are commonly quoted, the series type and the exponential type. The
exponential type is of the form:
=a' q f (32)
where,
= hydraulic gradient, = h/L
q = bulk velocity, = Q/A nvp and
,f = coefficients.
Note that if f = 1 and a'=/gk then Darcy's law is expressed. This form of flow law is preferred
by some (Barends, 1980) because of its similarity to pipe flow equations and thus compatibility
with standard measures such as drag coefficient. Muskat (1989), using dimensional analysis,
showed that (f) has an upper limit of 2 for gravity flows, signifying fully developed turbulent
20
flow in all pores in analogy to the pipe flow law. From the result of the dimensional analysis,
Muskat has shown that:
a' = D f 3 v 2f (33)
The resistance of the medium must be inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid
hence a' must be proportional to viscosity. For physically meaningful results (f) must therefore be
less than 2. A drawback to this formulation is that the coefficients (a' & f) vary continuously over
flow regimes and are therefore difficult to parameterize.
2.3.2 Flow
Flow is defined as the quantity of fluid (gas, liquid or vapor) that passes a point per unit
time. A simple equation to represent this is:
Flow=QUOTE
Quantity (Q)
(34)
Time (t)
Flow is sometimes written as Q (rate of change of mass or volume). Due to the number of
different fluids that are given to our patients during a routine an aesthetic, flow is obviously an
important area of mechanics to understand. Industrial flow measurements include measuring of
flow rate of solids, liquids and gases. There are two basic ways of measuring flow; one on
volumetric basis and the other on weight basis. Solid materials are measured in terms of either
weight per unit time or mass per unit time. Very rarely solid quantity is measured in terms of
volume. Liquids are measured either in rate or in weight rate. Gases are normally measured in
volume rate.
21
2.3.3
Flow Regimes
Flow can be classified as laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow is characterized by parallel
streamlines, due to viscous forces that are dominant over shear stresses. On the other hand, for
turbulent flow conditions, the streamlines do not have a clear pattern. Rather, the flow pattern is
more randomly because shear stresses are dominant. Between the laminar and turbulent flow
there is a transition region in which the flow may switch between these two conditions in an
apparently random fashion (Young et al., 2004).
The Reynolds number expresses the ratio between inertial and viscous forces and is used
to differentiate between turbulent and laminar flow.
Re =
vl
(35)
where,
Re = Reynolds number,
density of the fluid,
fluid velocity,
= dynamic viscosity, and
characteristics linear dimension.
2.3.4
Flow in Conduits
Specific discharge and the head loss by friction in tubes are proportional. Pressure drop in
conduits depend also on its geometry, roughness and flow velocity. To quantify the roughness is
commonly used a friction factor. The Darcy-Weisbach equation describes the relationship
22
between the friction factor (f), head loss (h), discharge (Q), area (a), diameter (D) and length (L).
Losses occur mostly at a few isolated constrictions or collapses into the conduit system.
2 Dg a2 1 h 1/ 2
Q=
(36)
f
2 l
Under the laminar flow regimen roughness has not a significant effect, in this case the
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor depends only on the Reynolds number and its formula was
derived by Poiseuille (Tullis, 1989).
f=
64
(37)
Then for laminar flow is used the Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Q=
D 4 g h
. (38)
128 l
In fully turbulent flow conditions the value of the friction factor is given by the eqn (38).
As the velocity increases, f becomes independent of Reynolds number and depends only on
pipe roughness.
1
e
2.51
=2 log (
+ R e )(39)
f
3.7 D f
where e is the absolute roughness in the conduit Darcy-Weisbach f values determined in

karst hydrology investigations lie in the range 0.039 to 0.340 (Ford, 2007). An empirical formula
also used for this type of calculation is Manning in equation (40). This equation is valid for
turbulent flow.
1 D 0.667 h
Q= A .
(40)
4
l
where,
friction Manning coefficient.
23
In the equation (10) for circular conduits is equal to the pipe diameter. Through pipe
flow experiments, Reynolds found two critical numbers. One, R C1, for the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow, when steady motion changes into eddies and the second critical number R C2 for
the opposite process, the transition from turbulent to laminar flow. R C1 was determined with the
color band method and is equal to 12830 and using the pressure loss method RC2 as 2030.
Without precautions to eliminate disturbances for general purposes in pipes the flow is
considered laminar when Reynolds number is smaller than 2100 and turbulent when is larger
than 4000. Between this two values flow can be classified as transitional (Young et al., 2004).
The critical Reynolds number could be importantly reduced in tubes with variable diameter or
curvature (Hillel and Hillel, 2004). In natural conduits the critical value can be set as greater than
1000 (Shoemaker et al., 2007).
White (2002) stated that in fractures when the Reynolds number is in the range of 500,
the flow is not longer laminar, this occurs when the aperture has at least 1 cm, at which starts
being considered conduit.
2.3.5
Non Stationary Laminar Flow

Few studies have addressed the case of accelerated or cyclic flow. In this case an
additional external force must be required to accelerate the mass of water (Dean and Dalrymple,
1984; den Adel, 1987). This extra force is M.dv p/dt where M is mass of accelerated water and v p
is the actual velocity of water in the pore space. Then the total force balance per unit volume (in
terms of bulk velocity q = nvp) results in
1 q
=
q+
(41)
x gk
g t
The general form of this equation is

24
=aq+C 1
q
(42)
t
where the coefficient C1 is called the acceleration coefficient and is thought to be a constant for
any given media (as is the coefficient a). If the velocity q is described by a sine function with
period T, i.e.:
q=q 0 sin
( 2Tt )( 43)
then from equation (42):

=q0 ( asint + C' cost ) (44)
with =2 /T
or if is defined by:
0 cos=a q 0 (45 a)
csin=C
' q 0
(45 b)
where 0 is the magnitude of the gradient, then the hydraulic gradient can be best described by
= 0 sin ( t + ) (46)
where is a phase shift induced between the velocity and energy gradient.
Den Adel (1987) wrote equation (42) in terms of the potential H = P +gh, then assumed a
sinusoidal applied hydraulic gradient = 0sin(2t/T) so that;
=
q 1 q
+
= 0 sint (47)
K ng t
The analytical solution to equation (47) is q=c 1 sint + c2 cost

c 1=
0
1
( 48 a)
K 1
+( )
K
ng
( )
and
25
with
c 1=
0
1
(48 b)
K 1
+( )
K
ng
( )
The velocity, q, may be written as

q=q 0 sin ( t ) (49)
If q0 = (c12 + c22)1/2 and = tan-1(-c2/c1). Thus for laminar flow, if either the velocity or
gradient is described by a sine function then both will be sine functions with a phase shift
between them.
From equations (48) and (49) Den Adel defined a period-dependent cyclic permeability K0(T) as:
2
2
2
1
2
1
2= 02 =
+
(50)
K
K0(T )
q0 ngT
( )( )
For applied hydraulic gradients with small periods, the permeability K0(T) becomes much
smaller (i.e. increased resistance) than the stationary Darcy permeability, K, (Figure 6). It
appears that as the period of the applied gradient decreases less pore water can be brought into
motion, and the flow becomes less dependent on the applied pressure gradient.
The concept of permeability of a porous medium has yet to be well defined, for it is
dependent upon, and sensitive to, many parameters that are difficult to control even in a
laboratory environment. To this day the permeability coefficient must still be determined
indirectly in laboratory permeameter tests, for no reliable general predictive formulae have been
produced.
26
Figure 6:
2.4
Period-dependent Permeability
POROUS MEDIA
A porous medium (or a porous material) is a material containing pores (voids). The
skeletal portion of the material is often called the "matrix" or "frame". The pores are typically
filled with a fluid (liquid or gas). The skeletal material is usually a solid, but structures like
foams are often also usefully analyzed using concept of porous media. A porous medium is most
often characterized by its porosity. Other properties of the medium (e.g., permeability, tensile
strength, electrical conductivity) can sometimes be derived from the respective properties of its
constituents (solid matrix and fluid) and the media porosity and pores structure, but such a
derivation is usually complex. Even the concept of porosity is only straight forward for a
poroelastic medium. Often both the solid matrix and the pore network (also known as the pore
space) are continuous, so as to form two interpenetrating continua such as sponge.
27
Porous materials are measured by the amount of empty or void space within the object,
and these materials are capable of absorbing gas or liquids like a sponge within the void space.
Porous materials occur naturally in nature and are also manufactured for a multitude purposes.
2.4.1
Types of Porous Media
2.4.1.1 Natural porous materials

These are the kind of porous media that are naturally occurring in nature state such as
rocks and soil (e.g., aquifers, petroleum reservoirs), zeolites, biological tissues (e.g. bones, wood,
cork). Soil and rock are naturally occurring porous materials; the pores in soil make space for
roots and insects to retain water and nutrients to nourish life. Soils are highly permeable and will
sort because they need to allow water to flow well to protect plant life from drowning. Also, the
pores in rock have several types of occurring porosity due to fractures and chemical alterations
caused by leeching minerals. Vuggy porosity, for example is the dissolution of a rocks larger
features, which creates large holes.
2.4.1.2 Manufactured porous materials
These are the kind of porous materials that occurred artificially or man-made use. The
most common purpose of porous material are manufactured for liquid filtration, such as cements
and ceramics can be considered as porous media. Ceramics filters, for instance have millions of
micro pores that trap dirt, bacteria or living organisms too large to fit through, thus making the
water safe to drink. Other pores materials include manufacturing metals with an increasing
number of pores to reduce weight, save materials and increase heat retention. Sinter paper, for
example is made out of powdered copper or stainless steel. The concept of porous media is used
in many areas of applied science and engineering: filtration, mechanics (acoustics, geo-
28
mechanics, soil mechanics, rock mechanics), engineering (petroleum engineering, bioremediation, construction engineering), geosciences (hydrogeology, petroleum geology,
geophysics), biology and biophysics, material science, etc.
2.4.2
PROPERTIES OF POROUS MEDIA

The properties of porous media include density, porosity and permeability.
2.4.2.1 Density
This is the ratio of mass of the void to the total volume. For unconsolidated media,
consider the density of individual particles (particle density):
P p=
Mp
(51)
Vp
For the bulk material (i.e., in a quantity at least equal to the REV), we consider the bulk density:
P p=
Mp
(52)
VT
2.4.2.2 Porosity
Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of void space to the total volume of media; it is
measured through a simple calculation that divides void volume by the material volume.
=
Vp
(53)
VT
where;
Vv = volume of void space (L3)
VT = total volume (volume of solids plus volume of voids) (L3)
Porosity is not a function of grain size, but rather grain size distribution. Spherical models
comprised of different sized balls will always yield a lower porosity than the uniform model
29
arranged in a similar packing arrangement. Primary porosity in a material is due to the properties
of the soil or rock matrix, while secondary porosity is developed in the material after its
emplacement through such processes as solution and fracturing.
The porosity of fluid depends on the degree of compaction, a material with high
compaction is significantly reduces porosity by shrinking the sizes of the pores or filling them
with a finer sediment. The naturally occurring or human-induced sorting of a porous material
greatly affects porosity. In sediment, for example soil naturally sorts itself into layers; a well
sorted layer of sediment will contain grains of the same or similar sizes, which greatly increases
porosity. Badly sorted soil contains grains of a wide range of size, greatly reducing porosity. This
is usually in the range of 0.1 - 0.5.
The void volume is equal to the total volume minus the volume of the particles:
V V =V T V P (54)
Porosity, particle density, and bulk density are then related as follows:
=
( V T V P )
VT
(55)
2.4.2.3 Permeability
This is refers to as the amount of air, water or gas that the porous material can absorb at a
given time and how quickly it flows. When water flows from a soil of low permeability into a
soil of higher permeability, less area is required to accommodate the same quantity of water and
lower gradients are needed. If the flow is from high permeability into lower permeability, steeper
(or higher) gradient are required and a relatively more area is needed to accommodate the flow
(Cedergren, 1976). If layers of beds of porous media of different porosity are considered and it is
assumed that each layer is homogeneous and isotropic, then each layer is however characterized
30
by a different hydraulic conductivity rendering the sequence as a whole heterogeneous. It was

found that for horizontal flow, the most permeable unit dominates the system. For vertical flow
the least permeable unit dominates the system. Under the same hydraulic gradient, horizontal
flow is of the order of six orders of magnitude faster than vertical flow (Domenico and Schwartz,
2008). Fluid flow through a porous material of permeability , by Darcy is generally written as
(Frick and Taylor, 1978; Olowofela and Adegoke, 2005).
V = ( Pgz ) (56)
This can be expressed as;
(dp)
dz
V=
g (57)
ds
ds
where,
s = distance in the direction of flow,
v = volume flux across a unit area of the porous medium in unit time along the flow path,
z = vertical coordinate, considered downward,
= density of the fluid,
g = acceleration of gravity,
dp
= pressure gradient along s at the point to which v refers,
ds
= viscosity of the fluid,
= permeability of the medium.
P = pressure gradient of the medium.
31
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS
3.1
MATERIALS
The materials for this test are sand and water. The clean sand sample were collected from
eight (8) different points at five metres (5m) interval in the riverbed of Osun River in Osogbo, by
the help of the local sand dredgers present in the locality. The samples are labelled accordingly
for easy identification. After the sand sample is collected it is allowed to dry for some days
before placing into the sack and transported to the laboratory for the necessary tests to be
performed on it. The water that is used for the test is the one sourced from the dug well around
the geotechnical laboratory of Federal University of Technology Akure, as this is a good source
of water around since it is clean. Immediately the samples are taken to the laboratory a few
quantity is taken for moisture content test to determine the natural moisture content of the sand,
after that the sand is then placed into the oven so as to remove all the water present in the sand to
get the right condition needed for carrying out the necessary tests.
3.2
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The laboratory tests performed were carried out in the Geotechnical laboratory of Civil
Engineering Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Two categories of tests were
carried out namely; Preliminary test and Engineering test. The preliminary test is the initial test
carried out on the sample to identifying and classifying the soil. The tests include; Natural
moisture content, particle size distribution and specific gravity (test were conducted based on
procedures outlined in BS 1377(1990). The Engineering test is the strength test, which is used to
investigate the hydraulic properties of the sample.
32
Laboratory tests were conducted, recorded and the results were analyzed graphically to
ascertain the suitability of the river bed sand material satisfying standard for flow of fluid to pass
is pores. Test carried out on the sample is permeability test and the results were discussed.
3.2.1
Preliminary Test
The preliminary test include: natural moisture content, specific gravity and particle size
distribution.
Atterbergs limit tests cannot be used to classify the sand because there is no clay content in the
soil; hence the basic test that can be use is the particle size distribution (analysis) to be able to
determine the gradation of the soil.
The procedures for the various tests are carried out in accordance with stipulated in BS 1377
1990: 1- 8.
3.2.1.1 Natural Moisture Content
The moisture content of a soil is assumed to be the amount of water within the pore space
between the soil grains which is removable by oven drying at a temperature not exceeding
110C. The moisture content has a profound effect on soil behavior.
Apparatus
i.
a drying oven, capable of maintaining a temperature 105oC to 110oC.
ii.
a balance readable to 0.01g
iii.
a corrosion resistant container.
33
Procedure
Clean and dry the metal container and weigh to the nearest 0.1g. This is taken as m 1, the
sample is collected and placed in the container, and the lid is then replaced. The weight of the
container and it content are taken and recorded to the nearest 0.1g (m 2). The lid is removed, and
the container with it lid and contents are then placed in the oven and allowed to dry at a
temperature of 105oC to 110oC.
After drying, the container and its content are removed from the oven and allowed to
cool. The lid is replaced and then weighed to the nearest 0.1g (m3).
Calculations and Expression of Results
Calculate the moisture content of the soil specimen, w, as a percentage of the dry soil
mass to the nearest 0.1%, from the equation:
w=
m2 m3
100(58)
m3 m1
where;
m1 = mass of container
m2 = mass of container and wet soil
m3 = mass of container and dry soil.
3.2.1.2 Specific Gravity Test
The specific gravity of solid particles is the ratio of the mass density of solids to that of
water.
34
Apparatus
i.
50ml density bottle with stopper.
ii.
Oven (105oC to 110oC).
iii.
Constant temperature water bath (27oC).
iv.
Vacuum desiccators.
v.
Vacuum pump.
vi.
Weighing balance, accuracy 0.001g.
vii.
Spatula
viii.
Wash bottle containing air free distilled water.
Procedure
The sample of about 100g is collected and sieved through a 2mm test sieve. Two
specimens, each of 50g are then obtained by rifling, and then oven dried at 105 oC to 110oC, the
samples are then stored in air tight containers.
The gas jar is cleaned, along with its round cover. The weight of the gas jar with the cover is
measured and recorded to the nearest 0.1g (m 1). The first soil specimen is transferred to the gas
jar. The weight of the gas jar, content and the cover is measured and recorded to the nearest 0.1g
(m2). Sufficient air free water is added to cover the soil in the gas jar say one third the depth of
the jar and then stirred with the help of a stirrer. The stirred content in the gas jar is allowed to
stand for 30mins. Then more water is then added to the top of the gas jar and also stirred so as to
35
remove any entrapped air in the soil, the sample with the water is then left to stand for 24 hours
to allow for the best settling of all particles in the soil. Note that during this period the cover is
placed. The gas jar is then weighed with all the contents and the value is recorded as (m 3). After
taking the weight, the content in the gas jar is emptied and the gas jar is wiped clean to remove
any particle of the soil. Then the water is then placed inside the jar without bubbles and the cover
attached and the weight of the gas jar, water and the cover is taken and recorded as (m4).
The procedure is then repeated with the second specimen. Then the calculations are made
to determine the average specific gravity of the sand, the formula is given in the next session.
Calculations
Calculate the relative density from the equation:
G s=
m2m1
(59)
( m4 m1 )(m 3m2)
where,
m1 = mass of the density bottle (g)
m2 = mass of bottle and dry soil (g)
m3 = mass of bottle, soil and water in (g)
m4 = mass of bottle, when full only of water in (g)
The average of the two results is then calculated.
36
3.2.1.3 Particle Size Determination (PSD)

Two methods of sieving are known. Wet sieving is the definitive method that is
applicable to cohesion-less soils. Drying sieving is suitable only for soils containing insignificant
quantities of silt and clay.
Wet Sieving Method
This method encompasses the quantitative determination of the particle size distribution
in an essentially cohesion-less soil, down to the fine sand size. The combined silt and clay
fraction can be obtained by the difference (ASCE, 2002).
The procedure given involves the preparation of the sample by wet sieving to remove silt
and clay sized particles, which are rejected, followed by dry sieving of the remaining coarser
material.
Apparatus
i.
Test sieves having the following sizes: 4.36mm, 2.36mm,1.70mm, 1.18mm, 600m,
500m, 425m, 212m, 150m, 75m and appropriate receiver.
ii.
Drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105C to 110C.
iii.
A balance readable to 0.1g
iv.
Sieve brushes, and a wire brush.
v.
Mechanical sieve shaker.
37
Sample Preparation
The sample collected is passed through a 4.75mm I.S sieve. The fraction retained on the
4.75mm I.S sieve is discarded, and that passing through the sieve for the fine sieve analysis. The
fine sample is then soaked in a water, to ensure the dispersion of the particles. The sample is
soaked for some hours.
After soaking, the sample is then washed to remove any silt content. The weighing is
done using the 75m sieve and the pan. The washing is done by using water, till the sample is
clean. The cleaned sample is then dried in the drying oven for 24hours and at a temperature of
110C.
Procedure
250g of the sample is washed and dried. The dried sample is removed from the oven and
allowed to cool under atmospheric temperature. After cooling, the sieves are arranged in the
order; 4.36mm, 2.38mm, 1.70mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 500m, 425m, 212m, 150m, 75m and
the receiver. The sample that is washed is then poured on the top sieve, that is the 4.36mm sieve
and then shaken for some minutes.
The mass retained on each sieve is then weighed using the balance. The mass on the pan is then
calculated, together with the washed mass as the mass of fines.
Calculation
After the weight retained is gotten, the weight passing is then calculated. This is calculated using
the equation; weight retained is equal to total weight minus weight passing.
W R=W T W P (60)
38
The percentage passing and the percentage retained are then calculated. The sieve graph is then
plotted of percentage passing versus sieve size. The percentage passing the 75m sieve is taken
as the percentage fines.
3.2.2
Engineering Property Test

Engineering property test are test used to determine the strength of soil, or some other
parameters that will help the engineer to be able to give useful information in regards to the soil.
The basic engineering test for this work is the permeability test as it helps to determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
3.2.2.1 Falling Head Permeability Test
The falling head permeability test is another experimental procedure to determine the
coefficient of permeability of sand. A schematic diagram of a falling head permeameter is shown
in Fig. 7. This consists of a specimen tube essentially the same as that used in the constant head
test. The top of the specimen tube is connected to a burette by plastic tubing. The specimen tube
and the burette are held vertically by clamps from a stand. The bottom of the specimen tube is
connected to a plastic funnel by a plastic tube. The funnel is held vertically by a clamp from
another stand.
39
Figure 7:
Falling head permeability arrangement
Equipment
i.
Falling head permeameter
ii.
Balance sensitive to 0.1 g
iii.
Thermometer
iv.
Stop-watch
v.
Burette
vi.
Tripod stand
vii.
Funnel
viii.
Porous stone
40
Procedure
The permeameter (mould) with base plate and gasket attached is weighed. The inside
diameter (d) of the permeameter is measured also. The area (a) of the standpipe is also measured
and the values are calculated and recorded. Since the burette is graduated in volume, measuring
the distance between graduations will yield as simple in direct computation. A small portion of
the soil sample is taken for water content determination. The air-dried soil sample is placed into
the permeameter and compacted to the desired density. The permeameter with base plate and
gasket attached plus compacted soil is weighed and also the length of the specimen is measured
in centimeters. The dry density and void ratio of the specimen is determined. A piece of porous
disc is placed on the top of the specimen and a spring on the porous disc. The permeameter rim is
carefully cleaned. With its gasket in place, press down the top plate against the spring and attach
it securely to the top of the permeameter cylinder, making an air-tight seal. The spring should be
compressed and should apply a pressure to the compacted soil specimen to keep it in place when
it is saturated with water. Ensure that the outlet pipe is open so that water can back up through
the specimen. This procedure is done so as to saturate the sample with a minimum amount of
entrapped air. When water in the plastic inlet tube on top of the mould reaches equilibrium with
water in the sink (allowing for capillary rise in the tube), the specimen may be assumed to be
saturated. When the water level is stable in the inlet tube of the permeability mould, take a hose
clamp and clamp the exit tube. Remove the permeameter from the sink and attach it to the rubber
tube at the base of the burette, which has been fastened to a ring stand. Fill the burette with water
from a supply, which should be temperature-stabilized (and de-aired if desired). Now de-air the
lines at the top of the specimen by opening the hose clamp from the burette and opening the
petcock on top of the cover plate. Allow water to flow (but keep adding water to the burette so it
41
does not become empty) from the petcock. When no more air comes out, close the pet-cock. Do
not close the inlet tube from the burette. Remember that the exit tube is still clamped shut. The
burette is filled to a convenient height, and measure the hydraulic head across the sample to
obtain h1. The exit tube (and petcock) is opened and simultaneously start timing the test. The
water is allowed to flow through the sample until the burette is almost empty. Simultaneously
record the elapsed time and clamp only the exit tube. Measure the hydraulic head across the
sample at this time to obtain h2. Take the temperature each time. The burette is refilled with water
and the test is repeated three additional times. Take the temperature each time. To check on
whether the sample is saturated, one may collect the water coming out of the exit tube and
compare this volume with that entering the sample.
Calculation
From the above parameters gotten the hydraulic conductivity can be calculated using the
formula;
=
h
2.303 aL
log 1 (61)
At
h2
where;
a = area of cross section of the burette;
A = area of cross section of the permeameter;
L = length of the sample in the permeameter;
h1 = head at the start time;
h2 = head at the end time;
t = time difference when the head falls from h1 to h2; and
= coefficient of hydraulic conductivity in cm/s.
42
3.3
SOFTWARE USED
3.3.1
Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

All the hydraulics properties of the river sand were analyzed using the regression model
of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). It is a comprehensive system for analyzing
data. This can take data from almost any type of file and use them to generate tabulated reports,
charts, plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics and complex statistical analysis
(Reynald, 2006).
3.3.2
Regression Analysis
Regression is a statistical technique to determine the linear relationship between two or
more variables and is primarily used for prediction and causal inference (Cambell & Cambell,
2008). In its simplest (bivariate) form, regression shows the relationship between one
independent variable (X) and a dependent variable (Y), as in the formula below:
Y = 0 + 1 X+ U (62)
The magnitude and direction of that relation are given by the slope parameter (
), and the
status of the dependent variable when the independent variable is absent is given by the intercept
parameter (
). An error term (u) captures the amount of variation not predicted by the slope
and intercept terms. The regression coefficient (R2) shows how well the values fit the data.
Y is an observed random variable;
X is an observed non-random or conditioning variable;
0 is an unknown parameter, known as the constant or intercept term;
1 is an unknown parameter, known as the coefficient or slope parameter; and
u is an unobserved random variable, known as the error or disturbance term.
43
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT RESULT

The moisture content of a soil is assumed to be the amount of water within the pore space
between the soil grains which is removable by oven drying at temperature not exceeding 110 oC.
The moisture content has a profound effect on soil behavior. Table 1 8 shows the results of
eight samples for the moisture content A - H.
The table gives the analysis of the result of natural moisture content for the sample
location.
Table 1:
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location A
Container No
Wet soil and container (g)
109.1
168.3
111.0
Dry soil and container (g)
107.9
166.6
110.2
Mass of container (g)
46.9
120.4
46.6
Mass of dry soil (g)
61
46.2
63.6
Mass of moisture loss (g)
1.2
1.7
0.8
Moisture content (%)
1.97
3.68
1.26
Average moisture content
Table 2:
2.30
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location B
44
Container No
108.2
107.7
116.7
103.0
100.6
110.5
47.5
34.1
44.5
55.5
66.5
66.0
5.2
7.1
6.2
9.37
9.92
9.39
Table 3:
9.56
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location C
Container No
114.1
104.6
111.6
105.0
95.9
103.2
46.9
35.7
44.1
61.7
60.2
59.1
9.1
8.7
8.4
14.75
14.45
14.21

Table 4:
14.47
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location D
Container No
117.7
117.7
108.2
110.5
114.1
105.2
41.5
43.8
43.8
69.0
70.3
61.4
7.2
3.6
3.0
45
10.43
Table 5:
5.12
4.89
6.81
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location E
Container No
119.4
103.2
101.7
111.4
95.6
94.9
47.3
32.8
42.3
64.1
62.8
52.6
8.0
7.6
6.8
12.48
12.10
12.93

Table 6:
12.50
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location F
Container No
94.6
99.7
100.3
87.1
92.3
93.5
34.9
45.2
44.2
52.2
47.1
49.3
7.5
7.4
6.8
14.37
15.71
13.79

14.62
46
Table 7:
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location G
Container No
117.0
107.8
115.7
110.8
100.7
107.6
38.5
43.8
37.6
72.3
56.9
70.0
6.2
7.1
8.1
9.41
12.48
11.57
Table 8:
11.15
Natural Moisture Content of Sample from Location H
Container No
115.8
116.0
118.7
107.2
99.6
110.2
41.9
45.1
43.2
65.3
54.7
67.0
8.6
6.4
8.5
13.17
11.74
12.67

12.53
47
4.2
SPECIFIC GRAVITY RESULT

The true specific gravity of a soil is actually the weighted average of the specific gravities
of all the mineral particles present in the soil. The result shows that the sample is sand due to the
fact that its specific gravity ranges from 2.65 to 2.67 as stated by Krishna (2002) and Table 9
16, shows the result of the soil sample of specific gravity.
The table gives the result of the entire specific gravity test as performed in the laboratory.
Table 9:
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location A

Sample No
Weight of jar + water (full) (m4) g
615.9
612.9
Weight of jar + soil +water (m3) g
647.1
644.2
Weight of jar + soil (m2) g
286.9
286.1
Weight of jar (m1) g
236.9
236.1
Gs
2.65
2.67
Average Gs
2.66
48
Table 10:
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location B

Sample No
637.0
605.5
659.6
636.8
332.5
335.8
296.5
285.7
Gs
2.68
2.66
Average Gs
Table 11:
2.67
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location C

Sample No
593.9
617.9
624.8
649.7
275.0
366.1
225.2
315.3
Gs
2.64
2.66
Average Gs
Table 12:
2.65
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location D

Sample No
49
632.8
621.8
664.7
652.7
390.1
359.0
338.9
309.3
Gs
2.65
2.65
Average Gs
Table 13:
2.65
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location E

Sample No
607.1
618.6
639.8
648.6
348.1
370.5
297.8
319.9
Gs
2.86
2.46
Average Gs
Table 14:
2.66
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location F

Sample No
50
627.4
618.2
659.8
648.9
365.5
380.9
313.4
332.1
Gs
2.65
2.69
Average Gs
Table 15:
2.67
Specific Gravity of Sample from Location G

Sample No
591.5
605.5
624.8
634.8
288.5
373.3
235.2
326.1
Gs
2.66
2.64
Average Gs
Table 16:
2.65
Specific Gravity of Sample from location H

Sample No
51
622.1
623.5
657.3
657.6
388.7
394.6
332.2
340.1
Gs
2.65
2.67
Average Gs
4.3
2.66
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (PSD) RESULT

This was carried out to determine the fineness of the sample i.e. to have an idea of the
quality of fine particle contained in the sample. Determining the mass of soil sample left on each
sieve, the following calculations can be made:
retained on sieve=
mass of soil retained

100( 63)
Total mass
Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve = sum of percentages retained on all coarse sieves.
The results of the particle size analysis done on 250grams on each samples is also used to
determine, if the soil uniformity graded or well graded, (Hazen 1991) proposed the following
equations as;
i. Uniformity coefficient
Cu =
D60
(64)
D10
ii. Coefficient of curvature

52
D230
C c=
( 65)
D10 D60
D10 = effective grain size with 10% finer particles.
D30 = the size of particle at 30% finer on the gradation curve.
D60 = Diameter of the particle at 60% finer on the grain size distribution curve.
Table 17:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location A
Sieve No
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
(mm)
4.76
Retained
0.00
Retained
0.00
Passing
100
2.36
0.00
0.00
100
12
1.70
0.10
0.05
99.95
16
1.18
0.20
0.10
99.85
30
0.600
2.20
1.10
98.75
35
0.500
2.90
1.45
97.30
40
0.425
0.40
0.20
97.10
70
0.212
148.5
74.25
22.85
100
0.150
18.6
9.30
13.55
200
0.075
9.3
4.65
8.90
Pan
17.8
8.90
0.00
53
Table 18:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location B
Sieve
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
% Passing
No
4
(mm)
4.76
Retained
1.46
Retained
0.56
99.44
2.36
3.70
1.48
97.96
12
1.70
6.30
2.52
95.44
16
1.18
23.50
9.40
86.04
30
0.600
102.10
40.84
45.20
35
0.500
16.70
6.68
38.52
40
0.425
11.10
4.44
34.08
70
0.212
60.60
24.24
9.84
100
0.150
14.70
5.88
3.96
200
0.075
8.60
3.44
0.52
Pan
1.30
0.52
0.00
Table 19:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location C
Sieve No
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
% Passing
(mm)
4.76
Retained
1.20
Retained
0.48
99.52
54
2.36
1.60
0.64
98.88
12
1.70
1.20
0.48
98.40
16
1.18
1.20
0.48
97.92
30
0.600
25.70
10.28
87.64
35
0.500
5.20
2.08
85.56
40
0.425
20.30
8.12
77.44
70
0.212
176.00
70.40
7.04
100
0.150
11.00
4.40
2.64
200
0.075
5.60
2.24
0.40
Pan
1.00
0.40
0.00
Table 20:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location D
Sieve No
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
(mm)
4.76
Retained
0.00
Retained
0.00
Passing
100
2.36
0.40
0.16
99.84
12
1.70
0.20
0.08
99.76
16
1.18
0.10
0.04
99.72
30
0.600
0.70
0.28
99.44
35
0.500
0.30
0.12
99.32
40
0.425
1.30
0.52
98.80
70
0.212
237.7
95.08
3.72
55
100
0.150
5.20
2.08
1.64
200
0.075
3.70
1.48
0.16
Pan
0.40
0.16
0.00
Table 21:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location E
Sieve
Diameter
Mass
%Mass
No
4
(mm)
4.76
Retained
1.30
Retained
0.52
Passing
99.48
2.36
3.50
1.40
98.08
12
1.70
2.00
0.80
97.28
16
1.18
1.60
0.64
96.64
30
0.600
106.10
42.44
54.20
35
0.500
4.40
1.76
52.44
40
0.425
2.30
0.92
51.52
70
0.212
105.50
42.20
9.32
100
0.150
14.00
5.60
3.72
200
0.075
8.20
3.28
0.44
Pan
1.10
0.44
0.00
56
Table 22:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location F
Sieve No
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
(mm)
4.76
Retained
2.00
Retained
0.80
Passing
99.20
2.36
3.80
1.52
97.68
12
1.70
2.20
0.88
96.80
16
1.18
2.10
0.84
95.96
30
0.600
7.50
3.00
92.96
35
0.500
10.40
4.16
88.80
40
0.425
12.60
5.04
83.76
70
0.212
165.10
66.44
17.32
100
0.150
27.30
10.92
6.40
200
0.075
14.20
5.68
0.72
Pan
1.80
0.72
0.00
Table 23:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location G
Sieve
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
No
(mm)
Retained
Retained
Passing
57
4.76
0.00
0.00
100
2.36
0.00
0.00
100
12
1.70
0.00
0.00
100
16
1.18
12.00
4.80
95.20
30
0.600
117.00
46.80
48.40
35
0.500
5.90
2.36
46.04
40
0.425
4.90
1.96
44.08
70
0.212
97.00
38.80
5.28
100
0.150
8.20
3.28
2.00
200
0.075
4.30
1.72
0.28
Pan
0.70
0.28
0.00
Table 24:
Particle Size Distribution Result of Sample from Location H
Sieve
Diameter
Mass
% Mass
No
4
(mm)
4.76
Retained
0.70
Retained
0.28
Passing
99.72
2.36
1.40
0.56
99.16
12
1.70
1.60
0.64
98.52
16
1.18
3.90
1.56
96.56
30
0.600
114.40
45.76
51.20
35
0.500
16.80
6.72
44.48
40
0.425
14.30
5.72
38.76
58
70
0.212
85.00
34.00
4.76
100
0.150
8.00
3.20
1.56
200
0.075
3.30
1.32
0.24
Pan
0.60
0.24
0.00
59
Figure 8:
Combined Particle Size Distribution Curve of Sample Location A, B, C & D
60
Figure 9:
Combined Particle Size Distribution Curve of Sample Location E, F, G & H
61
4.4
PERMEABILITY OF SAND
The coefficient of permeability can be computed using Darcys Law. Discharge in unit
time (Q).
h
Q= A = A(66)
l
Therefore,
h
2.3 aL
log 1
At
h2
Permeability steadily decreases with increase in sand content. Due to the values of k
obtained and compared to the classification of soils stated by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) in their
coefficients of permeability (), soil over 10 -1 k is Gravel and the degree is high and k between
the ranges of 10-1 to 10-3 is fine sand, clean sand, sandy gravel and the degree is medium. Hence
the soil material is fine sand. The transport of water through a soil will be faster if the soil has a
higher coefficient of permeability than if it has a lower value (Craig, 1992).
The results were the values of the test obtained from tests performed in the laboratory.
Description
OSUN RIVER SAND
Length of Soil Sample (L)
11.4 cm
Diameter of Soil Sample (D)
10 cm
Area of Soil Sample (A)
78.55 cm2
Area of Standpipe (a)
1.00 cm2
Temperature of the water
27
62
Table 25:
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location A
S/N Head
O
(h)
Head
(h)
Time
(t)
log(h/h
(cm)
16.40
(cm)
2.00
(sec)
10
0.9138
0.03054
30.40
16.40
10
0.2680
0.00896
43.20
30.40
10
0.1526
0.00509
12.00
5.00
10
0.3802
0.01271
Table 26:
cm/sec
1.43
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location B
S/N Head
O
Average
(h)
(cm)
Head
Time
(h)
(t)
(cm)
log(h/
h)
Average
(sec)
(cm/sec
)
50.00
35.80
10
0.1451
0.00485
35.80
13.80
10
0.4140
0.0138
50.00
24.20
10
0.3152
0.0105
24.20
4.80
10
0.7026
0.0235
63
1.32
Table 27:
S/NO
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location C

Head
Head
Time
(h)
(h)
(t)
(cm)
(cm)
log(h/h
Average
(sec)
(cm/sec
)
50.00
25.50
10
0.2890
0.00965
25.70
6.50
10
0.5971
0.01994
50.00
30.00
10
0.2218
0.00741
30.00
12.30
10
0.3872
0.01293
Table 28:
S/NO
1.25
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location D

Head
Head
Time
(h)
(h)
(t)
log(h/h
(cm/sec)
(cm)
50.00
(cm)
31.50
(sec)
10
0.2007
0.00673
31.50
15.50
10
0.3080
0.0103
50.00
24.40
10
0.3116
0.0104
24.40
5.50
10
0.6470
0.0216
64
Average
1.23
Table 29:
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location E
S/N Head
O
(h)
Head
Time
(h)
(t)
log(h/h
Average
(cm)
(cm)
(sec)
(cm/sec
50.00
21.00
10
0.3768
0.01258
21.00
5.20
10
0.6062
0.02024
50.00
23.40
10
0.3298
0.01101
23.40
10
0.3085
0.0103
Table 30:
1.35
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location F
S/ Head
NO
11.50
(h)
(cm)
Head
Time
(h)
(t)
(cm)
log(h/h
Average
(sec)
(cm/sec
)
50.00
39.60
10
0.1014
0.00339
39.60
22.40
10
0.2474
0.00826
22.40
15.60
10
0.1571
0.00525
15.60
1.30
10
1.0792
0.03604
65
1.32
Table 31:
S/NO
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location G

Head
Head
(h)
(h)
Time
(t)
log(h/h
(cm/sec
(cm)
50.00
(cm)
24.80
(sec)
10
0.3045
0.0102
24.80
8.80
10
0.4499
0.0150
50.00
29.90
10
0.2233
0.00746
29.90
12.50
10
0.3788
0.0130
Table 32:
S/NO
Average
1.14
Coefficient of Permeability Result of Sample for Location H

Head
Head
Time
(h)
(h)
(t)
log(h/h)
Average
k
(cm)
(cm)
(sec)
(cm/sec
50.00
31.20
10
0.2048
0.0068
31.20
15.50
10
0.3123
0.0104
50.00
24.00
10
0.3188
0.0106
66
4.5
24.00
6.20
10
0.5878
0.0196
1.19
SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION TEST ON SAMPLES
Table 33:
Standard values of range for specific gravity of soil

Soils
Inorganic soil
Range
2.60 2.80
Lateritic soil
2.75 3.00
Organic soil
< 2.60
Sand particles
2.65 2.67
Inorganic clay
2.70 2.80
Source: ASTM (1999)

Table 34:
Standard values of range for Uniformity coefficient and Coefficient of

Curvature
Cu
>46
Cc
13
Remark
Well graded
<4
<1&>3
Uniformly graded
Cu 1
<1&>3
Poorly graded & Gap graded
Source: Krishna (2002); Murthy (2000)
67
The samples taken from the selected locations were classified using their calculated C u
and Cc values according to the specification given in table 34 and summarized in table 35 as
illustrated below.
Table 35:
Location
s
Summary of the Results for the Classification tests on all Samples Location
Natural
Specific
Moisture Gravity
D10
D30
D60
Uniform
Coefficient
Passing
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
Coefficient
of
(Cu)
Curvature
1.25
(Cc)
0.80
Content
Sieve
2.30
200
8.90
2.66
0.3
0.32
2
B
9.56
2.67
0.52
0.3
0
0.40
0
C
14.47
2.65
0.40
0.3
6.81
2.65
0.16
0.3
0.32
0.32
0
E
12.50
2.66
0.44
0.3
14.62
2.67
0.72
0.2
2.77
0.64
0.4
0.35
1.33
0.85
sand
Uniformly
graded
0.4
sand
Uniformly
1.33
0.85
0.7
graded
2.50
0.54
5
0.32
sand
Uniformly
graded
0
F
0.8
Uniformly
graded
0
D
0.4
Remarks
0.3
8
sand
Uniformly
graded
1.90
1.35
sand
Uniformly
graded
sand
68
11.15
2.65
0.28
0.3
0.38
1
H
12.53
2.66
0.24
0.7
2.48
0.61
Uniformly
0.3
0.40
0.7
graded
2.48
sand
Uniformly
0.67
graded
sand
It can be seen that the uniformity coefficients of the samples got from the locations are
less than 4 and the coefficients of curvature ranges from (Cc < 1 & > 3) hence they are all of
uniformly graded sand from different locations (Krishna, 2002).
4.6
SUMMARY RESULT OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF
SAMPLES
These are the result of the falling head permeability tests of the sand samples, the
Reynolds number, flow-rate, velocity of flow, area, hydraulic gradient and friction factor as
calculated from the formula applied in the determination.
Table 36:
Summary result of the hydraulic properties of all samples location
Properties
Area (A) cm2
D10 (mm)
Velocity of flow
(cm/s)
Flow rates (Q) x
102 cm3/sec
Reynolds number
A
78.55
0.32
B
78.55
0.30
C
78.55
0.30
Locations
D
E
78.55
78.55
0.30
0.30
1.57
2.41
2.18
2.11
2.41
1.60
1.92
2.01
1.23
1.89
1.71
1.66
1.89
1.26
1.51
1.58
1.39
8.53
7.75
7.51
8.58
3.79
7.037
7.39
45.85
7.5
8.26
8.52
7.46
16.90
9.09
8.67
1.09
1.83
1.74
1.72
1.78
1.21
1.68
1.69
1.43
1.32
1.25
1.23
1.35
1.32
1.14
1.19
F
78.55
0.20
G
78.55
0.31
H
78.55
0.31
Friction Factor
Hydraulic
Gradient ()
Hydraulic
conductivity ()
69
cm/sec
Remarks
4.7
High
High
High
High
medium
medium
medium
medium
sand
sand
sand
sand
High
medium
sand
High
High
medium
medium
sand
sand
OBSERVATIONS OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES

It was also observed that the hydraulic conductivities of the samples being in the range of
1.14
to 1.43
cm/sec which implies that all the samples are clean
sand type and the drainage condition of the sand is good, that is, it can allow the easy flow of
fluid through its pores.
4.8
ANALYTICAL MODEL IN POROUS MEDIA

From the result obtained from the above the model for the relationship between the
friction factor and the Reynolds Number as generated from the statistical analysis is seen below.
4.8.1 The Model Summary for the relationship between Friction factor and
Reynolds Number (Re) in Flow through Porous Media
Table 37:
Model summary relationship between Friction factor (ff) and Reynolds

number (Re)
Model Summary
R
R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of
Square
the Estimate
.999
.997
.997
.942
The independent variable is Reynolds number (Re)
ANOVA
70
High
medium
sand
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
1782.386
5.321
1787.707
df
Mean Square
1
6
7
Sig.
1782.386 2009.799
.887
.000
The independent variable is Re.

Coefficients
ln(Re)
Unstandardized
Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
Beta
-1.314
.029
-.999
-44.831
Sig.
.000
The dependent variable is ln(ff).

The equation relating the Reynolds number and the friction factor is given by
f f =1.314 InRe
71
Figure 10:
Regression curve between Friction factor (f f) and Reynolds number (Re) in

porous media
72
4.8.2 The Model Summary for the relationship between Reynolds Number (Re)
and
Flow rate (Q) in Flow through Porous Media
Table 38: Model summary relationship between Reynolds number (Re) and flow rate (Q)
Model Summary
R Square Adjusted R
.974
Square
.927
.948
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.000
The independent variable is flow-rate (Q).

ANOVA
Sum of
Df
Mean Square
F
Regression
Residual
Total
Squares
.000
.000
.000
2
5
7
.000
.000
Sig.
45.485
.001
The independent variable is flow rates (Q).
Coefficients
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized
B
59.755
Std. Error
15.696
73
Coefficients
Beta
5.891
Sig.
3.807
.013
Q ** 2
16265934.00 5048762.713
9
(Constant) -4.642E-005
-4.986
.000
-3.222
.023
-3.876
.012
The equation for the relationship between the Reynolds number and the Flow rate is given by
=59.755Q1.627 e7 Q24.642 e5
74
Figure 11:
Regression curve between flow rate (Q) and Reynolds number (Re) in porous
media.
75
4.8.3 The Model Summary for the relationship between Hydraulic gradient () and
Velocity of flow (v) in Flow through Porous Media
Table 39:
Model summary relationship between Hydraulic gradient () and Velocity of

flow (v)
Model Summary
R
.990
R Square
.980
Adjusted R Std. Error of

Square
the Estimate
.972
.046
The independent variable is v.

ANOVA
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
.526
.011
.537
Df
Mean Square
2
5
7
.263
.002
Sig.
123.333
.000
The independent variable is v.

Coefficients
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
Beta
V
55919.058
8218.440
6.508
20630835.37
v ** 2
120821359.5
-5.601
7
24
(Constant)
-4.666
.804
Sig.
6.804
.001
-5.856
.002
-5.807
.002
The equation relating hydraulic gradient and the velocity of flow is given by
76
i=55.919 e v120.821 e v 4.666
Figure 12:
Regression curve between Hydraulic gradient () and Velocity of flow (v) in

porous media.
77
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
CONCLUSION
The study was conducted to determine the flow of liquid but in this case, water through
porous media. The porous media used is River sand from Osun River. Based on the laboratory
tests conducted and the model equation derived the following conclusions were drawn:
i. From the classification tests on the samples collected from the river the natural moisture
content ranges from 2.30% to 14.62%, the specific gravity of the sand are of the range
2.65 to 2.67, the uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature of the sand samples
are of the range 1.25 to 2.77 and 0.54 to 1.35 respectively. Since the uniformity
coefficients of the samples is less than (3) and coefficients of curvature is less than one
(1) and not greater than three (3), then the sand from the Osun River is of uniformly sized
particles.
ii. The hydraulic properties of the test show that the range of the hydraulic conductivity of
the sand is from 1.14
to 1.43
cm/s. From these results, it is
seen that the sand samples according to hydraulic classification standards have a degree
of permeability that is of high medium class. That is, there is a larger space between the
soil particles.
iii. The Reynolds numbers are less than one which shows that the flow through the sand
particles is laminar.
iv. The model used to generate the equations relating the Friction factor and Reynolds
number, Flow rate with Reynolds number and Hydraulic gradient with the Velocity of
78
flow, is based on the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) using the regression
model module to determine the curve estimation. The equations generated are:
f f =1.314 InRe
7
=59.755Q1.627 e Q 4.642 e
i=55.919 e3 v120.821 e6 v 24.666

5.2
CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
This research have provided us with the knowledge that, the flow of liquid (water) can be
determined so as to be able to:

i. develop models for design of hydraulic structures,
ii. know the rate of seepage of water,
iii. know the rate of extraction and abstraction of fluids under the earth, and
iv. avoid failure of hydraulics structures.
5.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the results of this study, it is seen that the flow properties of porous media is key to
the design of hydraulic structures and hence it is recommended that proper attention should be
given to the friction factor, velocity of flow, flow rate and the Reynolds number as these are the
main products that result in flooding of embankment thereby resulting in environmental hazard
and seepage of water through dams.
79
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84
APPENDICES
These plates describe all the sample location and laboratory work as performed for each samples.
Plate 1: Sample location for A
Plate 2: Sample location for B
Plate 3: Sample location for C
Plate 1: Sample location for D
85
Plate 5: Sample location for E
Plate 6: Sample location for F
Plate 7: Sample location for G
Plate 8: Sample location for H
86
Plate 9: Permeability test in the laboratory.
Plate 10: Specific gravity test in the laboratory
87
Table 11: Placement of sample A-H
Table 12: Sample inside sack bag in the lab.before test
88
Plate 13: Sieve analysis test in the laboratory
89

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TITLE PAGE

ANALYSIS OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA: A CASE STUDY OF OSUN RIVER

AMOO, AFEEZ OLADEJI

AMOO, AFEEZ OLADEJI

Dr. C.S. Okoli

The hydraulic conductivity of the river sand sample ranges from

1.14 1.43 102 cm/ s for

is the best location and location

is the worst location. It is recommended that proper attention should be

AIM AND OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................4

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA........................................................................4

OVERVIEW OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA................................................8

Darcy Law and Laminar Flow...................................................................................9

Validity of Darcys Law...........................................................................................11

Comparison between Darcys Law and Stokes Law..............................................13

Permeability and Porosity........................................................................................17

Steady Flow Experiment..........................................................................................19

Non Stationary Laminar Flow.................................................................................23

Types of Porous Media............................................................................................27

PROPERTIES OF POROUS MEDIA.....................................................................28

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS.......................................................31

Engineering Property Test.......................................................................................38

Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS)................................................42

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.........................................................................................43

NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT RESULT.............................................................43

SPECIFIC GRAVITY RESULT.....................................................................................47

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (PSD) RESULT.....................................................52

SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION TEST ON SAMPLES................................68

SUMMARY RESULT OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF SAMPLES............70

OBSERVATIONS OF THE HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES............................................71

ANALYTICAL MODEL IN POROUS MEDIA............................................................71

Number (Re) in Flow through Porous Media.........................................................................71

Flow rate (Q) in Flow through Porous Media........................................................................74

Velocity of flow (v) in Flow through Porous Media..............................................................77

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................79

Natural moisture content result of sample from location A 43

Natural moisture content result of sample from location B 44

Natural moisture content result of sample from location C 44

Natural moisture content result of sample from location D. 45

Natural moisture content result of sample from location E 45

Natural moisture content result of sample from location F. 46

Natural moisture content result of sample from location G 46

Natural moisture content result of sample from location H 47

Specific gravity result of sample from location A.. 48

Specific gravity result of sample from location B.. 48

Specific gravity result of sample from location C.

Specific gravity result of sample from location D.

Specific gravity result of sample from location E.. 50

Specific gravity result of sample from location F..

Specific gravity result of sample from location G.

Specific gravity result of sample from location H.

Particle size distribution result of sample from location A

Particle size distribution result of sample from location B

Particle size distribution result of sample from location C

Particle size distribution result of sample from location D

Particle size distribution result of sample from location E. 57

Particle size distribution result of sample from location F.. 58

Particle size distribution result of sample from location G. 59

Particle size distribution result of sample from location H. 60

Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location A. 64

Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location B. 64

Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location C. 65

Coefficient of permeability result of sample from location D. 65