2/28/2014

Groundwater
Groundwater flows slowly through the voids

between grains or the cracks in solid rock.

Hidrogeologi dan Hidrotermal

Pertemuan ke-2

Hukum Darcy
Nazli Ismail, Ph.D.
Program Studi S1 Teknik Pertambangan FT Unsyiah

Basic principles of GW Flow

Porosity and effective porosity
Total porosity: the part of rock that's void space

nT = Vv/VT = (VT Vs)/VT

Vv : void volume,
VT : total volume
Vs: solid volume
void ratio
e = Vv/Vs
Primary porosity: interstitial porosity (original in the
rock)
Secondary porosity: fracture or solution porosity

Primary porosity range from 26% to 47% (using

different arrangements and packing of ideal spheres).
3

2/28/2014

Rongga dalam berbagai batuan

Porosity of Sediments and Rocks

Depending on grain size, particle shape and

arrangement, diagenetic features, actual values of

porosity can range from 0 or ~ 0 to more than 60%.
In general, for sedimentary rocks, the smaller the
particle size, the higher the porosity.
Total porosity amount of pore space (does not
require pore connection)
Effective porosity: percentage of interconnected
pore space available for groundwater flow.
Effective porosity can be one order of magnitude
smaller than total porosity (difference greatest in
fractured rocks).

Measurement of porosity
In the lab, porosity is measured by taking a

sample of known volume (V),

sample is dried in an oven at 105oC until it

reaches a constant weight (expelling moisture).

Dried sample is then submerged in a known

volume of water and allowed to remain in a

sealed chamber until saturated
Volume of voids is equal to original water volume
minus volume in the chamber after saturated
sample is removed. Result is effective porosity.

2/28/2014

Measurement of porosity
Total porosity is found from:

n 100[1 ( b /

Examples

s ]

n = 47.65 %

bulk density is mass of sample after dried

divided by original sample volume, particle

density is oven-dried mass divided by
volume of solid determined from waterdisplacement test.
In most rocks and soils, particle density is
about 2.65g/cc (2650kg/m^3).

n = 25.95%

(a) Cubic packing of spheres

(b) Rhombohedral packing
9

10

Aliran Air Tanah

Darcys Law

Much of our knowledge depends on field and

Henri Darcy established empirically that the energy

laboratory observations. Here, for example, is an

experiment to measure head loss in an aquifer.

lost h in water flowing through a permeable

formation is proportional to the length of the sediment
column L.
The constant of proportionality K is called the
hydraulic conductivity . The Darcy Velocity VD:
VD = K (h/L)
and since Q = VD A ( where A = total area)
Q = KA (dh/dL)

2/28/2014

Darcys Experiment 1. Velocities small, V ~ 0,

Darcys Data (One set of 10 experiments)

so:
L
diam.
n
A

Piezometers before and

after sand. Pipe is full, so
flow rate is constant

2. Head difference doesnt change with inclination of the

sand filter
3. Again, Darcy related reduced flow rate to head loss and
length of column through a constant of proportionality K, 13
V = Q/A = -K dh / dL

Plotted it. Note the strong coefficient of determination R 2 .

Experiment
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0.58 m
0.35 m
0.38
0.096211 m2

Duration
(min)
25
20
15
18
17
17
11
15
13
10

Q
L/min
3.6
7.65
12
14.28
15.2
21.8
23.41
24.5
27.8
29.4

dp
(m)
1.11
2.36
4
4.9
5.02
7.63
8.13
8.58
9.86
10.89

Ratio
V/dp
3.25
3.24
3
2.91
3.03
2.86
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.7

Calc
K
(m/min)
0.019552
0.019541
0.018085
0.017568
0.018253
0.017224
0.017359
0.017214
0.016997
0.016275

K
cm/s
3.26E-02
3.26E-02
3.01E-02
2.93E-02
3.04E-02
2.87E-02
2.89E-02
2.87E-02
2.83E-02
2.71E-0214

Darcys allows an estimate of:

The velocity or flow rate moving within the aquifer
The average time of travel from the head of the

aquifer to a point located downstream

Very important for prediction of contaminant plume

arrival

Confined Aquifer
15

2/28/2014

Darcy & Seepage Velocity

Darcy & Seepage Velocities

Darcy velocity VD is a fictitious velocity since it

From the Continuity Eqn. Q = constant

Pipe running full means Inputs = Outputs

assumes that flow occurs across the entire

cross-section of the sediment sample.
Flow actually takes place only through
interconnected pore channels (voids), at the
seepage velocity VS.
Av voids

Q = A VD = AV Vs

A = total area

Where:
Q = flow rate
A = total cross-sectional area of material
AV = area of voids
Vs = seepage velocity
VD = Darcy velocity

Since A > AV , and Q = constant, Vs > VD

Pinch hose, reduce area, water goes faster

Darcy & Seepage Velocity:

Porosity
Q = A VD = AV Vs ,therefore VS = VD ( A/AV)
Multiplying both sides by the length of the
medium (L) divided by itself, L / L = 1
VS = VD ( AL / AVL ) = VD ( VolT / VolV ) we get
volumes

Where:

VolT = total volume

VolV = void volume

By definition, Volv / VolT = n, the sediment

porosity
So the actual velocity:

Turbulence and Reynolds Number

The path a water molecule takes is called a

streamline.
In laminar flow, streamlines do not cross,

and the viscous forces due to hydrogen

bonds are important.
In turbulent flow acceleration and large
scale motion away from a smooth path is
important

(this is the familiar inertial force F = ma) and

streamlines cross.

VS = VD / n

2/28/2014

Streamline. laminar flow,

turbulent flow

Turbulence and Reynolds Number

We could take the ratio of inertial to viscous

forces.
When this number is large, inertial forces are

more important, and flows are turbulent.

This ratio is known as the Reynolds number Re:

Viscosity

Reynolds: Inertial/Viscous forces

Viscosity is a fluids resistance to flow.

Dynamic viscosity m, units Pas = Ns/m2, or

kg/(ms) is determined experimentally.

If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pas is placed

between two plates, and one plate is pushed
sideways with a shear stress of one Pascal, it
moves a distance equal to the thickness of the
layer between the plates in one second.

Kinematic viscosity n, is the dynamic

viscosity divided by the density.

The SI unit of is m2/s.

Recall the ratio of Kinetic/Potential Energy (KE/PE) is the Froude

Number (Fr) Fr = V / sqrt( g L)

2/28/2014

Limitations of Darcys Equation

1. For Reynolds Number, Re, > 10 or where the flow
is turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
wells.

Example 1
Q = KA (dh/dL)
The hydraulic conductivity
K is a velocity, length / time
and n = Vol voids/ Vol total

A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.

K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and porosity n is 0.2.
The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55

m and 50 m respectively, from a common datum.

The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and the

average width of the aquifer is 5 km = 5000m.

Darcys Law works
water
for2.
1.0Where
< Re < 10

flows through extremely fine-grained

Q = KA (dh/dL)
q = Ky (dh/dL)
materials (colloidal clay)

A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the piezometric head of

groundwater in aquifers.
Piezometric head is measured as a water surface elevation, expressed in units of length.

Q = KA (dh/dL)

Compute:
(a) the rate of flow through the aquifer
(b) the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km downstream

Q = KA (dh/dL)

Solution

Cross-Sectional area= 30(5000) = 1.5 x 10 m2

Hydraulic gradient dh/dL= (55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
Find Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day

Q = (50 m/day) (1.5 x 105 m2) ( 5 x 10-3)

Q = 37,500 m3/day

Darcy Velocity: V = Q/A

5

= (37,500m3/day) / (1.5 x 10 m2)

= 0.25m/day

2/28/2014

Example 2
A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft

apart.
The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft . The

Seepage Velocity:
Vs = VD/n = (0.25) / (0.2) = 1.25 m/day (about

4.1 ft/day)

channel is at an elevation of 110ft.

A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with hydraulic

conductivity K of 0.25 ft/hr joins them.

Time to travel 4 km downstream:

T = (4000m) / (1.25m/day) =3200 days or

8.77 years
This example shows that water moves very
slowly underground.

Determine the flow rate Q of seepage from the river to the

channel.

Confining Layer
Aquifer

30 ft

Lesson: Groundwater moves very slowly

Example 2: Confined Aquifer

Consider 1-ft (i.e. unit) lengths of the river and

small channel.

Q = KA [(h1 h2) / L]

Where:

A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2
K = (0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day
Therefore,
Q = [6ft/day (30ft2) (120 110ft)] / 2000ft
Q = 0.9 ft3/day for each 1-foot length