Geological History Study Guide (Mid-term)

Lesson #1
Objectives
Historical Geology - Principals and techniques of geology to reconstruct and
understand the geological history of Earth.
Principal of Superposition of Strata - An Un - Deformed Stratigraphic Sequence, the
Oldest Strata will be at the bottom.
Principal of Original Horizontality - Layers of sediment are originally deposited under
the action of gravity.
Principal of Lateral Continuity - Layers of sediment extend laterally in all directions.
Rocks are always similar. Separated by a valley or other erosional feature.
Uniformitarianism - Assumption that the same laws and processes that operate in the
universe apply everywhere in the universe. Idea that earth has changed very little since
the earth has changed very little from the beginning to the present time.
Principal of Faunal (Biological Succession) Life forms of each age in the Earths
long history were unique for particular periods, that the fossil remains of life permit
geologists to recognize deposits around the world.
Principal of Cross Cutting Relationships A rock that penetrates another body of
rock must be younger than the rock mass penetrated.
Nicolaus Steno Principal of Superposition - Any sequence of undisturbed strata,
oldest layer is at the bottom.

James Hutton Uniformitarianism Physical and Chemical laws that govern nature
are uniform.
William Smith Principal of Biological Succession
Georges Cuvier Charles Lyell Principals of geology, Principal of crosscutting relationships.
Charles Darwin Natural Selection. On species.
Standard Geological Timescale

Relative Dating - Determining the relative order of past events without determining
absolute age.
Absolute Dating - Process where you determine the age on a specified time scale in
geology. (Chronometric dating)
Role of Radioactivity

Questions;
1, 2, 3, 5, 8 Pages 31
1. Describe the general steps used by geologists and
other scientists in their attempt to solve particular
problems or explain natural phenomena. `
A.
B.
C.
D.

Question
Hypothesis
Test Hypothesis
Accept/Reject/Modify Hypothesis

2. Discuss the principals that Steno, Lyell, and Smith

formulated for the development of the geologic time
scale.
Steno Superposition, original horizontality, and original lateral
continuity.
Lyell Principal of cross cutting relationships. Inclusions Fragments
within larger rock masses are older than the rock masses in which they
are enclosed.
Smith Principal of biological succession.
3. Explain the difference between a geochronologic term
and a chronostratigraphic term.
Geochronologic term Unit of time
Chronostratigraphic term Body of rock deposited (Formed during a
particular time interval).

Geochronologic units bear the same names as the Chronostratigraphic

units to which they correspond.
5.What is meant by uniformitarianism? Cite an example of a
process occurring on the Earth today that did not occur in
the geologic past.
Uniformitarianism Same geologic processes that operate in the
universe have always operated in the universe
Which geologic process is occurring on the Earth today & did not occur
in the past?
8. How do isotopes of a given element differ from one another
in regard to number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus?
Isotopes are two or more varieties of the same element that have the
same atomoic number and chemical properties but differ in mass
numbers because they have a varying number of neutrons in the
nucleus.

Lesson #2
1.

Explain the difference between a rock and a mineral.

Mineral Naturally occurring, inorganic substance. Definite chemical structure.
Contain multiple types of rocks.
Rock naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids. No definite
chemical composition.
2. Understand the nature and importance of silicate minerals (the most
abundant of the common rock-forming minerals).
90 Percent of the Earths Crust is composed of Silicates.

2.

Visualize the important distinctions between six common silicate

minerals: quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, augite, and olivine.

Quartz is a mineral that is most familiar and important of all the silicate
minerals. It is common in many different families of rocks.
Feldspar
-- 60% of the total weight of the Earth's crust.
-- They are both a 6-6.5 hardness and they cleave well in both directions.
-- Pink or white
-- White or gray

Two families:
-

Orthoclase (potassium group)

Plagiocase Group Wide Range in Composition,

Feldspars are nearly as hard as quartz and range in color from white to pink or
bluish gray. They have good cleavage in two directions & the resulting flat, often
rectangular surfaces.
Mica Family of silicate materials easily recognized by its perfect cleavage along
one directional plane.
Two chief varieties are the colorless or pale colored muscovite, and the dark
colored Biotite mica. (magnesium + iron).
Hornblende Vitreous, black or very dark green material. Crystals tend to be
long and narrow.
Augite Dark colored. Crystals are stumpy in shape, with good cleavages
developed along two planes that are nearly at right angles.
Olivine Glassy looking iron/Magnesium silicate w/ and olive green color.
3.

Describe four nonsilicate minerals that are also common in the

earths crust: calcite, dolomite, aragonite, and halite.

Calcite Main constituent of limestone and marble. Secreted as skeletal material

by certain invertebrate animals, precipitated directly from sea water, or formed as
dripstone in caverns. Rhombohedrum-shaped cleaved fragments.
Dolomite Carbonate Mineral CaMg(CO3)2 rock largely composed of that
mineral.
Aragonite Carbonate mineral that occurs in a different crystal form and more
rarely than calcite or dolomite. Inner Mother of pearl layer of clam shells.
Halite Salty taste and fact that it crystallizes and cleaves to form cubes.
4.

Describe the different origins of igneous, metamorphic, and

sedimentary rocks in the context of the rock cycle.
Igneous Come from cooling masses of molten material that come from deep in
the Earths interior.
Metamorphic Sedimentary Rocks composed of consolidated sediment particles that are the
product of weathering and erosion of any previously existing rock or soil. The
components of sediment may range from large boulders to the molecules
dissolved in water.

5.

Understand how igneous rocks are classified .

Intrusive//Plutonic Igneous rocks that are formed from magma that had
penetrated into other Rocks and solidified before reaching the surface.
Extrusive/Volcanic Form from melts that have reached the Earths surface.
Finer texture in which crystals are too small to be seen with the unaided eye.

6.

Understand the essential difference between the two major families

of sedimentary rocks: clastic and carbonate.

Clastic Fragments of pre existing materials that compose clastic sedimentary

rocks range in size from huge boulders to microscopic particles. Particle size is
particularly useful in classifying these rocks, which include conglomerates,
sandstones, siltstones, and shales.
Carbonate Minerals that compose earth carbonate rocks including calcite,
aragonite, & dolomite.

7.

Understand how metamorphic rocks are classified.

Foliated / Non Foliated.
Foliated -- Consisting of Thin Sheets

1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 9
1. What is a mineral? What characteristics of a true mineral
such as quartz or feldspar would not be present in a piece
of glass?
Minerals are naturally occurring solid, inorganic substances that
have a definite chemical composition or range of compositions as
well as distinctive properties that reflect the composition and
regular internal atomic structure.
2. What are the eight most abundant elements found in
rocks and minerals?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminum
Iron
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium

3. Why are silicate minerals important in geology? Which

silicates might one expect to find in granite? Which
silicates occur in sedimentary rocks?
Make up 90% of the Earths crust. (Rock forming minerals).
Granite is comprised of largely potassium feldspar, quartz, sodium
plagioclase, hornblende, and mica.
In sedimentary rocks there are quartz, mica, and clay. .
4. Which igneous rock best approximates the composition of
the continental crust? The oceanic crust?
Granite Best Composition of the Continental Crust
Igneous Rock Best Composition of the Oceanic Crust.
7. List the classic sedimentary rocks in order of increasingly
finer grain size.
Conglomerate
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Claystone.
8. List the foliated metamorphic rocks in order of
increasingly coarser foliation.
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
Lesson #3
1.

Explain the difference between the three structural (tectonic)

elements of the North American continent (shield, platform, and orogenic
belt).
Shield Large areas of exposed ancient crystal rock

Platform Surrounding regions where ancient rocks are covered by flatlying or gently warped layers of sedimentary rocks.
Orogenic Belt Elongated Regions that border the Craton and have been
deformed by compressional forces since Precambrian time.
2.

Discuss the three major depositional environments that exist on the

earth now and that existed in the geological past.
Marine Environment \
Shallow Marine
Deep Marine
Continental Slope Environments.
Transitional environment Transitional environment between a marine and
non-marine environment. This is where deltas and familiar shoreline
accumulations of sand or gravel are located.
Deltas are present here Accumulations of sediment formed by the entrance of a
stream into quiet water such as the ocean or a lake.
Deltaic sediments are rich in organic debris and include many alternating and
intersecting bodies of permeable sands and impermeable clays.
Includes barriers, lagoons that lie between the barrier islands and mainland (tidal
flats).
Continental environment Deposition includes river floodplains, alluvial fans,
lakes, glaciers, and Eolian (wind) environments.
Eolian Environments Area where wind is an important agent of sediment
transport.

3.

Outline the significance of color, texture, and sedimentary structures

in determining the environment of deposition for any given sedimentary
rock.
Color

Black Usually results from the presence of compounds containing organic

carbon. May contain large amounts of H2S.
Red As a result of iron oxide content. Occurs in oxygen deficient
environments. Unstable and may oxidize to form ferric iron oxide.
Red Beds Strata that is colored Red, Brown, or Purple by ferric iron are
designated red beds. Associated rocks and sedimentary structures.
May be a product of source materials, may have developed after burial, or
may be the result of subsurface alteration, or Sub Aerial oxidation.
Texture
Matrix bonding material that consists of Finer Clastic particles that were
deposited at the same time as the larger grains that fill the crevices between
them.
Cement Chemical precipitate that crystalizes in the voids between grains,
following deposition. Fine carbonate muds are not likely to settle to the bottom of
turbulent water.
Stronger current of water (or wind) is required to move a large particle than to
move a small one. Therefore. Stronger wind == more particles. Wind sweeps
finer particles into the higher regions of the atmosphere.
Shape (Rounding and Sphericity). A particle becomes rounded by having sharp
coners and edges removed by impact with other particles. The roundness of a
particle can be used to infer the history of abrasion. It is a reflection of the
distance the particle has traveled, the transporting medium, and the rigor
of transport.

Arrangement
The arrangement can help to determine if the sediment had been winnowed and
sorted by currents or had been dumped rapidly. Sand grains deposited in water
currents acquire a preferred direction that align according to the direction of flow.

Direction of movement in glaciers can provide clues to the subsurface

location and trend of petroleum bearing sandstone strata.
Structures
Larger features of sediments that are formed during or shortly after deposition
and before Lithification.
Mud Cracks Indicate drying after deposition. Conditions are common on valley
flats and in Tidal Zones.
Cross-Bedding is an arrangement of beds of lamination in which one set of
layers is inclined relative to the others. Tells a story of a depositional environment
dominated by currents (Wind or Water) Direction of the inclination of the sloping
beds is useful to tell the direction of the current.
Graded Bedding Repeated beds, each of which has the coarsest grains at the
base and successfully finer grains nearer the top. Appears to be a big
characteristic of turbidity currents (often triggered by submarine earthquakes and
landslides that occur along steeply sloping regions of the seafloor. Turbidity
currents frequently characterize unstable, tectonically active environments.
Ripple Marks Formed by air or water currents.

4.

Indicate the major differences between clastic sedimentary rocks

(sandstone, shale, conglomerate) and carbonate sedimentary rocks
(limestone).
The two main families of sedimentary rocks are clastic and carbonate.
Both types are important and abundant. They form, however, by different
means. Clastic rocks (sandstones, siltstones, shales, and conglomerates)
form when weathered material (quartz grains, felspar grains, mica flakes,

rock fragments, and so forth) is brought from a sediment source area to a

basin of deposition by streams, glaciers, or wind. Texture and sedimentary
structures indicate conditions within the basin of deposition, while the
clastic rock's composition reflects the nature of the sediment source area,
which may be located hundreds of miles from the final resting place of the
sediment. Consider that the Mississippi River delta receives sediment from
areas as far away as the Rocky Mountains. While in transit, these
sedimentary particles are rounded, sorted, and chemically altered. //
Clastic rocks are classified by texture and composition. Classification
begins with assessing particle size. If grains comprising a rock are larger
than 2 millimeters in diameter, the rock is diagnosed as a conglomerate. If
sedimentary particles fall between 1/16 and 2 millimeters, the rock is
called a sandstone. Siltstone and shale are comprised of even smaller
grains. Sandstones have been further subdivided based on the mineralogy
of the constituent sedimentary grains. Sandstones dominated by quartz
grains are simply called quartz sandstones. These sandstones are
compositionally mature in the sense that they lack unstable mineral grains
(mica, feldspar, and so forth) and are relatively well sorted. Since only
durable quartz is present, these rocks suggest deposition only after a long
period of sediment alteration and transport. Pinkish or reddish sandstones
containing abundant feldspar (>25 percent) reflect deposition in close
proximity to a granitic (feldspar rich) source region. Such sandstones are
called arkoses. A third type of sandstone, known asgraywacke, is a poorly
sorted sandstone, containing up to 30 percent clay material. Quartz is
typically present, but so is a host of unstable silicate minerals such as
mica, chlorite, feldspar, and volcanic rock fragments. // By contrast,
limestone (the most important carbonate rock) is comprised of biologically
produced carbonate grains (mainly calcite and aragonite) in the form of
shells and carbonate muds that accumulate in clear, warm, shallow
seawater (and to a much lesser degree in lakes). Unlike the grains in a
sandstone, those comprising carbonate rocks are produced in the basin of
deposition in close proximity to their final resting place by organic activity.
Little if any transportation, with its concomitant sorting and rounding,
takes place. Because the grains are both formed and buried in the same
area, they are sensitive indicators of past environments.
5.

Understand the concept of lithostratigraphy (subdivision of the rock

record into formations, members, and so on).
Lithostratigraphic Units Bodies of rock identified by their distinctive
lithologic and structural features w/ no regard to time boundaries.
Mappable units and are distinctly different from the time-rock or
Chronostratigraphic Units defined in the previous chapter.

6.

Explain the concept of sedimentary facies.

Facies Refers to the characteristic aspects of a rock from which its environment
of deposition can be inferred.
7.

Summarize the origin and significance of sea-level changes in the

sedimentary rock archive.
Figure 3-42 (page 87 of your textbook) shows the pattern of sea-level oscillation
over the last 600 million years of Earth's history. Note that the red line
represents modern sea level. The blue line represents the position of sea level at
any given point of time during the last 600 million years (Cambrian to Recent).
When the blue sea-level curve is left of the red line, it indicates a time when sea
level was higher than its present level. The blue sea-level curve is right of the red
line when sea level is lower than at present. Four important observations emerge
from this diagram: (see next cards.)

8.

Clarify the differences between a nonconformity, angular

unconformity, and disconformity.
Unconformity break in stratigraphic continuity.
Nonconformity Surfaces where stratified rocks rest on older intrusive igneous
or metamorphic rocks.
Angular Unconformity Break in stratigraphic continuity. One of the layers
is angled towards the first one.
Disconformity Parallel Strata separated by an erosional surface.
Go back and familiarize yourself with the terms in italics. Answer review
questions 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7.
1. What features in a sedimentary rock might indicate it was deposited in
each of the following environments of deposition?
a. Shallow Marine Environment Tends to be coarser than deeper rock,
also tends to be bigger (small rocks are carried off to sea)
b. Deep Marine, Continental Rise Environment Very Fine Clay, Volcanic
Ash, and the calcareous or siliceous remains of microscopic organisms
settle to the ocean floor. Sporadic occurrences of coarser sediments.

c. Transitional, Deltaic Environment Rich in organic debris, include many

alternating and intersecting bodies of permeable sands and impermeable
clays.

d. Continental, desert environment Silt and Clay. Unsorted mixtures of

boulders, gravel, sand, and clay
2. Why are sandstones and siltstones of desert environments rarely black
or gray in color?
The black and grey color results from the presence of compounds containing
organic carbon and iron. The conditions that make the black or gray colors
possible are rare (organisms that are breaking down).
3. How does a matrix in a rock differ from cement? What are the most
common kinds of cements?
A matrix fills the crevices between the larger pieces of rock. Finer particles
were deposited at the same time during deposition.
Cement crystallizes the voids between grains following deposition. Silica and
Calcium Carbonate are natural cements.
5. What differences in texture and composition serve to distinguish
between mature and immature sandstone?
The higher the percentage of quartz, greater the maturity.
Mature Sandstone More rounding and sorting than the immature sandstone.
Immature Sandstone A sandstone rich, less-durable and angular components
that underwent relatively little transport and other forms of geologic duress.

6. In a columnar section of sedimentary rocks, a limestone is overlain

by shale, which in turn is overlain by sandstone. What might this
coarsening upward sequence indicate with regard to the advance or
retreat of the shoreline?
The limestone represents deposition furthest from shore, the shale
represents deposition closer to shore, and the sandstone represents
deposition at the shoreline. The vertical succession reflects an upward
transition from offshore Limestone to Nearshore sandstone; thus, the
water was becoming increasingly shallow as the rock column was
deposited. This would reflect the retreat of the shoreline towards the ocean
(regression).

7. What conditions in the Bahama Banks carbonate platform result in

the high production of calcium carbonate sediment?
The main condition required for the development of a Bahama-like carbonate
platform is clear, warm, shallow seawater. Carbonate production is so prolific
in the Bahamas because there are no rivers dumping clay and sand into the
region. As a result, the waters are quite clear. The top of the carbonate
platform is covered with nutrient-rich water that is no deeper that thirty or
forty feet, well within the photic zone. Since it is located at low latitudes,
surface water is warm. The warm, clear water promotes production of marine
plants and algae, which in turn support a prolific community of carbonatesecreting invertebrates that, upon death, donate their shells to the growing
layer of seafloor sediment.

Lesson #4
1.

Define the term fossil and understand the following types of fossil
preservation: recrystallization, replacement, carbonization, and
permineralization.
Recrystallization Less stable hard part Mineralogies are transformed, through
void time, by temperature and pressure to more stable minerals. The

replacement however is not destructive. Much of the original material still

remains.
Replacement Exchange of the original substance with a mineral matter of a
different composition. Old material is replaced with new material of equal volume.
Carbonization Occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon.
Premineralization The addition of a chemically precipitated substance into pore
spaces.

2.

Discuss the completeness of the fossil record.

The fossil record of life is incomplete. Only a limited number of plants and
animals have been preserved. Fossil record is extremely comprehensive
considering the many factors that can destroy fossils.
More complete for land life lacking bone or shell.

3.

Indicate the role of fossils in establishing the age equivalence of

sedimentary strata.
Because of the change in life through time, superposition, and the observation
that once species have become extinct they do not reappear in later ages, fossils
can be used to recognize the approximate age of a unit and its place in the
stratigraphic column.
The interval between the first and last appearance of a species constitutes the
geologic range.

4.

Explain how fossils are used to reconstruct ancient ecosystems,

climates, and geographies

The chance inability to find key fossils might lead to erroneous interpretations.
Two or three million years from now, geologists might have difficulty in firmly
establishing on fossil evidence that the North American opossum, the Australian
wallaby, and the African aardvark lived during the same episode of geologic time.
However, if they found fossils of Homo Sapiens with each of these animals, it
would indicate their contemporaneity.
Homo Sapiens can be considered the cosmopolitan species, for it is not
restricted to any single geographic location.
The aardvark and wallaby are said to be endemic species in that they are
confined to a particular area.

Answer review questions 1, 2, 3, 4, and 11 on page 146 of the textbook,

1. What factors determine whether or not a particular fossil will be valuable
as an indicator of the age and correlation of a stratum?
Cosmopolitan species have been especially useful in establishing the
contemporaneity of strata, whereas endemic species are generally good
indicators of the environment in which strata were deposited.
2. Fossil A occurs in rocks of Cambrian and Ordovician age. Fossil B
occurs in rocks that range in age from early Ordovician through Permian.
Fossil C is found in Mississippian through Permian Strata .
a. What is the maximum possible range of age for a stratum containing
only fossil B?
Early Ordovician through the Permian
b. What is the maximum possible range for a stratum containing both A
and B?
Ordivician

c. Which is the better guide fossil, A or C?

a. Silurian and Devonian, Ordovician, This is difficult to evaluate given the scanty
data. A would be a better guide fossil than C for Cambrian and Ordovician rocks
and vice versa.
3.A chronostratigraphic (time rock) unit contains a different fossil
assemblage at one locality than another located 200km away. Suggest a
possible cause for the dissimilarity.
The species are endemic, and both areas have different creatures that lived
during that period of time.
Additionally, the animals or flora may have simply moved.
4. In drilling for oil, geologists recover Devonian conodonts in a stratum
known to be Permian in age. Exlain how this may have occurred.
The Conodonts may have been a reworked fossil. Weathering and erosion have
freed fossils from their host rock. The fossils may then work their way into
younger beds, & the younger strata might be mistakenly assigned to an older
geologic time.
11. Using fossils for age correlation is dependent on a priori knowledge of
their age ranges. How has this knowledge been obtained?
This knowledge has been obtained through carefully observing fossil occurrences
in rock layers during the last 200 years. For example, dinosaur bones have been
found in Mesozioc rocks, but to date, no dinosaurs have been found in Paleozoic
rocks. Similarly conodonts have been found in late-Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Triassic strata.
They have not been found in Jurassic or younger formations, in spite of efforts to
find them there.

Lesson #5

1.

List the subdivisions of the Linnean classification scheme in their

proper order.
Five Kingdoms:
Monera
Proctoctista
Plantae
Animalia
Fungi

2.

Indicate the difference between biological species and

paleontological species.
Biological Species -- Group of individuals which can breed together (panmixia)
Paleontological Species -- Group whos members are descended from a common
ancestor.

3.

Discuss Lamarcks theory of evolution.

All species, including humans, are descended from other species.

4.

Explain the concept of natural selection.

Descendants of former creatures have undergone biologic change and are
different from their ancestors.

5.

Briefly discuss evolution in terms of modern genetics.

Mutations, Gene Recombination, and Natural selection help run modern organic
evolution.

6.

Contrast phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

Phyletic Gradualism Gradual progressive change. Refers to evolutionary

pathways. Evolutionary change occurs by slow degrees along the evolutionary
pathway of a lineage.
Punctuated Equilibrium Evolution that consists of fitful sudden advances that
punctuate long episodes of little evolutionary progress and then periods of
stasis, where there is little evolution if any at all.
7.

Understand Charles Darwins role in the development of modern

evolutionary theory.
Answer review questions 6, 7, 8, 10, and 12 on page 146 to the best of your
ability.
6. What are the differences between the following?
Mitosis/Meiosis
Meiosis Two quickly succeeding divisions to produce four final daughter cells.
Mitosis Process of cell division that produces new diploid cells with exact
replicas of the chromosomal components with the parent cells.
Haploid/Diploid
Haploid Does not have paired chromosomes
Diploid Has paired chromosomes
Gymnosperm/Angiosperm
Gymnosperm Vascular plant that produces seeds lacking an outer fruit.
Angiosperm Flowering plants that reproduce through seeds that are contained
in fruit.
Stratophenetic/Cladistic Phylogeny

Stratophenetic Phylogeny Organisms are arranged in a treelike fashion, with

the most recently evolved species or groups on the upper branches or older,
ancestral species on the lower branches and trunk.
Cladistic Phylogeny Organisms are analyzed objectively on the basis of
characteristics they share in order to determine their ancestor descendant
relationships
Domain/Kingdom
Domain Two+ Kingdoms
Kingdom Large group of related phyla (group of similar creatures)
7. What is meant by the term adaptation? Cite an example of adaptive
radiation.
The branching of a population to product descendants adapted to particular
environments and living strategies.
The honey creepers of Hawaii. The birds are believed to have evolved from a
common ancestor, from there each bird evolved on its own. All of the birds have
a different adaptation.
8. What are peripheral isolates?
Sudden change that interrupts equilibrium occurs at the periphery.
Segments of the population are referred to as peripheral isolates.
10. What are the contributions of Darwin and Mendel to our modern
concept of organic evolution?
Darwin Theory of Natural Selection. Those better fitted to their environments
will thrive.
Mendel discovered the basic principals to inheritance. Mendel described the
mechanism in which traits are transmitted from adults to offspring. Modern
version of genes

12. Distinguish between the concepts of phyletic gradualism and

punctuated equilibrium. How did Charles Darwin account for the rapid or
abrupt appearance of new species? Which, then, would be a more
appropriate geologic section to study for proof of punctuated equilibrium.
-- continuous set of cores from the floor of the ocean, or a section on the
continent where there has been repeated episodes of uplift and erosion
throughout geologic time.
Phyletic Gradualism Gradual progressive change (evolutionary pathways)
Punctuated Equilibrium Evolution that consists of fitful sudden advances that
punctuate long episodes of little evolutionary progress termed stasis.
Darwin insisted that the transitional forms once existed but were not preserved,
were destroyed, or had not yet been discovered.
Repeated episodes of uplift and erosion through geologic time is a better place to
study.
Lesson #6
1.

Understand the fundamental properties of primary, secondary, and

surface seismic (earthquake) waves and indicate how primary and
secondary waves are used to image the Earths internal layering.
Primary Waves Fastest of the waves and the first to arrive at a seismographic
station after there is an earthquake. Upper crust of Earth at 4 5 km/sec. Near
the base of the crust at 6-7 km/sec. First to show on seismogram.
Pulses are transmitted in such a way that the movement of rock particles is
parallel to the direction of propagation of the rock itself. Alternations of
compressions and expansions that speed away from the source of shock. Push
Pull movement that can be transmitted to solids, liquids, and gases.
Secondary Waves S Waves, transverse waves. 1-2 km/sec slower than PWaves. Movement of rock particles is at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the energy. Do not pass through liquids or gasses. Second to
show on seismogram.

Both are termed body waves because they are able to penetrate deep into the
interior or body of our planet. Travel faster in rocks of greater elasticity, and their
speeds increase steadily as they move downward into the more elastic zones of
the Earths interior.
Fluid w. no rigidity. S-Waves cannot propagate and P-Waves are markedly
slowed.
Surface Waves large motion waves that travel through the outer crust of the
Earth. Their pattern of movement resembles that of waves caused when a pebble
is tossed into the center of a pond. Last to arrive at a seismographic station.
Destruction results because surface waves are channeled through the thin outer
region of the Earth & energy is less rapidly dissipated into the large volumes of
rock traversed by body waves.
2.

Briefly describe the properties of the inner core, outer core, mantle, and
crust and indicate the role of seismic discontinuities (Mohorovicic and
Gutenberg) in locating the boundaries between these layers.
Discontinuities:
Mohorovicic Observations that seismograph stations located about 150km
from an earthquake received earthquake waves sooner than those nearer to the
focus. Reasoned that below a depth of about 30km there must be a zone
having physical properties that permit earthquake waves to travel faster.
That layer is the upper mantle. (between crust and mantle)
Gutenberg Located nearly halfway to the center of the Earth at a depth of 2900
km. Its location is marked by an abrupt decrease in P-wave velocities and the
disappearance of S-waves caused by a change in composition. It is the outer
boundary of the Earths core.
Inner core Scientists believe that the inner core has the same composition as
the outer core, and it only exists as a solid because of the enourmous pressure at
the center of the Earth. Solid. Certain wave patterns that could only be explained
by assuming that the inner core behaved seismically as if it were solid. Estimated
to be around 85 percent iron and lesser parts nickel.

A magnetic field is developed by the flow of electric charges and requires good
electrical conductors.
Shadow zone Areas where S Waves do not appear.
Outer Core See inner core.
Mantle Stony, metallic, composition. Oxygen and silicon dominate and are
accompanied by iron and magnesium as the most abundant metallic ions. Rich in
Olivine + pyroxene.
Multiple Layers:
-

Asthenosphere - High in the upper mantle. Rock in the asthenosphere is

at or near its melting point & some magmas are generated in this zone.
Seismic waves slowed.
Lithosphere includes crust, and the uppermost part of the mantle.
Dynamic enveloping shell of the Earth and is itself divided into lithospheric
plates.

Dynamic enveloping shell of the Earth and is itself divided into many lithospheric
plates.
Crust All of the solid Earth above the Mohorovicic discontinuity. Thin, brittle
veneer that constitutes the continents and floors of the oceans. The crust is not a
homogeneous shell. 2 distinct kinds of crust.
Oceanic Crust Beneath ocean floors.
Continental Crust Boundaries of ocean basins. Thicker than oceanic
counterpart but less dense. Isostasy Segments of the Earths crust as they
come into floatation equilibrium with denser mantle material. Explains why
continental crust stands higher than the oceanic crust.
3.

Indicate the basic properties that distinguish oceanic crust from

continental crust.
Oceanic Crust 3 Layers. Upper surface thin layer of unconsolidated
sediment that rests on the irregular surface of the igneous basement layer

2nd- Basalts that had been extruded under water.

3rd. Nature of the deepest layer of oceanic crust is not clear.
Iron, Magnesium, Calcium.
Continental Crust Thicker and less dense than the oceanic crust. Continents
float higher on a denser mantle then the oceanic crust sediments.
Isostasy Segments of Earths crust as they come into equilibrium with a denser
mantle. Continental crust stands higher than the denser oceanic crusts.
4.

Define fault and indicate how a given fault is classified as normal,

reverse, or strike-slip.
Normal fault Hanging wall appears to moves downward relative to the opposite
side or foot wall.

Reverse fault exhibit a hanging wall that has moved up relative to the foot
wall

Strike Slip -

5. Discuss the differences between anticlines, synclines, domes, and

basins.
Anticline Unparched rocks in which the oldest rocks are in the center and
the youngest rocks are on the flanks.

Syncline -

Domes -

Basins 6.

Explain the types of evidence presented by Alfred Wegener that

supports his theory of continental drift.

7.

Explain the concept and applications of paleomagnetism.

Paleomagnetism Study of the record of the Earths magnetic field in rocks,
sediment, or archeological materials. Certain minerals in rocks lock in a record of
the direction and intensity of the magnetic field when they form.
1. Finding the direction of the poles.
2. Can be used to determine the latitude at which an igneous body
containing magnetic minerals cooled and solidified.

8.

Concisely define the concept of seafloor spreading.

Seafloor Spreading The process by which new oceanic crust is produced at
mid oceanic ridges and moved laterally away from the ridge.

9.

Describe the three types of plate margins (convergent, divergent,

transform fault) and identify what types of geological activities, geological
structures (folds and faults), and rocks occur at each.
Plate margins:
Convergent: Develop when two plates move toward one another and collide.
These junctions are characterized by a high frequency of earthquakes. In
addition, they are the zones along which compressional mountain ranges or deep
sea trenches may develop.
One plate may slip and plunge below the other, producing a subduction zone.
Divergent: May manifest themselves at mid - oceanic ridges complete with
tensional geological structures. The mid-Atlantic ridge approximates the line of
separation between the Eurasian and African plate on one side and the American
plate on the other. As is to be expected, such a rending of the crust is
accompanies by earthquakes and enormous outpourings of volcanic materials
that are piled high to produce the ridge itself.
Transform Fault: The line along the mid-oceanic ridge where spreading begins
is not straight or smoothly curving & is offset by numerous faults.

Geological activities Geological structures --

10.

List several lines of evidence that support the plate tectonic theory.

Simple concept. Movement of the plates causes them to converge, diverge, or

slide past one another. Results in frequent earthquakes along plate margins.
When the locations of earthquakes are plotted on the world map, they clearly
define boundaries of tectonic plates.

11.

Speculate upon the fundamental causes of plate motion.

Answer questions 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 13, 14, and 16 on pages 194 and 195 of the
textbook.
1. If one were able to drill a well from the North Pole to the center of the
earth, what internal zones would be penetrated?
Solid Inner Core, Liquid Outer Core, Mantle, Crust
2. What are the three major categories of seismic waves? Describe their
characteristics.
Primary Fastest of the waves, First to arrive at a seismograph station.
after there has been an earthquake. Travel through the upper crust of the Earth
at speeds of 4 to 5 km/s. Pulses of energy are transmitted in such a way that the
movement of rock particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the rock
itself. A given particle of rock set in motion during an earthquake is driven into its
neighbor and bounces back.
Secondary S waves or transverse waves. Travel 1 to 2 km/sec slower than P
waves. Movement of rock particles is secondary waves is at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the energy. More complex motion, so they travel
slower. Will not pass through liquids or gasses (unlike P Waves).

Surface Waves Large motion waves that travel through the outer crust of the
Earth. Their pattern of movement resembles that of waves caused when a pebble
is tossed into the center of a pond. Develop whether P or S-waves disturb the
surface of the Earth as they emerge from the interior. Last to arrive at a
seismograph station. Primary cause of destruction from an earthquake.
Destruction results because surface waves are channeled through the thin outer
region of the earth. & their energy is less rapidly dissipated into the large volumes
of rock traversed by body waves.
3. What is a seismic disconuity? Hat are the Gutenberg and
Mohorovicic discontinuities located?
Mohorovicic Observations that seismograph stations located about
150km from an earthquake received earthquake waves sooner than those
nearer to the focus. Reasoned that blow a depth of about 30km there
must be a zone having physical properties that permit earthquake
waves to travel faster. That layer is the upper mantle. (between crust
and mantle)
Gutenberg Located nearly halfway to the center of the Earth at a depth
of 2900 km. Its location is marked by an abrupt decrease in P-wave
velocities and the disappearance of S-waves caused by a change in
composition. It is the outer boundary of the Earths core.
Seismic Disconuity A surface which velocities of seismic waves change
rapidly. See above for the two different discontinuities.
5. How to anticlines (and domes) differ from synclines (and basins) with
regard to the age relations of rocks exposed across the erosionally
truncated surfaces of these structures?
The limestone represents deposition furthest from shore, the shale represents
deposition closer to shore, and the sandstone represents deposition at the
shoreline. The vertical succession reflects an upward transition from offshore
limestone to nearshore sandstone; thus, the water was becoming increasingly
shallow as the rock column was deposited. This would reflect the retreat of the
shoreline towards the ocean (regression).

9. What are the principal categories of faults? What kinds of faults might
one find in regions subjected to great compressional forces? What kinds of
faults result primarily from tension in the Earths crust?

Normal, reverse, transform. Reverse faults predominate in regions subjected to

compressional stresses. Normal faults are formed in response to tensional
stresses.

12. Compile a list of items that Alfred Wegener might have used to
convince a skeptic of the lidity of his theory of continental drift.
Argued for the existence in the past of a supercontinent that de dubbed Pangea.
That portion of Pangea that was to separate and frm North America and Eurasia
came to be known as Laurasia, whereas the southern portion retained the earlier
designation of Gondwanaland. Pangea was surrounded by a universal ocean
named Panthalassa, which opened to receive shifting continents when they
began to split apart 200 years ago.
Correspondence is too good to be fortuitous, even when considering the
expected modifications of shorelines resulting from erosion, deformation, or
intrusions following the break-up of Pangea around 200 million years ago.
Sedimentologic criteria indicating similarity of climatic conditions for widely
separated parts of the world. Locations of such coal deposits should approximate
an equatorial zone relative to the ancient pole position for that age.
Many of the geologic features almost perfectly correspond to how the Earth
moved.
Fossil records give important evidence.

Character,sequence, age, and distribution of rock units have also been examined
for insights into the concepts of drift.
13. According to plate tectonics, how did the Himalaya mountains form?
The San Andreas fault? The Dead Sea and Red sea?
Each of these reflects a different type of plate margin interaction. The Himalayas
are the result of India colliding with Asia (convergent plate margin). The San
Andreas Fault is a transform fault (passive margin) between the North American
plate, which is moving south, and the Pacific plate, which is moving north.
Finally, the Dead Sea and Red Sea occupy depressions resulting from the early
stages of rifting (divergent plate margin).
14. According to plate Techtonics, where is new material added to the sea
floor, and where is older material consumed?
New oceanic crust is generated at spreading centers (Midocean ridges) and
destroyed at Subduction zones.
16. What is remanent magnetism? What is its origin? How is it used in
finding ancient pole positions? How has remanent magnetism helped
validate the concept of plate techtonics?
Remanent Magnetism Magnetism frozen into ancient rocks.
When igneous rocks cool past the Curie temperature (temp above where
substance is no longer magnetic) of their magnetic Mineralism. Some of the
magnetism remains from earlier times.
Remnant magnetism in a mineral is ultimately due to the fact that some atoms
and ion have so called magnetic moments (they behave like tiny moments). Iron
ions align themselves within the crystal lattice so that their magnetic moments
are parallel.
When magnetite takes on its Remanent magnetism, the iron ions align
themselves within the crystal lattice so that their magnetic moments are parallel.
(Ancient pole positions)
Lesson #7

1.

Define red shift in the context of the big bang theory.

Red Shift If a star is moving away from the Earth, Wavelengths of the light from
the star are shifted toward the red end of the spectrum. The greater the velocity
of separation, the wider the observed red shift. Additionally, further away the
Galaxy (means further velocity of separation), the wider the red shift.

2.

Explain the main idea behind the solar nebula hypothesis.

Solar Nebula Hypothesis A favored hypothesis is that the solar system was
derived from a rotating cloud of dust particles called the solar nebula.
Cold, rarefied cloud of gasses and dust particles. Initial material consisted of
elements and the chemical compounds formed by combinations of elements.
Formed by combinations of elements. Elements forming the cloud were originally
produced by nuclear reactions within stars or by great explosions that mark the
death of stars.
Dust cloud went in a counterclockwise direction, to contract, and to assume a
Discoidal shape.

3.

Explain the origin and evolution of Earths oxygen-rich atmosphere.

Solar winds blew the primordial atmosphere into space. Hence, the modern
atmosphere was formed from scratch, largely through volcanic outgassing. In
the early Precambrian, this nascent atmosphere was comprised of methane,
ammonia, and carbon dioxide. The modern oxygen-rich atmosphere evolved
through photochemical dissociation of water vapor and, once life evolved,
from photosynthesis.

4.

Discuss the duration and order of eons comprising the Precambrian

interval.
Order Duration (In billions of years)
Late Proterozoic 0.46

Middle Proterozoic 0.6

Early Proterozoic 0.9
Late Archean 0.5
Middle Archean 0.4
Earch Arvhean 0.4
Hadean 0.8

5.

Articulate the differences between the terms shield , craton , and

platform .
Shield Broadly unwarped, geologically stable regions of continents called
shields. Every continent has one or more shields.
Craton The platform of a continent plus its shield constitutes the continents
Craton.
Platform Stable regions where basement rocks are covered by relatively thin
blankets of sedimentary strata.
(See below)

6.

Explain the origin of the Precambrian provinces of North America

shown on figure 617 of the text.
Canadian shield has been divided into a number of Precambrian Provinces,
Boundaries of these provinces are often marked by abrupt truncations in
structural lineations, or they may be represented by bands of severely deformed
rocks of former orogenic belts.
They were once separate crustal segments that have been consolidated to form
the larger north American Craton. Bound together by belts of deformed,

Metamorphed, and intruded rocks that mark the location of collision of the various
Cratonic elements.
7.

Indicate the significance of Stanley Millers experiments to theories

about spontaneous generation of life on Earth.
Stanley Miller infused an atmosphere at that time thought to be like Earths early
atmosphere.
The experiment showed that life began to form with only the gasses in the Earths
atmosphere. Supporting the idea of spontaneous generation of life on Earth.

8.

List the major fossils of the Precambrian and explain the differences
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
BANDED IRON, STROMATOLITES, ARCHAEA CELLS, DICKINSONIA, ETC.
differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms: prokaryotic
organisms do not have a nucleus and eukaryotic organisms do. Eukaryotic DNA
is linear; prokaryotic DNA is circular (it has no ends)

9.

List evidence for Earths first glacial episode (Gowganda formation).

Glacial sediments of the Gowganda formation indicate that glaciers covered
the region north of modern Lake Huron during early Proterozoic time.

10.

Discuss the nature and significance of banded iron formation (BIF).

Banded iron formations are marine sedimentary rocks consisting of alternating
thin layers of red iron oxides and grayish chert. Proterozoic banded iron
formations are typically hundreds of meters thick and can be regionally extensive.
Most important source of iron ore. 92 percent were deposited during the early
part of the Proterozoic eon between 2.5 and 2 billion years ago. Earlier they did
not occur abundantly because oxygen was not yet sufficient in the atmosphere
and ocean. Later they did not occur abundantly because by then free iron had
been swept from the oceans by the early Proterozoic BIF forming event. They
represent a unique interval in the chemical coevolution of Earths atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

11.

Describe the fossil record of the Proterozoic eon, including proliferation

of stromatolites, appearance of eukaryotes, and evolution of the first
multicellular animals.
During the Proterozoic, Stromatolites proliferated and covered the floors of
the extensive Cratonic ocean, thereby generating the oxygen that forced the
deposition of BIFs. By middle Proterozoic time (1.6 billion years ago) singlecelled eukaryotes appeared with their capacity for sexual reproduction. In late
Proterozoic time the first multicellular animals (Ediacaran Fauna) evolved.

2. What is the source of the suns heat? Given the amount of solar radiation
intercepted by the Earth, why is the Earths surface not hotter than it is?
The suns heat comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into atoms of
helium.
The Earth has experienced differentiation, a process whereby a planet becomes
internally zoned or layered.
Radiation is reflected back to space. Another part of the incoming radiation is
absorbed by the atmosphere and radiated back into space.
Another part of the incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and
radiated back into space.
3. What evidence indicates that the universe is expanding?
The spectral signatures of galaxies are red shifted. The red shift indicates that
the galaxies are moving away at incredibly fast speeds.

13. Distinguish between the terms Precambrian shield, craton, and

platform.
Shield Extensive area of continent where Precambrian igneous and
metamorphic rocks are expose and have been eroded to a nearly flat
surface close to sea level

Craton Platform + Shield compose the Craton

Platform Similar to the shield, except the Precambrian rocks have been
covered with layers of sedimentary rock.

12. What geologic evidence suggests that free oxygen was beginning to
accumulate in the Earths atmosphere about 3 billion years ago?
Banded iron formations are important as a source of iron and as an indicator of
atmospheric evolution. Banded iron formations are special sedimentary rocks
comprised of alternating layers of iron rich and iron poor layers. The fact that the
iron in banded iron formation was weakly to strongly oxidized indicates that
oxygen was beginning to accumulate in the environment at that time.
13. Discuss the role of symbiosis in the evolution of eukaryotes. What
organelles may have originated by symbiosis?
Suggests that the nucleus and well-ordered genetic material in a eukaryotic cell
may have arisen through ingestion, not digestion, of one prokaryotic cell by
another. Through time the ingested cell was modified into the chloroplast and
mitochondria of the typical Eukaryote
5. How to eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes (see chapter 6)? When do
eukaryotes appear in the fossil record?
Eukaryotic organisms are those with a well-defined nuclear wall, definite
chromosomes, and a capacity for sexual reproduction. By contrast, prokaryotic
organisms possess cells with no definite nucleus and lack membrane-bounded
organelles. They are capable of only asexual reproduction and are typically
smaller. The earliest appeared about 1.6 to 1.4 billion years ago.
8. What are metazoans? What is the earliest known occuresnce of
abundant metazoans? With regard to their general appearance, what are
the three major groups of Ediacaran metazoans?
Metazoans are multicellular animals.

The earliest known occurrence is in the Rawnsley Quartzite (late Proterozoic) of

Australia.
3 Groups: The fauna, called the Ediacaran Fauna, is comprised of the impressions
of worm-like; discoidal, jellyfish-like; and frond-shaped animal groups.

11. When did continental glaciation occur during the Proterozoic? What is
the evidence that such glaciation occurred? Why is it unlikely that
continental glaciers would have formed during the Archean?
In the region north of Lake Huron, there exist conglomerates and laminated
mudstones assigned to the Gowganda Formation. The unsorted conglomerates
and varied sands and shales are indicative of glacial conditions. The period of
glaciation occurred sometime between 2.6 and 2.1 billion years ago. The higher
thermal regimes of the Archean would have made sufficient ice accumulation to
form glaciers improbable.

13. Stromalites were exceptionally widespread during the Proterozoic but

became relatively sparse thereafter. What other organisms may have
contributed to the post Proterozoic decline of stromatolites?
The stromatolitic microbial organisms evidently provided food for newly evolved
small shelly fossils and other primitive invertebrates. Extensive overgrazing
decimated the Stromatolites. The stromatolites can only survive in environments
unsuitable for most grazing invertibrates.
Charles Darwin Natural Selection
Nicolaus Steno Superposition of Strata
Georges Cuvies Extinction and Catastrophism
William Smith Faunal Succession
Uniformitarianism James Hutton
Longest Half Life:
Rubidium 87:Strontium 87
Geologic time scale shortest duration Cenozoic
Half Life The amount of time it takes for half of the original parent
atoms to decay to more stable daughter products.
Permain Not defined in Great Britain

Atomic Number Number of Protons in the Nucleus

Pennsylvanian Not named by Robert Impey Murchison
Alpha Decay Nucleus fires of a positively charged particle comprised
of two protons and two neutrons.
Radiometric Dating Absolute/Actual age of a geological feature
Igneous Intrusive and Extrusive rocks. Determined by size of crystals.
Metamorphism adjacent to a mass of molten magma contact
metamorphism.
Silicates == 92% of Earths crust.
Slate Least intense grade of metamorphism.
Silicon and Oxygen Most abundant elements of Earths crust.
Feldspar Most abundant mineral in the Earths crust.
Metamorphic Rocks Foliated or Non - foliated.
Quartzite and marble Non - foliated.
Texture Size and shape of sedimentary particles.
Rock that forms deep underground Sialic Composition. Granite.
Clastic sedimentary rocks. Particles larger than 2mm Sandstone,
siltstone.
Marine sedimentary rock Limestone.
Sedimentary rocks Lithification. Compaction + cementation.
Igneous Cooling of molten materials.
Feldspar sedimentary clay during weathering process. Most
abundant sedimentary rock on Earth is Shale.
Muscovite Hardness 2-3, Perfect Cleavage, Specific gravity of 2.8 3.
Metamorphism adjacent to a mass of molten magma Contact
metamorphism.
92% of Earths crust Silicates.

Slate least intense grade of metamorphism.

Silicon + Oxygen Most abundant elements in rocks in Earths crust.
Feldspar Most abundant mineral in the Earths crust.
Nonfoliated Quartzite and marble.
Middle Oligocene
Modern Sea Level Below the Phanerozoic average.
Arkose Sand Grains of Feldspar, Quartz, Mica, and Chert
Arkose Compositionally immature but texturally mature.
Sedimentary particles comprising the rock were eroded from A source
area where granite was exposed at the surface.
1,900 years Length of time to completely flood the portion of Florida
shown on the map.
Limestone forms in the warm shallow seas that cover the Everglades.
Disconformity
Marine Transgression Sea level rises relative to the land and the
shoreline moves toward higher ground. Results in flooding.
Beach Transitional depositional environment.
Alluvial fan Red sandstones interbed with thick layers of poorly sorted
but partially rounded conglomerate.
Desert --- Best sorted sediments.
Turbidity Currents Sediment grains and occurs under the sea.
It is possible to correlate the Red Eagle Limestone with other sections.
Intertidal Zone Littoral. (Technical Term).
Reorientation of the shell Does the least violence to the potential
fossil.

Study of processes affecting a fossil organism from the time of its

death until final burial Biostratinomy.
Diploids Cells paired with homologus chromosomes (Full
complement of genetic information).
Darwin + Lamarck All modern species are descended from ancestral
species via evolution.
,,
Vestigal structures.
Wisdom Teeth in Humans
Appendix in humans
Pelvis in whales
Theory of punctuated equilibrium
--Eldredge and Gould.
Gene pool
-- Sum of all gene combinations.
Species
-- Group of organisms that look alike and are able to interbreed. Basic
unit of biological classification.
Not known to Darwin = During reproduction, genes are passed from
parent to offspring.
All animals posses Eukaryotic Cells.
Punctuated Equilibrium Evolutionary theory favors rapid origination of
species.
Single Celled, Prokaryotic Bacteria are Monera.
Linneaus System of binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.
Convergent evolution Two or more unrelated lineages acquire similar
morphological characteristics through time.
Mitosis Asexual organisms and somatic (body) cells of sexual
organisms divide
Genus Humans are formally classified as Homo Sapiens. Homo
Genus name.

Driving mechanism of evolutionary change inherent needs or wants

of evolving organism.
Modern Genetics Process of evolution. Fossil record illustrates the
patterns of change through time.
Quinine Does not form cross members in DNA molecules.
Cladistic Phylogeny
Stratophenetic Phylogeny A method for determining the evolutionary
relationships among organisms that exist only as fossils.
Group of closely related classes is a taxonomic phylum.
Core Has a Density of 10.7
Mohorovicic Discontinuity Transition from crust to mantle.
Iron and nickel is the most likely composition.
False Shadow zone for P waves is larger than that of S waves.
Aleutian/Japanese Islands Ocean/Ocean Convergence.
Continental crust is granitic, Oceanic crust is Balsaltic.
Wegener Argued that all of the major continents were assembled
into a single supercontinent at the end of the Paleozoic era.
False base of lithosphere coincidesd with the Mohorovicic
discontinuity.
Hawaiian Chain Intraplate volcanism associated with a hot spot.
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Example of divergent plate margins.
Thermoremanent Magnetism forms in igneous rocks cooling below the
Curie Point.
Pacific plate does not contain an appreciable amount of continental
crust.
Cocos and Carribeam are most similar in size.

Juan de Fuca Smallest plate on the map.

Source of Magams fueling Mt. St. Helens Partial melting of the
subducting Juan de Fuca Plate.
New Granitic Crust is currently being generated under Western
Washington
True Polarity reversals appear to have been less frequent in the early
half of the Eocene than in the later half of the Eocene.
Plastic, partially molten layer upon which the lithospheric plates move
is the asthenosphere.
New Oceanic crust is formed at Midocean ridges.
3 Types of plate boundaries Convergent, Divergent, & Transform fault.
Midway Island was centered over the spot 18 million years ago.
Dickinsonia Worms
Yilgarn Pilbara Shield complex Australia.
50 Percent of North America existed 2.5 billion years ago.
Venus is a Jovian planet.
Hot accretion theory suggests Earths internal layering originated
during accretion.
Venus Density most similar to that of Earth.
Oldest fossil metazoans belong to is the Ediacaran fauna Ediacara
Hills of Southcentral Australia in the 1940s.
Elrathia are not part of this late Proterozoic faunal assemblage.
Oldest known calcium carbonate, shell bearing fossils belong to
--Palmatolepis
-- Cloudina
90% of Earths banded iron formations were formed during the late
Archean
Hadean

 Sun is powered by the fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium.

Prokaryotes are simpler, & larger than Eukaryotes.
Early atmosphere was produced by volcanic outgassing. Primitive
atmosphere did not contain water vapor (component of volcanic
outgassing).
Precambrian comprises roughly 86% of Earths history.
Geologically stable part of a continent where Precambrian basement
rocks are covered by a thin blanket of younger sedimentary rocks is
called the stable platform.
Proliferation of Stromatolites in widespread, shallow oceans that
existed during the Precambrian would have resulted in an increase of ______ in Earths atmosphere.
In Precambrian banded iron formations the red layers have a
composition of Fe2O3.
Oldest rocks currently known on Earth are 3.96 billion years old and
are classified as tonalite gneiss.
Stanley miller speculated that life originated on this planet sometime
during the Precambrain. He set up a glass apparatus containing gases
common in the Precambrian atmosphere and subjected tjem to
electrical sparks.
At the end Miller found proteins and DNA in his apparatus.