Project 2 ( MM1.

B ) Eoghan
O'Lohghlin and Paul
Shannon
Chosen subjects: Sunday Roast and
Washing Machine

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information.
PDF generated at: Tue, 02 Mar 2010 23:06:08 UTC
Contents
Articles
Below are some articles we read as part of our research. 1
Instructional design 1
Industrial design 7
ADDIE Model 10
Storyboard 12
Gantt chart 17
Pictogram 19
Aircraft safety card 22

Cook a three course Sunday roast 24

Sunday roast 24
Roasting 26
Barbecue 29
Standing rib roast 40
Cannibalism 42

Using a Washing machine 58

Washing machine 58
Laundry 70
Housekeeping 74
Detergent 79
Fabric softener 81
Bleach 83
Energy Star 88
Clothes dryer 94

References
Article Sources and Contributors 100
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 104

Article Licenses
License 106
 1

Below are some articles we read as part of

our research.

Instructional design
Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the
effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of
determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some
"intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically and andragogically (adult
learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings.
The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and
assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the phases
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and
traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.

History
Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced
the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine
to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber —see "Training Within Industry (TWI)". Drawing on the
research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors.
Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed
to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every
learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was
replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The
approach is still common in the U.S. military.[1]
In 1956, a committee lead by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three
domains of learning: Cognitive (what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective
(what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.[2]
During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital
computers.
In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the
design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT) [3], which
concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).[4]
Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of
presentation techniques.[5]
Instructional design 2

Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction

Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional
materials.[6] Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the
format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.[7] [8] [9]
While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were
being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load
learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional
design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important – learning.[10]
By the mid to late 1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load
and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later,
other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.[10] Mayer and his
associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.[11] [12] [13]
In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted[14] and begun to revolutionize how
practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice
of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional
designers as the practitioners of this field.[15] Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller[16] published a textbook [17]
describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence based guidelines of Cognitive
load theory.
Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the
onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks. The
designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.

Learning Design
The IMS Learning Design[18] specification supports the use of a wide range of pedagogies in online learning. Rather
than attempting to capture the specifics of many pedagogies, it does this by providing a generic and flexible
language. This language is designed to enable many different pedagogies to be expressed. The approach has the
advantage over alternatives in that only one set of learning design and runtime tools then need to be implemented in
order to support the desired wide range of pedagogies. The language was originally developed at the Open
University of the Netherlands (OUNL), after extensive examination and comparison of a wide range of pedagogical
approaches and their associated learning activities, and several iterations of the developing language to obtain a good
balance between generality and pedagogic expressiveness.
A criticism of Learning Design theory is that learning is an outcome. While instructional theory Instructional Design
focuses on outcomes, while properly accounting for a multi-variate context that can only be predictive, it
acknowledges that (given the variabilities in human capability) a guarantee of reliable learning outcomes is
improbable. We can only design instruction. We cannot design learning (an outcome). Automotive engineers can
design a car that, under specific conditions, will achieve 50 miles per gallon. These engineers cannot guarantee that
drivers of the cars they design will (or have the capability to) operate these vehicles according to the specific
conditions prescribed. The former is the metaphor for instructional design. The latter is the metaphor for Learning
Design.
Instructional design 3

Instructional design models

ADDIE model
Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands
for the 5 phases contained in the model:
• Analyze - analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.
• Design - develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach
• Develop - create instructional or training materials
• Implement - deliver or distribute the instructional materials
• Evaluate - make sure the materials achieved the desired goals
Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model. [19]

Rapid prototyping
A sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.
However, rapid prototyping is considered a somewhat simplistic type of model. At the heart of Instructional Design
is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis—you can then choose a model based on your
findings. That is the area where most people get snagged—they simply do not do a thorough enough analysis. (Part
of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)
Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money
by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but
appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product
development, message design, user experience design, etc.[20] [21] [22]

Dick and Carey

Another well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model[23] . The model
was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of
Instruction [24].
Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of
instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire
system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and
Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning
and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning
outcomes"[23] . The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as
follows.
• Identify Instructional Goal(s)
• Conduct Instructional Analysis
• Analyze Learners and Contexts
• Write Performance Objectives
• Develop Assessment Instruments
• Develop Instructional Strategy
• Develop and Select Instructional Materials
• Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction
• Revise Instruction
• Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly[23] .
Instructional design 4

Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)

Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)[25] . The model
was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, Ph.D. and Mary Sullivan Esseff, Ph.D. in their book entitled
IDLS—Pro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials][26] .
Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic
University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model
mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic
design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).
The components of the IDLS Model are:
• Design a Task Analysis
• Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures
• Develop Interactive Instructional Materials
• Validate the Interactive Instructional Materials

Other models
Some other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model
and the OAR model.
Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism,
constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

Influential researchers and theorists

• Lev Vygotsky - Learning as a social activity - 1930s
• B.F. Skinner - Radical Behaviorism, Program Teaching - late 1930s-
• Benjamin Bloom - Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains - 1955
• R.F. Mager - ABCD model for instructional objectives - 1962
• Jean Piaget - Cognitive development - 1960s
• Seymour Papert - Constructionism, LOGO - 1970s
• Geetha Narayanan - Slow Learning [27], Srishti - 2000s
• Robert M. Gagné - Nine Events of Instruction - 1970s
• Jerome Bruner - Constructivism
• Dick, W. & Carey, L. "The Systematic Design of Instruction" - 1978
• Clark, Richard - Director of the Center for Cognitive Technology, participant in the Clark-Kosma Media vs
Methods debate the 1980s and currently active in the debate about low-guidance instruction.
• Michael Simonson - Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education - 1980s
• M. David Merrill and Charles Reigeluth - Elaboration Theory / Component Display Theory / PEAnets - 1980s
• Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James Russell - Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction
3rd ed. - Educational Technology - 1989
• Roger Schank - Constructivist simulations - 1990s
• David Jonassen - Cognitivist problem-solving strategies - 1990s
• Ruth Clark - Theories on instructional design and technical training - 1990s
• Curtis Bonk and Charles Graham - Blended learning - 2000s
• Jonathan Mott - Loosely-coupled gradebooks and open-learning networks - 2009
• David Wiley - Open Learning - 2008-09
• Donald Kirkpatrick - Four Levels of Training Evaluation - 1994
• George Piskurich - Rapid Instructional Design - 2006
Instructional design 5

• David Penrose - Microlecture - 2009

• John D. Bransford - How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice - 1999

See also
Since instructional design deals with creating useful instruction and instructional materials, there are many other
areas that are related to the field of instructional design.
• assessment
• Confidence-Based Learning
• educational animation
• educational psychology
• educational technology
• e-learning
• electronic portfolio
• evaluation
• human–computer interaction
• instructional technology
• instructional theory
• interaction design
• learning object
• learning science
• m-learning
• Multimedia learning
• online education
• instructional design coordinator
• Storyboarding
• training
• interdisciplinary teaching
• rapid prototyping
• Lesson study
• Understanding by Design

External links
• Instructional Design [28] - An overview of Instructional Design
• ISD Handbook [29]
• Edutech wiki: Instructional design model [30]

References
[1] MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training and Education (http:/ / assist. daps. dla. mil/
quicksearch/ basic_profile. cfm?ident_number=207794)
[2] Bloom's Taxonomy (http:/ / www. officeport. com/ edu/ blooms. htm)
[3] http:/ / tip. psychology. org/ merrill. html
[4] TIP: Theories (http:/ / tip. psychology. org/ merrill. html)
[5] Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist - 38(1):1 - Citation (http:/ / www. leaonline. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1207/
S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1& journalCode=ep)
[6] Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257–285. doi:
10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0364-0213(88)90023-7).
[7] Chandler, P. & Sweller, J.. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction.". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293–332. doi:
10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1207/ s1532690xci0804_2).
Instructional design 6

[8] Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and
Instruction 2 (1): 59–89. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1207/ s1532690xci0201_3).
[9] Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.". Journal of
Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1037/ 0022-0663. 79. 4. 347).
[10] Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 1–19. doi:
10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1207/ s15326985ep3201_1).
[11] Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.
[12] Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996). "When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal
Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons.". Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64–73. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1037/ 0022-0663. 88. 1. 64).
[13] Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster
meaningful learning of science text.". Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31–41. doi: 10.1007/BF02300480 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF02300480).
[14] Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information
Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 1–8. doi: 10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1023/ B:TRUC. 0000021806. 17516. d0).
[15] Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia
Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.
[16] Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.
[17] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0787977284
[18] IMS Learning Design webpage (http:/ / www. imsglobal. org/ learningdesign/ index. html)
[19] Piskurich, G. M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fast and right.
[20] Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology.
[21] Stolovitch, H.D, & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology.
[22] Piskurich, G. M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fast and right.
[23] Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978]. The Systematic Design of Instruction (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=sYQCAAAACAAJ& dq=the+ systematic+ design+ of+ instruction) (6th Edition ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 1–12. ISBN 0205412742.
.
[24] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=a0gdmLZwI8IC& oi=fnd& pg=PA71& dq=The+ Systematic+ Design+ of+ Instruction
[25] Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970]. Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (http:/ / esf-protrainer. com/
Materials. html) (8th Edition ed.). ESF Press. pp. 1–12. ISBN 1582830371. .
[26] (http:/ / esf-protrainer. com/ Materials. html)
[27] http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=1674472480441545863
[28] http:/ / www. instructionaldesign. org/
[29] http:/ / www. nwlink. com/ ~donclark/ hrd/ sat. html
[30] http:/ / edutechwiki. unige. ch/ en/ Instructional_design_model
Industrial design 7

Industrial design
Industrial design is a combination of applied art and applied science,
whereby the aesthetics and usability of mass-produced products may
be improved for marketability and production. The role of an industrial
designer is to create and execute design solutions towards problems of
form, usability, user ergonomics, engineering, marketing, brand
development and sales.[1]

The term "industrial design" is often attributed to the designer Joseph

Claude Sinel in 1919 (although he himself denied it in later interviews)
but the discipline predates that by at least a decade. Its origins lay in An iPod, an industrially designed product.
the industrialization of consumer products. For instance the Deutscher
Werkbund, founded in 1907 and a precursor to the Bauhaus, was a
state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial
mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing
with England and the United States.

KitchenAid 5 qt. Stand Mixer, designed in 1937

by Egmont Arens, remains very successful today

Definition of industrial design

General Industrial designers are basically conceptual engineers. They
study both function and form, and the connection between product and
the user. They do not design the gears or motors that make machines
move, or the circuits that control the movement, but they can affect
technical aspects through usability design and form relationships. And
usually, they partner with engineers and marketers, to identify and
fulfill needs, wants and expectations.

In Depth "Industrial Design (ID) is the professional service of creating

and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function,
value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of Western Electric model 302 Telephone, found
both user and manufacturer" [3] . almost universally in the United States from 1937
until the introduction of touch-tone dialing, as the
Design, itself, is often difficult to define to non-designers because the [2]
Family's life was extended into the 1960s
meaning accepted by the design community is not one made of words.
Instead, the definition is created as a result of acquiring a critical framework for the analysis and creation of artifacts.
One of the many accepted (but intentionally unspecific) definitions of design originates from Carnegie Mellon's
School of Design, "Design is the process of taking something from its existing state and moving it to a preferred
state." [4] This applies to new artifacts, whose existing state is undefined, and previously created artifacts, whose
state stands to be improved.
Industrial design 8

According to the Chartered Society of Designers, design is a force that delivers innovation that in turn has exploited
creativity [5] . Their design framework known as the Design Genetic Matrix determines a set of competences in 4 key
genes that are identified to define the make up of designers and communicate to a wide audience what they do.
Within these genes the designer demonstrates the core competences of a designer and specific competences
determine the designer as an 'industrial designer'. This is normally within the context of delivering innovation in the
form of a three dimensional product that is produced in quantity. However the definition also extends to products
that have been produced using an industrial process.
According to the ICSID (International Council of Societies of Industrial Design), "Design is a creative activity
whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems in whole
life-cycles. Therefore, design is the central factor of innovative humanization of technologies and the crucial factor
of cultural and economic exchange."[6]

Process of design
Although the process of design may be considered 'creative', many
analytical processes also take place. In fact, many industrial designers
often use various design methodologies in their creative process. Some
of the processes that are commonly used are user research, sketching,
comparative product research, model making, prototyping and testing.
These processes can be chronological, or as best defined by the
designers and/or other team members. Industrial designers often utilize
3D software, computer-aided industrial design and CAD programs to
move from concept to production. Product characteristics specified by
the industrial designer may include the overall form of the object, the
location of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, sounds,
and aspects concerning the use of the product ergonomics.
Additionally the industrial designer may specify aspects concerning the
production process, choice of materials and the way the product is
presented to the consumer at the point of sale. The use of industrial
designers in a product development process may lead to added values A Fender Stratocaster with sunburst finish, one of
the most widely recognized electric guitars in the
by improved usability, lowered production costs and more appealing
world.
products. However, some classic industrial designs are considered as
much works of art as works of engineering: the iPod, the Jeep, the
Fender Stratocaster, the Coke bottle, and the VW Beetle are
frequently-cited examples.

Industrial design also has a focus on technical concepts, products and

processes. In addition to considering aesthetics, usability, and
ergonomics, it can also encompass the engineering of objects,
usefulness as well as usability, market placement, and other concerns Model 1300 Volkswagen Beetle
such as seduction, psychology, desire, and the emotional attachment of
the user to the object. These values and accompanying aspects on which industrial design is based can vary, both
between different schools of thought and among practicing designers.

Product design and industrial design can overlap into the fields of user interface design, information design and
interaction design. Various schools of industrial design and/or product design may specialize in one of these aspects,
ranging from pure art colleges (product styling) to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines
like exhibit design and interior design, to schools where aesthetic design is almost completely subordinated to
Industrial design 9

concerns of function and ergonomics of use (the so-called functionalist school).[7]

Also used to describe a technically competent product designer or industrial designer is the term Industrial Design
Engineer. The Cyclone vacuum cleaner inventor James Dyson for example could be considered to be in this
category[A].

Industrial design rights

Industrial design rights are intellectual property rights that make exclusive the visual design of objects that are not
purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or
color, or combination of pattern and color in three dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design
can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Under the
Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs, a WIPO-administered treaty, a
procedure for an international registration exists. An applicant can file for a single international deposit with WIPO
or with the national office in a country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member
countries of the treaty as desired.

See also
• Australian International Design Awards
• Automotive design
• Product design
• Interaction design
• Core77
• Industrial Designers Society of America
• Creative engineering
• Designer
• Emotional Design by Donald Norman
• Environmental design
• Experience design
• Hague system
• Product development
• Rapid prototyping
• WikID

Notes
A. ^ See his autobiography Against The Odds, Pub Thomson 2002[8]

External links
• International Council of Societies of Industrial Design [9]
• U.S. Department of Labor's Handbook: Commercial and Industrial Designers [10]
• Doodles, Drafts and Designs: Industrial Drawings from the Smithsonian [11] (2004) Smithsonian Institution
Libraries
Industrial design 10

References
[1] deNoblet, J., Industrial Design, Paris: A.F.A.A. (1993)
[2] (http:/ / www. paul-f. com/ we300typ. htm) - Western Electric 300-series Telephone Types
[3] (http:/ / www. idsa. org/ absolutenm/ templates/ ?a=89) - Industrial Designers Society of America
[4] (http:/ / design. cmu. edu/ ) - Carnegie Mellon's School of Design
[5] (http:/ / www. csd. org. uk/ ) - Chartered Society of Designers
[6] ICSID.ORG (http:/ / www. icsid. org/ about/ about/ articles31. htm) - Definition of Design.
[7] Pulos, Arthur J., The American Design Adventure 1940-1975, Cambridge, Mass:MIT Press (1988), p. 249 (ISBN 0262161060,
9780262161060)
[8] Dyson, James (1997). Against the odds: An autobiography. London: Orion Business. ISBN 9780752809816. OCLC 38066046 (http:/ /
worldcat. org/ oclc/ 38066046).
[9] http:/ / www. icsid. org/
[10] http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oco/ ocos290. htm
[11] http:/ / www. sil. si. edu/ exhibitions/ doodles/

ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The
five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—represent a dynamic, flexible
guideline for building effective training and performance support tools.
It is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model. Most of the current instructional design models are spin-offs or
variations of the ADDIE model; other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp ISD models. One commonly
accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the idea of receiving continual or
formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This model attempts to save time and money by
catching problems while they are still easy to fix. For example, the ADDIE model was used in the framework for
helping create new research topics in learning technology (Liu, 2008).
Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as
behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional
materials.

Step Process
In the ADDIE concept, each step has an outcome that bleeds into the subsequent step.
Analysis > Design > Development > Implementation > Evaluation

Analysis Phase
In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and
the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions
that are addressed during the analysis phase:
• Who are the learners and what are their characteristics?
• What is the new behavioral outcome?
• What types of learning constraints exist?
• What are the delivery options?
• What are the online pedagogical considerations?
• What are the Adult Learning Theory considerations?
• What is the timeline for project completion?
ADDIE Model 11

Design Phase
The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis,
lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a
logical, orderly method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining the
project's goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to be executed with attention to
details.
These are steps involved in design phase:
• Document the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy
• Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor).
• Design the user interface and user experience
• Create prototype
• Apply visual design (graphic design)

Development Phase
The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and assemble the content assets that
were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, storyboards and graphics are designed. If elearning is involved,
programmers develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed
and revised according to the feedback received.

Implementation Phase
During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The
facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing
procedures. Preparation of the learners includes training them on new tools (software or hardware) and student
registration.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands-on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and
software are in place, and that the learning application or website is functional.

Evaluation Phase
The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage
of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related
referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified

References
• Liu, G. Z. (2008). Innovating research topics in learning technology: Where are the new blue oceans? [1].British
Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4), 738-747.
• Molenda, M. (2003). In search of the elusive addie model [2]. Performance improvement, 42(5), 34.
• Strickland, A.W. (2006). ADDIE [3]. Idaho State University College of Education Science, Math & Technology
Education. Retrieved June 29, 2006.
ADDIE Model 12

See also
• Educational technology

References
[1] http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1111/ j. 1467-8535. 2008. 00851. x
[2] http:/ / www. indiana. edu/ ~molpage/ In%20Search%20of%20Elusive%20ADDIE. pdf#search=%22ADDIE%20Model%20%2Bhistory%22)
[3] http:/ / ed. isu. edu/ addie/ index. html

Storyboard
Storyboards are graphic organizers such as a series of illustrations or images displayed in sequence for the purpose
of pre-visualizing a motion picture, animation, motion graphic or interactive media sequence, including website
interactivity.
The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the
Walt Disney Studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes
being in use at Walt Disney and other animation studios.

Origins
The storyboarding process can be very tedious and intricate. The form widely
known today was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s. In
the biography of her father, The Story of Walt Disney (Henry Holt, 1956), Diane
Disney Miller explains that the first complete storyboards were created for the
1933 Disney short Three Little Pigs. According to John Canemaker, in Paper
Dreams: The Art and Artists of Disney Storyboards (1999, Hyperion Press), the
first storyboards at Disney evolved from comic-book like "story sketches" created
in the 1920s to illustrate concepts for animated cartoon short subjects such as Plane
Crazy and Steamboat Willie.

According to Christopher Finch in The Art of Walt Disney (Abrams, 1974),

A storyboard.
Storyboard 13

Disney credited animator Webb Smith

with creating the idea of drawing
scenes on separate sheets of paper and
pinning them up on a bulletin board to
tell a story in sequence, thus creating
the first storyboard.

One of the first live action films to be

A storyboard for an 8-minute animated cartoon.
completely storyboarded was Gone
with the Wind. William Cameron
Menzies, the film's production designer, was hired by David Selznick to design every shot of the film. Many large
budget silent films were also storyboarded but most of this material has been lost during the reduction of the studio
archives during the 1970s.

Storyboarding became popular in live-action film production during the early 1940s, and grew into a standard
medium for previsualization of films: "We can see the last half century .... as the period in which production design
was largely characterized by adoption of the storyboard", wrote curator Annette Michelson in a 1993 catalog for the
Pace Gallery exhibit Drawing into Film: Director's Drawings, which featured storyboards of popular films.
Storyboards are now an essential part of the creation progress.
Storyboarding's most recent use is outlining websites and other interactive media projects during the design phase.

Usage

Film
A film storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some section of the film produced beforehand to help
film directors, cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find potential
problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement.
In creating a motion picture with any degree of fidelity to a script, a storyboard provides a visual layout of events as
they are to be seen through the camera lens. And in the case of interactive media, it is the layout and sequence in
which the user or viewer sees the content or information. In the storyboarding process, most technical details
involved in crafting a film or interactive media project can be efficiently described either in picture, or in additional
text.
Some live-action film directors, such as Joel and Ethan Coen, used storyboard extensively before taking the pitch to
their funders, stating that it helps them get the figure they are looking for since they can show exactly where the
money will be used. Alfred Hitchcock's films were strongly believed to have been extensively storyboarded to the
finest detail by the majority of commentators over the years, although recent research indicates that this was
exaggerated for publicity purposes. Other directors storyboard only certain scenes, or none at all. Animation
directors are usually required to storyboard extensively, sometimes in place of writing a script.

Theater
A common misconception is that storyboards are not used in theater. They are frequently special tools that directors
and playwrights use to understand the layout of the scene. The great Russian theatre practitioner Constantin
Stanislavski developed storyboards in his detailed production plans for his Moscow Art Theatre performances (such
as of Chekhov's The Seagull in 1898). The German director and dramatist Bertolt Brecht developed detailed
storyboards as part of his dramaturgical method of "fabels."
Storyboard 14

Animatics
In animation and special effects work, the storyboarding stage may be followed by simplified mock-ups called
"animatics" to give a better idea of how the scene will look and feel with motion and timing. At its simplest, an
animatic is a series of still images edited together and displayed in sequence. More commonly, a rough dialogue
and/or rough sound track is added to the sequence of still images (usually taken from a storyboard) to test whether
the sound and images are working effectively together.
This allows the animators and directors to work out any screenplay, camera positioning, shot list and timing issues
that may exist with the current storyboard. The storyboard and soundtrack are amended if necessary, and a new
animatic may be created and reviewed with the director until the storyboard is perfected. Editing the film at the
animatic stage can avoid animation of scenes that would be edited out of the film. Animation is usually an expensive
process, so there should be a minimum of "deleted scenes" if the film is to be completed within budget.
Often storyboards are animated with simple zooms and pans to simulate camera movement (using non-linear editing
software). These animations can be combined with available animatics, sound effects and dialog to create a
presentation of how a film could be shot and cut together. Some feature film DVD special features include
production animatics.
Animatics are also used by advertising agencies to create inexpensive test commercials. A variation, the
"rip-o-matic", is made from scenes of existing movies, television programs or commercials, to simulate the look and
feel of the proposed commercial. Rip, in this sense, refers to ripping-off an original work to create a new one.

Photomatic
A photomatic is a series of still photographs edited together and presented on screen in a sequence.
Usually, a voice-over, soundtrack and sound effects are added to the piece to create a presentation to show how a
film could be shot and cut together. Increasingly used by advertisers and advertising agencies to research the
effectiveness of their proposed storyboard before committing to a 'full up' television advertisement.
The photomatic is usually a research tool, similar to an animatic, in that it represents the work to a test audience so
that the commissioners of the work can gauge its effectiveness.
Originally, photographs were taken using colour negative film. A selection would be made from contact sheets and
prints made. The prints would be placed on a rostrum and recorded to videotape using a standard video camera. Any
moves, pans or zooms would have to be made in camera. The captured scenes could then be edited.
Digital photography, web access to stock photography and Non-linear editing programs have had a marked impact
on this way of film making also leading to the term 'digimatic'. Images can be shot and edited very quickly to allow
important creative decisions to be made 'live'. Photo composite animations can build intricate scenes that would
normally be beyond many test film budgets.
The term 'photomatic' is probably derived from 'animatic' or photo-animation.
Storyboard 15

Comic books
Some writers have used storyboard type drawings (albeit rather sketchy) for their scripting of comic books, often
indicating staging of figures, backgrounds and balloon placement with instructions to the artist as needed often
scribbled in the margins and the dialogue/captions indicated. John Stanley and Carl Barks (when he was writing
stories for the Junior Woodchuck title) are known to have used this style of scripting.

Business
Storyboards were adapted from the film industry to business, purportedly by Howard Hughes of Hughes Aircraft.
Today they are used by industry for planning ad campaigns, commercials, a proposal or other projects intended to
convince or compel to action.
A "quality storyboard" is a tool to help facilitate the introduction of a quality improvement process into an
organisation.
Design comics are a type of storyboard used to include a customer or other characters into a narrative. Design
comics are most often used in designing web sites or illustrating product usage scenarios during design.

Interactive media
More recently the term storyboard has been used in the fields of web development, software development and
instructional design to present and describe, in written, interactive events as well as audio and motion, particularly on
user interfaces and electronic pages.

Benefits
One advantage of using storyboards is that it allows (in film and business) the user to experiment with changes in the
storyline to evoke stronger reaction or interest. Flashbacks, for instance, are often the result of sorting storyboards
out of chronological order to help build suspense and interest.
The process of visual thinking and planning allows a group of people to brainstorm together, placing their ideas on
storyboards and then arranging the storyboards on the wall. This fosters more ideas and generates consensus inside
the group.

Creation
Storyboards for films are created in a multiple step process.-- They can be created by hand drawing or digitally on
the computer.
If drawing by hand, the first step is to create or download a storyboard template. These look much like a blank comic
strip, with space for comments and dialogue. Then sketch a "thumbnail" storyboard. Some directors sketch
thumbnails directly in the script margins. These storyboards get their name because they are rough sketches not
bigger than a thumbnail. For some motion pictures, thumbnail storyboards are sufficient.
However, some filmmakers rely heavily on the storyboarding process. If a director or producer wishes, more detailed
and elaborate storyboard images are created. These can be created by professional storyboard artists by hand on
paper or digitally by using 2D storyboarding programs. Some software applications even supply a stable of
storyboard-specific images making it possible to quickly create shots which express the director's intent for the story.
These boards tend to contain more detailed information than thumbnail storyboards and convey more of the mood
for the scene. These are then presented to the project's cinematographer who achieves the director's vision.
Finally, if needed, 3D storyboards are created (called 'technical previsualization'). The advantage of 3D storyboards
is they show exactly what the film camera will see using the lenses the film camera will use. The disadvantage of 3D
is the amount of time it takes to build and construct the shots. 3D storyboards can be constructed using 3D animation
Storyboard 16

programs or digital puppets within 3D programs. Some programs have a collection of low resolution 3D figures
which can aid in the process. Some 3D applications allow cinematographers to create "technical" storyboards which
are optically-correct shots and frames.
While technical storyboards can be helpful, optically-correct storyboards may limit the director's creativity. In classic
motion pictures such as Orson Welles' Citizen Kane and Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest, the director created
storyboards that were initially thought by cinematographers as to be impossible to film. Such innovative and
dramatic shots had "impossible" depth of field and angles where there was "no room for the camera" - at least not
until creative solutions were found to achieve the ground-breaking shots that the director had envisioned. It is very
important that the director not be limited to what is just "possible" or "normal" to the cinematographer. Technical 3D
programs can sometimes help the cinematographer plan what challenges the director has created for them to achieve
complex storytelling shots.

See also
• Animation
• Filmmaking
• Graphic organizer
• Photomatic
• Previsualization
• Pre-production
• Screenplay
• Screenwriting
• Script breakdown
• List of film-related topics
Gantt chart 17

Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that
illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts
illustrate the start and finish dates of the
terminal elements and summary elements of
a project. Terminal elements and summary
elements comprise the work breakdown
structure of the project. Some Gantt charts
also show the dependency (i.e, precedence
network) relationships between activities.
Gantt charts can be used to show current
schedule status using percent-complete
shadings and a vertical "TODAY" line as
shown here.
A Gantt chart showing three kinds of schedule dependencies (in red) and percent
Although now regarded as a common complete indications.

charting technique, Gantt charts were

considered revolutionary when they were introduced. In recognition of Henry Gantt's contributions, the Henry
Laurence Gantt Medal is awarded for distinguished achievement in management and in community service. This
chart is used also in Information Technology to represent data that has been collected.

Historical development
The first known tool of this type was reportedly developed in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, who called it a
harmonogram. Adamiecki did not publish his chart until 1931, however, and then only in Polish. The chart is
commonly known after Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed his chart around the years 1910–1915.[1] [2] [3]
In the 1980s, personal computers allowed for widespread creation of complex and elaborate Gantt charts. The first
desktop applications were intended mainly for project managers and project schedulers. With the advent of the
internet and increased collaboration over networks at the end of the 1990s, Gantt charts became a common feature of
web-based applications, including collaborative groupware.

Advantages and limitations

Gantt charts have become a common technique for representing the phases and activities of a project work
breakdown structure (WBS), so they can be understood by a wide audience.
A common error made by those who equate Gantt chart design with project design is that they attempt to define the
project work breakdown structure at the same time that they define schedule activities. This practice makes it very
difficult to follow the 100% Rule. Instead the WBS should be fully defined to follow the 100% Rule, then the project
schedule can be designed.
Although a Gantt chart is useful and valuable for small projects that fit on a single sheet or screen, they can become
quite unwieldy for projects with more than about 30 activities. Larger Gantt charts may not be suitable for most
computer displays. A related criticism is that Gantt charts communicate relatively little information per unit area of
display. That is, projects are often considerably more complex than can be communicated effectively with a Gantt
chart.
Gantt charts only represent part of the triple constraints (cost, time and scope) of projects, because they focus
primarily on schedule management. Moreover, Gantt charts do not represent the size of a project or the relative size
Gantt chart 18

of work elements, therefore the magnitude of a behind-schedule condition is easily miscommunicated. If two
projects are the same number of days behind schedule, the larger project has a larger impact on resource utilization,
yet the Gantt does not represent this difference.
Although project management software can show schedule dependencies as lines between activities, displaying a
large number of dependencies may result in a cluttered or unreadable chart.
Because the horizontal bars of a Gantt chart have a fixed height, they can misrepresent the time-phased workload
(resource requirements) of a project, which may cause confusion especially in large projects. In the example shown
in this article, Activities E and G appear to be the same size, but in reality they may be orders of magnitude different.
A related criticism is that all activities of a Gantt chart show planned workload as constant. In practice, many
activities (especially summary elements) have front-loaded or back-loaded work plans, so a Gantt chart with
percent-complete shading may actually miscommunicate the true schedule performance status.

See also
• Critical path method
• List of project management software
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• Event chain diagram

External links
• Create a Gantt chart in [[OpenOffice.org [4]] Calc]
• Long-running discussion [5] regarding limitations of the Gantt chart format, and alternatives, on Edward Tufte's
website

References
[1] H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profit, published by The Engineering Magazine, New York, 1910; republished as Work, Wages and Profits,
Easton, Pennsylvania, Hive Publishing Company, 1974, ISBN 0879600489.
[2] Blokdijk, Gerard (2007). Project Management 100 Success Secrets (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dgB-QWHlnrUC& pg=PA76&
dq=Adamiecki+ Gantt& as_brr=3& sig=Jp-mgVODNRJpxqBRM1PYJbs7mOU). Lulu.com. p. 76. ISBN 0980459907. .
[3] Peter W. G. Morris, The Management of Projects, Thomas Telford, 1994, ISBN 0727725939, Google Print, p.18 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=5ekyoWaeZ1UC& pg=PA18-IA7& dq=Adamiecki+ Gantt& as_brr=3& sig=xe_RAipoqlvhnu0xLkIsxx-8OAQ)
[4] http:/ / documentation. openoffice. org/ HOW_TO/ spreadsheet/ gantt_pm. pdf
[5] http:/ / www. edwardtufte. com/ bboard/ q-and-a-fetch-msg?msg_id=000076& topic_id=1& topic=Ask%20E%2eT%2e
Pictogram 19

Pictogram

Writing
systems
History
Grapheme
List of writing
systems

Types

Featural alphabet
Alphabet
Abjad
Abugida
Syllabary
Logography

Related topics

Pictogram
Ideogram

A pictograph[1] (also called pictogram or pictogramme) is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its
pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Earliest examples of pictographs include ancient or prehistoric drawings
or paintings found on rock walls. Pictographs are also used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters
are to considerable extent pictorial in appearance.
Pictography is a form of writing which uses representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis of cuneiform and, to
some extent, hieroglyphic writing, which uses drawings also as phonetic letters or determinative rhymes.
Early written symbols were based on pictographs (pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms
(symbols which represent ideas). They were used by the ancient Chinese culture since around 5000 BC and began to
develop into logographic writing systems around 2000 BC. Pictographs are still in use as the main medium of written
communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas, and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as
simple, pictorial, representational symbols by most contemporary cultures.
Pictographs can often transcend languages in that they can
communicate to speakers of a number of tongues and language
families equally effectively, even if the languages and cultures are
completely different. This is why road signs and similar pictographic
material are often applied as global standards expected to be
understood by nearly all.
Pictographs can also take the form of diagrams to represent statistical
data by pictorial forms, and can be varied in color, size, or number to
indicate change.
Native North American pictographs from Agnes
Lake, Quetico Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada

Modern use
Pictogram 20

Pictographs remain in common use today, serving as pictorial, representational signs, instructions, or statistical
diagrams. Because of their graphical nature and fairly realistic style, they are widely used to indicate public toilets,
or places such as airports and train stations.
A standard set of pictographs was defined in the international standard ISO 7001: Public Information Symbols.
Another common set of pictographs are the laundry symbols used on clothing tags and chemical hazard labels.
Pictographic writing as a modernist poetic technique is credited to Ezra Pound, though French surrealists accurately
credit the Pacific Northwest American Indians of Alaska who introduced writing, via totem poles, to North
America.[2]
Contemporary Artist Xu Bing created Book from the Ground [3], a universal language made up of pictogram
collected from around the world. A Book from the Ground chat program has been exhibited in museums and
galleries internationally. There is a Book from the Ground Wiki [4] currently in development that needs public
participation in development. The wiki will be a continually growing database of pictogram used in the chat
program, books, signs etc.

Pictographs from the Great Sample National Park Pictograph from 1510 telling a Water, rabbit, deer
Gallery, Horseshoe Canyon, Service pictographs story of coming of missionaries pictographs on a replica
Canyonlands National Park to Hispaniola of an Aztec Stone of the
Sun

British Rail A pictograph warning against "No Dogs!" sign in The top traffic sign
passenger swimming because of crocodiles Spain. The dog warns people of horses
safety at the Australia Zoo. illustration is a and riders.
pictographs at pictograph. The red
the end of the circle and bar is an
platform at ideogram representing
Meols the idea of "no" or "not
railway allowed."
station
Pictogram 21

See also
• Asemic writing
• Chinese character
• Crop art
• DOT pictograms
• Emoticon
• Icon (computing)
• Ideogram
• Pecked curvilinear nucleated
• Petroforms
• Rebus
• Rock Art
• Writing system
• Yakima Indian Painted Rocks

References
• Reed, Ishmael (2003). From Totems to Hip-Hop: A Multicultural Anthology of Poetry Across the Americas,
1900-2002, Ishmael Reed, ed. ISBN 1-56025-458-0.

External links
• CAPL:The Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon, photographic illustrations of objects for multiple languages [5]

References
[1] Gove, Philip Babcock. (1993). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Merriam-Webster Inc.
ISBN 0-87779-201-1.
[2] Reed 2003, p. xix
[3] http:/ / www. bookfromtheground. com
[4] http:/ / www. bookfromtheground. com/ wiki
[5] http:/ / capl. washjeff. edu/
Aircraft safety card 22

Aircraft safety card

An aircraft safety card is a document instructing
passengers on an aircraft about the procedures for
dealing with various emergency conditions that might
arise during the flight.
The safety cards are usually provided by airlines on all
commercial flights, usually located in the back of the
seat in front of each passenger. pre-flight safety
demonstrations, either conducted by the flight
attendants or through a video presentation, instruct
passengers to familiarize themselves with the safety
cards prior to take-off.

The cards are frequently laminated or made of plastic

and contain instructions that are specific to the model
of the airplane they are found in. The contents are
usually in the form of pictures, graphically illustrating
such procedures as buckling the seatbelts, bracing for
impact in an airplane crash, dealing with
depressurization, opening the emergency exit door or
inflating life rafts in the event of a water landing. The
graphic representation allows the cards to be accessible
to those speaking a different language than the flight A Qantas aircraft safety card for Boeing 737-400 aircraft.

attendants, as well as children and illiterate passengers.

Aircraft safety cards are a collectible item among the aviation enthusiast community, since they are a reflection of an
airline, an aircraft type, a culture, and a historical period.
In the movie Fight Club, Tyler Durden criticizes those cards, showing quiet people taking oxygen masks, and more
generally criticizes the safety measures in the planes ("an emergency exit at 35 thousand feet - the illusion of
security").

See also
• Emergency aircraft evacuation

External links
• In-Flight Safety Cards--The World's Largest Safety Card Community [1]
• A Safety Card Collector's Website [2]
• Airtoons - the lighter side of safety card illustrations [3]
• - greatest archiv for safety cards with over 12000 examples [4]
• Safety Card collectors discussion board [5]
• Design For Impact (2003) ISBN 1-56898-387-5, history and examples of safety cards
• Geneva safety cards [6]
• Die Safety Card Page [7]
• Safety Cards Collectionners [8] (Archived [9] 2009-10-24)
• MM Safety Cards PT [10]
Aircraft safety card 23

• german safety card site [11]

• Safetycard collector's homepage [12]

References
[1] http:/ / groups. yahoo. com/ group/ inflight-safetycards/
[2] http:/ / richssafetycards. webs. com/
[3] http:/ / www. airtoons. com/
[4] http:/ / www. planespotter. de/ safety. php?PHPSESSID=9f6ce20d34e240dd2ee79f44b0fbfc91
[5] http:/ / sor-media. de
[6] http:/ / www. safetycardsgeneva. com/
[7] http:/ / safety-cards. de. tl/ Home. htm
[8] http:/ / www. geocities. com/ safety. cards
[9] http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kmDl6o1c
[10] http:/ / safetycards. blogspot. com/
[11] http:/ / www. safetycards. us/
[12] http:/ / safety-cards. gmxhome. de/
 24

Cook a three course Sunday roast

Sunday roast
The Sunday roast is a traditional British main meal
served on Sundays (usually in the early afternoon for
lunch), consisting of roasted meat, roast potato together
with accompaniments, such as Yorkshire pudding,
stuffing, vegetables and gravy.
It is popular throughout the United Kingdom and
Ireland. Other names for this meal are Sunday dinner,
Sunday lunch, Sunday tea, Roast dinner, and Sunday
joint, joint being a word that specifically refers to the
joint of meat. It is believed this tradition arose because
bakers could not bake bread on a Sunday, so their
ovens would be used to roast meat. The meal is often
Sunday roast consisting of roast beef, mashed potatoes, other
comparable to a less grand version of a traditional vegetables and mini Yorkshire puddings
Christmas dinner in these cultures.

Origin
Sunday Roast dates back to when the squire would treat his serfs to a meal of roast oxen every Sunday to reward
them for the week's work.[1]
Technically, the term Sunday Dinner, does not mean necessarily that an actual roast has to take place. Such things as
sausages, bacon and barbecued meat can be incorporated into a Sunday dinner. With the only rule being that the
dinner in question is held on the day of Sunday.

Typical elements

Meat
Typical meats used for a Sunday roast are beef, chicken, lamb or pork, although seasonally duck, goose, gammon,
turkey or (rarely) other game birds may be used[2] .
Recently, vegetarian alternatives such as Quorn or nut roast have also become available.

Vegetables
Sunday roasts can be served with a range of boiled and roasted vegetables. The vegetables served vary seasonally
and regionally, but will usually include roast potatoes, roasted in meat dripping or (more recently, due to the
unhealthy nature of saturated fats) vegetable oil, and also gravy made from juices released by the roasting meat,
perhaps supplemented by one or more stock cubes, thickened with some sort of roux, or corn flour. The potatoes can
be cooked around the meat itself, absorbing the juices and fat directly.
Other vegetable dishes served with roast dinner can include mashed swede or turnip, roast parsnip, boiled or steamed
cabbage, broccoli, green beans and boiled carrots and peas. It is also not uncommon for leftover prepared vegetable
Sunday roast 25

dishes — such as cauliflower cheese and stewed red cabbage — to be served alongside the more usual assortment of
plainly-cooked seasonal vegetables.

Accompaniments
Common traditional accompaniments include:
• beef — Yorkshire pudding, Suet pudding; English mustard, or horseradish sauce.
• pork — crackling and sage-and-onion stuffing; apple sauce or English mustard.
• lamb — mint sauce or redcurrant jelly.
• chicken — pigs in blankets, sausages or sausage meat, stuffing, bread sauce, cranberry sauce or redcurrant jelly[3]
.

Preparation
It takes a considerable amount of domestic cooking skill, flair and experience to have all the elements, with their
separate cooking and preparation methods and timings, ready together to serve at their best, especially to a large
gathering.
Left-over food from the Sunday roast has traditionally formed the basis of meals served on other days of the week.
For example, meats might be used as sandwich fillings, lamb might be used in the filling for a shepherd's pie, and
vegetables might form the basis for bubble and squeak.

Sunday roast in pubs and restaurants

In the United Kingdom, many pubs that serve food have a special "Sunday menu" that features a Sunday roast,
usually with a variety of meats to choose from (and often a vegetarian alternative such as a nut roast). This is often
cheaper than the normal menu, which may or may not also be available on Sundays.

See also
• Carvery
• Pub grub

References
[1] Sunday Roast - British flavors (http:/ / www. visitbath. co. uk/ site/ eating-and-drinking/ a-taste-of-bath/ british-flavours/ sunday-roast)
[2] Classic Roast Dinner (http:/ / www. ivillage. co. uk/ food/ tools/ recipefinder/ display_recipe/ 0,,4102,00. html)
[3] Various roast dinner recipes from uktv (http:/ / uktv. co. uk/ food/ homepage/ sid/ 5952)
Roasting 26

Roasting
Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry
heat, whether an open flame, oven, or other
heat source. Roasting usually causes
caramelization or Maillard browning of the
surface of the food, which is considered a
flavor enhancement. Meats and most root
and bulb vegetables can be roasted. Any
piece of meat, especially red meat, that has
been cooked in this fashion is called a roast.
Additionally, large uncooked cuts of meat
are referred to as roasts.[1] Also, meats and
vegetables prepared in this way are
described as "roasted", e.g., roasted chicken
or roasted squash.
Sunday roast consisting of roast beef, roast potatoes, vegetables and yorkshire
pudding

Methods
For roasting, the food may be placed on a rack, in a roasting pan or, to
ensure even application of heat, may be rotated on a spit or rotisserie.
During oven roasting, hot air circulates around the meat, cooking all
sides evenly. There are several theories for roasting meats correctly:
low temperature cooking, high temperature cooking and a combination
of both. Each method can be suitable under the appropriate
circumstances.

• A low temperature oven, 95°C to 160°C (200°F to 325°F), is best

when cooking with large cuts of meat, turkey and whole chickens.
This is not technically roasting temperature, but we call it
slow-roasting. The benefit of slow-roasting an item is less moisture
loss and a more tender product. At true roasting temperatures,
200°C (400°F) or more, the water inside the muscle is lost at a high Roasting, medieval illuminated manuscript
rate. (Tacuina sanitatis casanatensis XIV century)
• Cooking at high temperatures is beneficial if the cut is small enough
(filet mignon, strip loin) to be finished cooking before the juices escape.
• The combination method uses high heat just at either the beginning or the end of the cooking process, with most
of the cooking at a low temperature. This method produces the golden brown texture and crust people desire but
maintains more of the moisture than simply cooking at a high temperature, although the product will not be as
Roasting 27

moist as low temperature cooking the whole time. Searing and then
turning down to low the piece of meat is also beneficial when a dark
crust and caramelized flavor is desired for the finished product.
Note that searing in no way "locks in" moisture – moisture loss is
simply a function of heat and time.
In either case, the meat is generally removed from heat before it has
finished cooking and left to sit for a few minutes, while the inside
cooks further from the residual heat content, a phenomenon known as
carry over cooking.
The objective in any case is to retain as much moisture as possible,
while providing the texture and color people prefer. During roasting,
meats and vegetables are frequently basted on the surface with butter,
lard or oil to reduce the loss of moisture by evaporation. Recently,
plastic oven bags have become popular for roasts. These cut cooking
times and reduce the loss of moisture during roasting, but reduce flavor Vertically rotating roasted lamb, to be served in
development from Maillard browning. They are particularly popular pieces.
for turkeys.[2]

Until the late 19th century, roasting by dry heat in an oven was called baking. Roasting originally meant turning
meat or a bird on a spit in front of a fire. It is one of the oldest forms of cooking known.
Traditionally recognized roasting methods consist only of baking and cooking over or near an open fire. Grilling is
normally not technically a roast, since a grill (gridiron) is used (in English-speaking countries). Smoking differs from
roasting because of the lower temperature and controlled smoke application.

Meat
Most meat roasts are large cuts of meat. Many roasts are tied with
string prior to roasting, often using the reef knot or, more traditionally,
the packer's knot.[3] Tying holds them together during roasting,
keeping any stuffing inside, and keeps the roast in a round profile,
which promotes even cooking.[4]
Prior to roasting in an oven, meat is generally "browned" by brief
exposure to high temperature. This imparts a traditional flavor and
color to the roast. Red meats such as beef, lamb, and venison, and
certain game birds are often roasted to be "pink" or "rare", meaning A 3 kg (6.6 lb) top round roast of beef, tied and
that the center of the roast is still red. For reasons of hygiene this ready to be browned and roasted.
practice is not recommended with pork and poultry. Although there is a
growing fashion in some restaurants to serve "rose pork", temperature monitoring of the center of the roast is the
only sure way to avoid foodborne disease.[5]

In Britain and Ireland, a roast of meat may be referred to as a joint, or a leg, if it is a leg.
Roasting 28

Other
Roasting is a preferred method of cooking for most poultry, and certain cuts of beef, pork, or lamb. Some vegetables,
such as potatoes, zucchini, pumpkin, turnips, parsnips, cauliflower, squash, and peppers lend themselves to roasting
as well. Roasted chestnuts are also a popular snack in winter.

See also
• Low temperature cooking
• Pot roast
• Roast Beef
• Pan frying

External links
• Cooking times for roast meats. [6]
• High temperature roasting method for poultry [7]

References
[1] Blaisdell S. (2002). An Illustrated Guide to Beef Roasts (http:/ / www. cooksillustrated. com/ images/ document/ howto/ ND02_BeefRoasts.
pdf). Cook's Illustrated.
[2] Norbest, Cooking Perfect Turkey (http:/ / www. norbest. com/ turkey_tips. aspx?lid=330), , retrieved 2009-05-28
[3] Ashley, Clifford W. (1944), The Ashley Book of Knots, New York: Doubleday, pp. 36–38
[4] Epicurious, Video: Classic-Tying a Roast (http:/ / video. epicurious. com/ ?fr_story=e44a72dbbcce9f3318cf280457e3af22d1d14994&
rf=sitemap), , retrieved 2009-05-28
[5] County of Kern Environmental Health Services, Failure to Cook These Foods Properly May Cause Foodborne Illness (http:/ / www. co.
kern. ca. us/ eh/ CookingNew. asp), , retrieved 2009-05-28
[6] http:/ / www. roastingtimes. com/
[7] http:/ / tablascreek. typepad. com/ tablas/ 2009/ 12/ better-holiday-roasting-and-better-wine-pairing-with-barbara-kafka. html
Barbecue 29

Barbecue
Barbecue or barbeque (common spelling
variant)[1] (with abbreviations BBQ, Bar-B-Q
and Bar-B-Que; diminutive form of barbie, used
chiefly in Australia and New Zealand; and called
Braai in South Africa) is a method and apparatus
for cooking meat, with the heat and hot smoke of
a fire, smoking wood, or hot coals of charcoal,
cooking gas, or even electricity; and may include
application of a marinade, spice rub, or basting
sauce to the meat or vegetables. The term as a
noun can refer to the meat, the cooking apparatus
itself, or to a party that includes such food. The
term as an adjective can refer to foods cooked by
this method. The term is also used as a verb for A barbecue at a street fair in New York City's East Village known as
"Ternera a la Llanera es:Gastronomía de Colombia" from the Colombian
the act of cooking food in this manner. Barbecue
marshlands
is usually cooked in an outdoor environment
heated by the smoke of wood or charcoal.
Restaurant barbecue may be cooked in large brick
or metal ovens specially designed for that
purpose.

Barbecue has numerous regional variations in

many parts of the world. Notably, in the Southern
United States, practitioners consider barbecue to
include only indirect methods of cooking over
hardwood smoke, with the more direct methods
called grilling.

In British usage, barbecuing and grilling refer to

a fast cooking process directly over high heat,
while grilling also refers to cooking under a
source of direct, high heat—known in the U.S. A barrel - shaped barbecue on a trailer at a block party in Kansas City. Pans
on the top shelf hold hamburgers and hot dogs that were grilled earlier when
and Canada as broiling. In US English usage,
the coals were hot. The lower grill is now being used to cook pork ribs and
however, grilling refers to a fast process over "drunken chicken" slowly.
high heat, while barbecuing refers to a slow
process using indirect heat and/or hot smoke (very similar to some forms of roasting). For example, in a typical U.S.
home grill, food is cooked on a grate directly over hot charcoal, while in a U.S. barbecue, the coals are dispersed to
the sides or at significant distance from the grate. Its South American versions are the southern Brazilian churrasco
and the Argentine asado.

Alternatively, an apparatus called a smoker with a separate fire box may be used. Hot smoke is drawn past the meat
by convection for very slow cooking. This is essentially how barbecue is cooked in most U.S. "barbecue"
restaurants, but nevertheless, many consider this to be a distinct cooking process called hot smoking.
The slower methods of cooking break down the collagen in meat and tenderizes the tougher cuts for easier eating.

Etymology
Barbecue 30

The origins of both the activity of barbecue cooking and the word itself are somewhat obscure. Most etymologists
believe that barbecue derives ultimately from the word barabicu found in the language of both the Timucua of
Florida and the Taíno people of the Caribbean. The word translates as "sacred fire pit."[2] The word describes a grill
for cooking meat, consisting of a wooden platform resting on sticks.
Traditional barbacoa involves digging a hole in the ground and placing some meat (usually a whole goat) with a pot
underneath it, so that the juices can make a hearty broth. It is then covered with maguey leaves and coal and set
alight. The cooking process takes a few hours.
There is ample evidence that both the word and cooking technique migrated out of the Caribbean and into other
languages and cultures, with the word (barbacoa) moving from Caribbean dialects into Spanish, then French and
English. The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first recorded use of the word in the English language in 1697 by
the British buccaneer William Dampier.[3]
While the standard modern English spelling of the word is barbecue, local variations like barbeque and truncations
such as bar-b-q or bbq may also be found.[4] In the southeastern United States, the word barbecue is used
predominantly as a noun referring to roast pork, while in the southwestern states, cuts of beef are often cooked.
The word barbecue has attracted several inaccurate origins from folk etymology. An often-repeated claim is that the
word is derived from the French language. The story goes that French visitors to the Caribbean saw a pig being
cooked whole and described the method as barbe à queue, meaning "from beard to tail". The French word for
barbecue is also barbecue, and the "beard to tail" explanation is regarded as false by most language experts. The
only merit is that it relies on the similar sound of the words, a feature common in folk-etymology explanations.[5]
Another claim states that the word BBQ came from the time when roadhouses and beer joints with pool tables
advertised "Bar, Beer and Cues". According to this tale, the phrase was shortened over time to BBCue, then BBQ.[6]
The related term buccaneer is derived from the Arawak word buccan, a wooden frame for smoking meat, hence the
French word boucane and the name boucanier for hunters who used such frames to smoke meat from feral cattle and
pigs on Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic).[7] English colonists anglicised the word boucanier to
buccaneer.

Styles

American South
In the southern United States, barbecue initially revolved around
the cooking of pork.[8] During the 19th century, pigs were a
low-maintenance food source that could be released to forage for
themselves in forests and woodlands. When food or meat supplies
were low, these semi-wild pigs could then be caught and eaten.[9]
It was the Spanish who first introduced the pig into the Americas
and to the American Indians. The Indians, in turn, introduced the
Spanish to the concept of true slow cooking with smoke. So, in
that first fateful coming together, way back in the 1500s, the
Spanish supplied the pig and the Indians showed them how to Chicken wings being cooked slowly over charcoal
cook it. The Spanish colonists came to South Carolina in the early ashes
1500's and they named their colony Santa Elena. It was established
in the area now called Port Royal in Beaufort County. That colony lasted almost 20 years and it boasted a fort with
several cannons, a church, a bakery, blacksmith foundry and shop, a pottery kiln and nearly 500 colonists including

over 100 families. It was in that first American colony that the white man first learned to prepare and to eat real
barbeque. So, people were eating barbeque in South Carolina even before that name had been applied to the area by
Barbecue 31

the English.[10] ]
According to estimates, prior to the American Civil War, Southerners ate around five pounds of pork for every one
pound of beef they consumed.[11] Because of the poverty of the southern United States at this time, every part of the
pig was eaten immediately or saved for later (including the ears, feet, and other organs). Because of the effort to
capture and cook these wild hogs, "pig slaughtering became a time for celebration, and the neighborhood would be
invited to share in the largesse. These feasts are sometimes called 'pig-pickin's.' The traditional Southern barbecue
grew out of these gatherings."[9]
Each Southern locale has its own particular variety of barbecue, particularly concerning the sauce. North Carolina
sauces vary by region; eastern North Carolina uses a vinegar-based sauce, the center of the state (around Lexington,
NC) uses a combination of ketchup and vinegar as their base, and western North Carolina uses a heavier ketchup
base. Lexington, NC boasts of being "The Barbecue Capital of the World" and they have more than one BBQ
restaurant per 1,000 residents.[12] Another distinguishing characteristic of North Carolina barbecue is barbecue slaw,
which has no mayonnaise, is composed of cabbage, ketchup, vinegar, and black pepper and can be served either on
the side or on a sandwich. South Carolina is the only state that includes all four recognized barbecue sauces,
including mustard-based, vinegar-based, and light and heavy tomato-based.[13] Memphis barbecue is best known for
tomato- and vinegar-based sauces [14] . In some Memphis establishments[14] and in Kentucky, meat is rubbed with
dry seasoning (dry rubs) and smoked over hickory wood without sauce; the finished barbecue is then served with
barbecue sauce on the side.
The barbecue of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee is almost always pork served with a sweet tomato-based sauce.
However, several regional variations exist as well. Alabama is particularly known for its distinctive white sauce, a
mayonnaise- and vinegar-based sauce, originating in northern Alabama, used predominantly on chicken and pork. A
popular item in North Carolina and Memphis is the pulled pork sandwich served on a bun and often topped with cole
slaw. Pulled pork is prepared by shredding the pork after it is barbecued.
Pit-beef prevails in Maryland and is often enjoyed at large outdoor bull roasts, which are common in the warmer
months. Maryland-style pit-beef is not the product of barbecue cookery in the strictest sense, as there is no smoking
of the meat involved—rather, it involves grilling the meat over a high heat. The meat is typically served rare, with a
strong horseradish sauce as the preferred condiment.[15]
The state of Kentucky, particularly Western Kentucky, is unusual in its barbecue cooking, in that the preferred meat
is mutton. This kind of mutton barbecue is often used in communal events in Kentucky, such as political rallies,
county fairs and church fund-raising events.
In much of the world outside of the American South, barbecue has a close association with Texas. Many barbecue
restaurants outside the United States claim to serve "Texas barbecue", regardless of the style they actually serve.
Texas barbecue is often assumed to be primarily beef. This assumption, along with the inclusive term "Texas
barbecue" is an oversimplification. Texas has four main styles, all with different flavors, different cooking methods,
different ingredients, and different cultural origins. (cf. Barbecue in the United States) In the June 2008 issue of
Texas Monthly Magazine Snows BBQ in Lexington was rated as the best BBQ in the state of Texas. This ranking
was reinforced when New Yorker Magazine also claimed that Snows BBQ was "The Best Texas BBQ in the World"
in the article "By Meat Alone" written by Calvin Trillin on November 24, 2008.
Barbecue 32

Events and gatherings

The word barbecue is also used to refer to a social gathering where
food is served, usually outdoors in the early afternoon. In the southern
USA, outdoor gatherings are not typically called "barbecues" unless
barbecue itself will actually be on the menu, instead generally favoring
the word "cookouts". The device used for cooking at a barbecue is
commonly referred to as a "barbecue", "barbecue grill", or "grill".

• Often referred to as "The World Series of Barbecue", The American

Royal Barbecue Contest[16] is held each October in Kansas City,
Missouri. This event comprises two distinct competitions held over
the course of four days. The first contest is the Invitational Contest,
with competing teams being required to obtain an invitation by
winning other qualifying contests throughout the year. The second
competition is an open contest that any team can compete in. This
open contest is the largest championship barbecue competition in
the world, with the 2007 event attracting 496 teams.
Diagram of a propane smoker used for
• The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest is held barbecuing

annually in Memphis, Tennessee, during the Memphis in May

festival.[17] Other barbecue competitions are held in virtually every state in the United States during the warmer
months, usually beginning in April and going through September. One of the best known was the Ribfest, first
organized by former Chicago newspaper columnist Mike Royko, which attracted over 400 contestants in 1982,
ballooned to 750 entries and over 10,000 attendees by 1990, and helped popularize the distinctions between
different regional styles to a much wider audience. These events feature keen competitions between teams of
cooks and are divided into separate competitions for the best pork, beef and poultry barbecue and for the best
barbecue sauces.

Techniques
Barbecuing encompasses four distinct types of cooking techniques. The original technique is cooking by using
indirect heat or low-level direct radiant heat at lower temperatures (usually around 240°F) and significantly longer
cooking times (several hours), often with smoke. Another technique is baking, utilizing a masonry oven or any other
type of baking oven, which uses convection to cook meats and starches with moderate temperatures for an average
cooking time (about an hour plus a few extra minutes). Yet another technique is braising, which combines direct dry
heat charbroiling on a ribbed surface with a broth-filled pot for moist heat, cooking at various speeds throughout the
duration (starting fast, slowing down, then speeding up again, lasting for a few hours). One type is grilling over
direct dry heat on a shallow surface, usually over a hot fire (i.e., over 500°F) for a short time (minutes), from which
one variant is charbroiling, which uses direct dry heat on a ribbed surface, and the other is griddling, which uses
direct dry or moist heat (sometimes with the additions of oils and butter) on a flat surface. Grilling may be done over
wood, charcoal, gas (natural gas or propane), or electricity.
Barbecue 33

Smoking
Smoking can be done with wood or charcoal, although many common
commercial smokers use a gas, such as propane, to heat up a box of
wet wood chips enough to cause smoke. The heat from the propane fire
helps cook the meat while the smoke adds its unique and delicious
flavor. The distinction between smoking and grilling is the heat level
and the intensity of the radiant heat; indeed, smoking is often referred
to as "low and slow". Additionally, during grilling, the meat is exposed
to the open air for the majority of the time. During smoking, the BBQ
lid or smoker door is closed, making a thick dense cloud of smoke to Chicken, pork and corn cooked in a barbecue
smoker
envelop the meat. The smoke must be able to move freely around the
meat and out of the top of the apparatus quickly; otherwise,
foul-tasting creosote will build up on the meat, giving it a bitter flavor. Smoked meats such as pork exhibit what is
known as a smoke ring: a thin pink layer just under the surface which is the result of the smoke interacting with the
water in the meat.

Baking
The masonry oven is similar to a smoke pit in that it allows for an open flame, but cooks much faster, and uses
convection to cook. Barbecue-baking can also be done in traditional stove-ovens. It can be used to cook not only
meats, but breads and other starches, and even various casseroles and desserts.[18] It uses both direct and indirect heat
to surround the food with hot air to cook, and can be basted much the same as grilled foods. In some cases, the grill
can also function like a bakery oven by putting a drip pan below the cooking surface rack of a barbecue grill, as well
as a baking sheet pan on top, combining two techniques simultaneously, or one right after the other, cooking twice,
with a duration slightly longer than grilling.
Meat can also be baked in a pit in the ground, with hot coals and stones surrounding meat wrapped in wet burlap,
wet leaves or aluminum foil.

Braising
It is possible to braise meats and vegetables in a pot on top of a grill. A gas or electric charbroil grill would be the
best choices for what is known as barbecue-braising, or combining dry heat charbroil-grilling directly on a ribbed
surface and braising in a broth-filled pot for moist heat. To braise, put a pot on top of the grill, cover it, and let it
simmer for a few hours. There are two advantages to barbecue-braising: the first is that this method now allows for
browning the meat directly on the grill before the braising, and the second is that it also allows for glazing the meat
with sauce and finishing it directly over the fire after the braising, effectively cooking the meat three times, which
results in a soft textured product that falls right off the bone.[19] This method of barbecue has a varying duration
(depending on whether a slow cooker or pressure cooker is used), and is generally slower than regular grilling or
baking, but faster than pit-smoking.
Barbecue 34

Grilling (charbroiling or griddling)

Wood

The choice and combination of woods burned result in different

flavors imparted to the meat. Woods commonly selected for their
flavor include mesquite, hickory, maple, guava, kiawe, cherry,
pecan, apple and oak. Woods to avoid include conifers. These
contain resins and tars, which impart undesirable resinous and
chemical flavors. If these woods are used, they should be burned
in a catalytic grill, such as a rocket stove, so that the resins and tars
are completely burned before coming into contact with the food.

Different types of wood burn at different rates. The heat also

varies by the amount of wood and controlling the rate of burn Large beef steaks over wood
through careful venting. Wood and charcoal are sometimes
combined to optimize smoke flavor and consistent burning.

Charcoal

Cooking with charcoal, like cooking with gas, is a more

manageable approximation of cooking over a wood fire. Charcoal
does not impart the rich flavour of cooking over hardwoods but is
cheap and easy to purchase in sizes appropriate for close proximity
cooking in typical commercially available home grills and
griddles.
Charcoal charbroiling generally begins with purchasing a
Barbecued lamb sticks
commercial bag of processed charcoal briquettes. An alternative to
charcoal briquettes is lump charcoal. Lump charcoal is wood that
has been turned into charcoal, but unlike briquettes, it has not been ground and shaped. Lump charcoal is a pure form
of charcoal and is preferred by many purists who dislike artificial binders used to hold briquettes in their shape, and
it also burns hotter and responds to changes in airflow much more quickly. Charcoal cannot be burned indoors
because poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) is a combustion product.[20] Carbon monoxide fumes may contribute to
the pink color taken on by barbecued meats after slow cooking in a smoker.[21] Many barbecue aficionados prefer
charcoal over gas (natural gas or propane) for the authentic flavor the coals provide.
Barbecue 35

A charcoal chimney starter is an inexpensive and efficient method

for quickly obtaining a good charcoal fire. A few pages of
newspaper are wadded up underneath the chimney to start the fire.
Other methods are to use an electric iron to heat the charcoal or to
soak it with aliphatic petroleum solvent and light it in a pyramid
formation. Charcoal briquettes pre-impregnated with solvent are
also available. Although the use of solvents is quick and portable,
it can be hazardous, and petroleum solvents can impart undesirable
chemical flavors to the meat. Using denatured alcohol ("methyl
hydrate", "methylated spirit") instead of commercial
petroleum-based lighter fluids avoids this problem.

Once all coals are ashed over (generally 15–25 minutes,

depending on starting technique), they can be spread around the
perimeter of the grill with the meat placed in the center for indirect
cooking, or piled together for direct cooking. Water-soaked wood
chips (such as mesquite, cherry, hickory or fruit trees) can be
added to the coals for flavor. As with wood barbecuing, the
temperature of the grill is controlled by the amount and
distribution of coal within the grill and through careful venting. Chimney starter in use

For long cooking times (up to 18 hours), many cooks find success
with the minion method, usually performed in a smoker. The method involves putting a small number of hot coals on
top of a full chamber of unlit briquettes. The burning coals will gradually light the unlit coals. By leaving the top air
vent all the way open and adjusting the lower vents, a constant temperature of 225°F can easily be achieved for up to
18 hours.
The Japanese-style kamado cooker utilizes lump charcoal for fuel. The kamado is made from ceramics and can be
adjusted to cook for more than 30 hours on a single load of lump, the heat being retained in the ceramic walls,
radiating into the food. There is no need to use water pans or replenish fuel during the cook, as is the case with steel
water smokers. Furthermore, lump charcoal contains no additives or fillers as contained in charcoal briquettes. The
very small amount of air needed to keep a ceramic cooker going at low temperature helps maintain a moist
environment, whereas in a steel smoker, steam must be added from a water pan over the briquettes to keep the food
from drying out. The kamado dates back several thousand years with roots in China and Japan.
Barbecue 36

Natural gas, propane, and electricity

Charbroiling and griddling with natural gas, propane, or electricity

is a step further removed from cooking over a wood fire. Despite
this, and the higher cost of a gas grill over a charcoal grill, many
people continue to prefer cooking over a gas flame or electric
element. There are also some hybrid charbroilers and griddles that
combine these two energy sources together for cooking.
Gas grills are easy to light. The heat is easy to control via
knob-controlled gas valves on the burners, so the outcome is very
predictable. Gas grills give very consistent results, although some
charcoal and wood purists argue that it lacks the flavors available
only from cooking with charcoal. Advocates of gas grills claim
that gas cooking lets you "taste the meat, not the heat" because it is
claimed that charcoal grills may deposit traces of coal tar on the
food. Many grills are equipped with thermometers, further
simplifying the barbecuing experience. However, propane and
natural gas produce a "wet" heat (combustion byproducts include
water vapor) that can change the texture of foods cooked over such A typical propane barbecue grill in an urban backyard
fuels.[22]

Added wood smoke flavor can be imparted on gas and electric grills using water-soaked wood chips placed in an
inexpensive smoker box (a perforated metal box), or simply a perforated foil pouch, under the grilling grate and over
the heat. It takes some experience in order to keep the chips smoking consistently without catching fire; some
high-end gas grills include a built-in smoker box with a dedicated burner to simplify the task. Using such smokers on
quick-grilled foods (steaks, chops, burgers) nearly duplicates the effects of wood and charcoal grills, and they can
actually make grilling some longer-cooked foods, such as ribs, easier, since the "wet" heat makes it easier to prevent
the meat from drying out.

Gas and electric charbroilers and griddles are significantly more expensive due to their added complexity. They are
also considered much cleaner, as they do not result in ashes, which must be disposed of, and also in terms of air
pollution. Proper maintenance may further help reduce pollution. The useful life of a gas or electric grill or griddle
may be extended by obtaining replacement gas grill parts when the original parts wear out. Most barbecues that are
used for commercial purposes now use gas or electricity for the reasons above.

Solar power
There have been a number of designs for barbecues that use solar power as a means of cooking food. The device
usually involves the use of a curved mirror acting as a parabolic reflector, which focuses the rays of the sun on to a
point where the food is to be heated.[23] [24]

Other uses
The term barbecue is also used to designate a flavor added to foodstuffs, the most prominent of which are potato
chips. This term usually implies a strong smoky flavor and often denotes a flavor reminiscent of barbecue sauce.
Barbecue 37

Vegetarian/Vegan Barbecue
Vegetarian or vegan barbecues consist mainly of vegetables, such as onions, red and green peppers, tomatoes, and
fruit such as pineapple, cantaloupe, and honey dew melon. They can also include faux meat made of soya, such as
tofu, or seitan.

Indoor air quality and health

It is believed that the air quality in the event area is associated with the cooking material used[25] and the activities
are even health-hazardous in some situations,[26] such as barbecuing fresh meat.[27] [28] [29] Therefore, the Maryland
Department of the Environment in the United States regulates the facilities installed in households under Maryland's
Air Quality Regulations, Code of Maryland Regulations COMAR 26.11.02 [30] . Lee et al. has provided a review on
the issues relating to indoor air quality in restaurants.[31]

See also
• Asado
• Braaivleis
• Barbecue in the United States
• Baking
• Basting
• Benzopyrene
• Braai (South Africa)
• Bulgogi
• Burnt ends
• Charbroil
• Churrasco
• Fire pot
• Galbi
• Grilling
• Heterocyclic compound
• Jamaican jerk
• Kansas City-style barbecue
• Lexington Barbecue Festival
• Marination
• Pit barbecue
• Regional variations of barbecue
• Rocket stove
• Santa Maria Style Barbecue
• St. Louis-style barbecue
• Satay
• Shashlik
• Tailgate party
• Yakiniku
Barbecue 38

External links
• US National Barbecue Association [32]
• Barbecue Food Safety [33] (US Dept. of Agriculture)
• The Internet BBQ FAQ [34]
• History of BBQ [35] - South Carolina BBQ Association
• Safety is a key ingredient for a great BBQ [36] - Kent Fire and Rescue Service
• Barbecue: A History of the World's Oldest Culinary Art [37] Web cast from the Library of Congress. Barbecue
expert Steven Raichlen gives an illustrated lecture on the history of BBQ. Retrieved August 21, 2009.

References
[1] The spelling barbeque is given in Merriam-Webster OnLine ( barbeque (http:/ / www. m-w. com/ dictionary/ barbeque)) as a variant spelling
but not in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary ( barbecue (http:/ / www. askoxford. com/ concise_oed/ barbecue?view=uk)).
[2] The Great American Barbecue and Grilling Manual by Smoky Hale. Abacus Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-936171-03-0.
[3] In his New Voyage Round the World, Dampier writes: And lay there all night, upon our Borbecu's, or frames of Sticks, raised about 3 foot
from the Ground.
[4] The Marrow of the Bone of Contention: A Barbecue Journal (http:/ / www. storysouth. com/ winter2003/ bbqframe. html) by Jake Adam
York. storySouth (http:/ / www. storysouth. com), winter 2003. Accessed 1-26-06.
[5] http:/ / www. worldwidewords. org/ qa/ qa-bar1. htm World Wide Words - Barbecue
[6] Barebecue, BBQ by Cliff Lowe (http:/ / www. inmamaskitchen. com/ FOOD_IS_ART/ bbqarticle. html), from inmamaskitchen.com.
Accessed 1-26-06.
[7] Types of Pirates:The Buccaneers (http:/ / www. piratesinfo. com/ detail/ detail. php?article_id=61)
[8] A History of Barbeque (http:/ / www. oscarenterprises. f2s. com/ bbq_history. html)
[9] The History of Barbecue in the South (http:/ / xroads. virginia. edu/ ~CLASS/ MA95/ dove/ history. htm) from the American Studies website
(http:/ / xroads. virginia. edu) of the University of Virginia. Accessed 1-26-06.
[10] [http://www.scbarbeque.com/History.html
[11] Eating, Drinking and Visiting in the Old South by Joe Gray Taylor. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982. Page 27.
[12] 2
[13] South Carolina Barbeque Association (http:/ / www. scbarbeque. com/ History. html)
[14] Memphis Style Barbecue (http:/ / memphis. about. com/ od/ barbecue/ p/ memphisbbq. htm)
[15] (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?sec=travel& res=9501EFD81230F93BA15755C0A9669C8B63)
[16] American Royal Barbeque Competition (http:/ / www. americanroyal. com/ Default. aspx?tabid=231)
[17] Memphis in May Festival (http:/ / memphisinmay. org/ home. html)
[18] How to Bake Bread on Your Grill (http:/ / www. preparedpantry. com/ howtobakebreadonyourgrill. aspx)
[19] A New Way to Grill: Barbecue-Braising - Fine Cooking Article (http:/ / www. finecooking. com/ articles/ how-to/ barbecue-braising. aspx?)
[20] Smoke Detectors, Carbon Monoxide Detectors, and Charcoal (http:/ / www. hc-sc. gc. ca/ cps-spc/ house-domes/ fire-feu/ detect/ index_e.
html)
[21] Texas barbeque (http:/ / bbq-book. com/ texas-barbecue. html)
[22] Propane is 81.8% carbon and the balance hydrogen, yielding approximately 1.6 grams of water vapor for each gram of propane burned.
Charcoal also produces some water vapor when burned, since some residual water (5%) and hydrogen from the starch binder are present in
charcoal, but this is a minor product. See How is a charcoal briquette made? (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/
charcoal-briquette?cat=technology)
[23] Newspaper article on solar barbecue (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ pages/ live/ articles/ technology/ technology.
html?in_article_id=449500& in_page_id=1965)
[24] US patent for solar barbecue granted in 1992 (http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1& Sect2=HITOFF& d=PALL&
p=1& u=/ netahtml/ PTO/ srchnum. htm& r=1& f=G& l=50& s1=5090399. PN. & OS=PN/ 5090399& RS=PN/ 5090399)
[25] azcentral.com. "Greening up' your backyard barbecue" (http:/ / www. azcentral. com/ style/ hfe/ decor/ articles/ 2007/ 07/ 06/
20070706hom_greengrill. html). . Retrieved 16 June 2008.
[26] Pocono Mountains Media Group. "Barbecue grills are health hazard in several ways" (http:/ / www. poconorecord. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/
article?AID=/ 20070409/ NEWS01/ 704090318). . Retrieved 16 June 2008.
[27] Rikke, Egeberg et al. (2008). "Meat consumption, N-acetyl transferase 1 and 2 polymorphism and risk of breast cancer in Danish
postmenopausal women" (http:/ / www. eurjcancerprev. com/ pt/ re/ ejcp/ abstract. 00008469-200802000-00007.
htm;jsessionid=LVhdRsGQyKrQnJlG8NM9vnRCgz9tdH9BQ29yCt0vwSmBGtwJTfMq!-629222879!181195628!8091!-1). Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins 17 (1): 39–47. . Retrieved 16 June 2008.
[28] Tang, Deliang et al. (2007). "Grilled Meat Consumption and PhIP-DNA Adducts in Prostate Carcinogenesis". Cancer Epidemiology
Biomarkers & Prevention 16: 803–808. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0973 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1158/ 1055-9965. EPI-06-0973). PMID
Barbecue 39

17416774 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 17416774).

[29] Keating, G . et al. (2007). "Development of a Meat Frequency Questionnaire for Use in Diet and Cancer Studies". Journal of the American
Dietetic Association (Elsevier) 107 (8): 1356–1362. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2007.05.011 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jada. 2007. 05. 011).
[30] Maryland Department of the Environment. "Air Quality General Permit to Construct Charbroiler and Pit Barbcue Fact Sheet" (http:/ /
textonly. mde. state. md. us/ Permits/ AirManagementPermits/ AQcharbroiler. asp). . Retrieved 16 June 2008.
[31] Lee, S.C. et al. (2001). "Indoor air quality at restaurants with different styles of cooking in metropolitan Hong Kong". The Science of the
Total Environment (Elsevier) 279 (1): 181–193. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00765-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/
S0048-9697(01)00765-3).
[32] http:/ / www. nbbqa. org
[33] http:/ / www. fsis. usda. gov/ Fact_Sheets/ Barbecue_Food_Safety/ index. asp
[34] http:/ / www. cbbqa. org/ wiki/ index. php?title=BBQ_FAQ
[35] http:/ / www. scbarbeque. com/ History. html
[36] http:/ / www. thebigredguide. com/ news/ safety-is-a-key-ingredient-for-a-great-bbq. html
[37] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ today/ cyberlc/ feature_wdesc. php?rec=3722
Standing rib roast 40

Standing rib roast

Beef Cuts

Beef cut: Rib

Steak type: Standing rib roast

(also known as: Prime rib, Beef Rib Roast)

A standing rib roast is a cut of beef from the rib section, which is one of the eight primal cuts of beef. The entire rib
section comprises ribs six through twelve of the animal; a standing rib roast can comprise anywhere from two to
seven ribs. It is given the name "standing" because it is most often roasted in a standing position, that is, with the ribs
stacked vertically and the vertebral processes on the bottom. An alternative is to cook with the rib bones on the
bottom and the vertebral processes removed for easier carving. A standing rib roast, if sliced when uncooked, would
yield a number of rib steaks. Rib eye steaks result from removing the bones and most of the fat and lesser muscles
(tail).
A colloquial and popular term for this cut is "prime rib". Historically, this name stands out regardless of the grade. In
addition, the USDA acknowledges this historical note by not requiring the cut "to be derived from USDA prime
grade beef".[1] The technical name, per URMIS (Uniform Retail Meat Industry Standards), is "Beef Rib Roast".[2]
A slice of standing rib roast will include portions of the so-called "eye" of the rib as well as the outer, fat-marbled
muscle (spinalis dorsali) known as the "lip" or "cap".
The traditional preparation for a standing rib roast is to rub the outside of the roast with salt and seasonings and
slow-roast with dry heat. In The U.S., it is common for barbecue purists to apply smoke to the uncooked rib roast at
low heat for 2-3 hours before dry roasting.
In the United Kingdom, Yorkshire pudding is frequently served as a side dish with prime rib. In many restaurants
specializing in prime rib, several entire roasts (of varying degrees of doneness) will be placed on a large, heated cart,
and carved at tableside. This style of service can be found throughout the Lawry's chain, Morton's of Chicago, as
well as at independent establishments such as San Francisco's House of Prime Rib.
In the United States, the standing rib roast has NAMP classifications 109 through 112D.[3]

Gallery
Standing rib roast 41

A USDA Choice 2-bone standing rib roast. A slice of prime rib from a standing rib roast, topped (on the right side)
with mushrooms.

Sources
• "Prime Rib" [4]. Hormel Food Glossary. Retrieved 2006-05-21.

External links
• The Perfect Prime Rib Page [5].
• Cooking For Engineers: Prime Rib [6]
• Prime Rib FAQ on BBQ Bible [7]

References
[1] USDA The Food Standards and Labeling Policy Book (http:/ / www. fsis. usda. gov/ oppde/ larc/ policies/ policybook. pdf) pg. 135
[2] National Cattlemen's Beef Association and the Cattlemen's Beef Board Uniform Retail Meat Industry Standards (http:/ / www. beefretail.
com/ uDocs/ umis/ contents/ beef. pdf) pg. 12
[3] Green, Aliza (2005). Field Guide to Meat. Philadelphia, PA: Quirk Books. pp. 38–39. ISBN 1-931686-79-3.
[4] http:/ / www. hormel. com/ kitchen/ glossary. asp?id=33879
[5] http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~BayGourmet/ primerib. html
[6] http:/ / www. cookingforengineers. com/ recipe. php?id=38& title=Prime+ Rib+ or+ Standing+ Rib+ Roast
[7] http:/ / www. barbecuebible. com/ board/ viewtopic. php?t=8753
Cannibalism 42

Cannibalism
Cannibalism (from Caníbalis, the Spanish
name for the Carib people[1] , a West Indies
tribe well known for their practice of
cannibalism),[2] also called anthropophagy,
is the act or practice of humans eating the
flesh of other human beings.

The term "cannibalism" is also used in

zoology to mean the act of any species
consuming members of its own type or kind.
The expression "cannibalization" is in
addition used metaphorically outside of
biological fields to refer to the reuse of parts
or ideas or to situations such as when a
company's assets eat into its other assets.

Cannibalism has recently been both

practiced and fiercely condemned in several Cannibalism in 1557 as told by Hans Staden.

wars, especially in Liberia[3] and Congo.[4]

Today, the Korowai are one of very few
tribes still believed to eat human flesh.[5] [6]
It is also still known to be practiced as a
ritual and in war in various Melanesian
tribes.[7]

Cannibalism was widespread in the past

among humans throughout the world,
continuing into the 19th century in some
isolated South Pacific cultures. Fiji was
once known as the 'Cannibal Isles'.[8]
Neanderthals are believed to have practiced
cannibalism,[9] [10] and they may have been
cannibalized by modern humans.[11]

Reasons for cannibalism

The reasons for cannibalism include the
following:
• As sanctioned by a cultural norm
• By necessity in extreme situations of
famine
• Caused by insanity or social deviancy A woman cannibal, by Leonhard Kern, 1650
• Note that cannibalism is not
mentioned in the formal index of insanity, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
presumably due to its rarity. The medical literature on the topic is likewise sparse. This was discussed in a
2004 edition of the newspaper column The Straight Dope headed "Eat or be eaten: Is cannibalism a pathology
Cannibalism 43

as listed in the DSM-IV? [12]."

There are fundamentally two kinds of cannibalistic social behavior; endocannibalism (eating humans from the same
community) and exocannibalism (eating humans from other communities).
A separate ethical distinction can be made to delineate between the practice of killing a human for food (homicidal
cannibalism) versus eating the flesh of a person who was already dead (necro-cannibalism).

Overview
The social stigma against cannibalism has been used as an aspect of propaganda against an enemy by accusing them
of acts of cannibalism to separate them from their humanity. The Carib tribe in the Lesser Antilles, from whom the
word cannibalism derives, for example, acquired a longstanding reputation as cannibals following the recording of
their legends by Fr. Breton in the 17th century. Some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the
prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture.
During their period of expansion in the 15th through 17th centuries, Europeans equated cannibalism with evil and
savagery. In the 16th century, Pope Innocent IV declared cannibalism a sin deserving to be punished by Christians
through force of arms and Queen Isabella of Spain decreed that Spanish colonists could only legally enslave natives
who were cannibals, giving the colonists an economic interest in making such allegations. This was used as a
justification for employing violent means to subjugate native people. This theme dates back to Columbus' accounts
of a supposedly ferocious group of cannibals who lived in the Caribbean islands and parts of South America called
the Caniba, which gave us the word cannibal.[13]
The Korowai tribe of southeastern Papua could be one of the last surviving tribes in the world engaging in
cannibalism, although there have been media reports of soldiers/rebels in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Liberia eating body parts[14] to intimidate child soldiers or captives.[15] Marvin Harris has analyzed cannibalism and
other food taboos. He argued that it was common when humans lived in small bands, but disappeared in the
transition to states, the Aztecs being an exception.
A well known case of mortuary cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea which resulted in the spread of
the prion disease Kuru. It is often believed to be well-documented, although no eyewitnesses have ever been at hand.
Some scholars argue that although postmortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism
was not. Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans
and was rationalized as a religious rite.
In pre-modern medicine, an explanation for cannibalism stated that it came about within a black acrimonious
humour, which, being lodged in the linings of the ventricle, produced the voracity for human flesh.[16]
Some now-challenged research received a large amount of press attention when scientists suggested that early
humans may have practiced cannibalism. Later reanalysis of the data found serious problems with this hypothesis.
According to the original research, genetic markers commonly found in modern humans all over the world suggest
that today many people carry a gene that evolved as protection against brain diseases that can be spread by
consuming human brains.[17] Later reanalysis of the data claims to have found a data collection bias, which led to an
erroneous conclusion:[18] that in some cases blame for incidents claimed as evidence has been given to 'primitive'
local cultures, where in fact the cannibalism was practiced by explorers, stranded seafarers or escaped convicts.[19]

As cultural libel
Unsubstantiated reports of cannibalism disproportionately relate cases of cannibalism among cultures that are
already otherwise despised, feared, or are little known. In antiquity, Greek reports of cannibalism, (often called
anthropophagy in this context) were related to distant non-Hellenic barbarians, or else relegated in Greek mythology
to the 'primitive' chthonic world that preceded the coming of the Olympian gods: see the explicit rejection of human
sacrifice in the cannibal feast prepared for the Olympians by Tantalus of his son Pelops. All South Sea Islanders
Cannibalism 44

were cannibals so far as their enemies were concerned. When the whaleship Essex was rammed and sunk by a whale
in 1820, the captain opted to sail 3000 miles upwind to Chile rather than 1400 miles downwind to the Marquesas
because he had heard the Marquesans were cannibals. Ironically many of the survivors of the shipwreck resorted to
cannibalism in order to survive.
However, Herman Melville happily lived with the Marquesan Typees (Taipi), rumoured to have been the most
vicious of the island group's cannibal tribes, but also may have witnessed evidence of cannibalism. In his
autobiographical novel Typee, he reports seeing shrunken heads and having strong evidence that the tribal leaders
ceremonially consumed the bodies of killed warriors of the neighboring tribe after a skirmish.
William Arens, author of The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy (New York : Oxford University
Press, 1979; ISBN 0-19-502793-0), questions the credibility of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description
by one group of people of another people as cannibals is a consistent and demonstrable ideological and rhetorical
device to establish perceived cultural superiority. Arens bases his thesis on a detailed analysis of numerous "classic"
cases of cultural cannibalism cited by explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists. His findings were that many were
steeped in racism, unsubstantiated, or based on second-hand or hearsay evidence. In combing the literature he could
not find a single credible eye-witness account. And, as he points out, the hallmark of ethnography is the observation
of a practice prior to description. In the end he concluded that cannibalism was not the widespread prehistoric
practice it was claimed to be; that anthropologists were too quick to pin the cannibal label on a group based not on
responsible research but on our own culturally-determined pre-conceived notions, often motivated by a need to
exoticize. He wrote:
Anthropologists have made no serious attempt to disabuse the public of the widespread notion of the ubiquity
of anthropophagists. ... in the deft hands and fertile imaginations of anthropologists, former or contemporary
anthropophagists have multiplied with the advance of civilization and fieldwork in formerly unstudied culture
areas. ...The existence of man-eating peoples just beyond the pale of civilization is a common ethnographic
suggestion.[20]
Arens' findings are controversial, and have been cited as an example of postcolonial revisionism.[21] His argument is
often mischaracterized as “cannibals do not and never did exist”, when in the end the book is actually a call for a
more responsible and reflective approach to anthropological research. At any rate, the book ushered in an era of
rigorous combing of the cannibalism literature. By Arens' later admission, some cannibalism claims came up short,
others were reinforced.
Conversely, Michel de Montaigne's essay "Of cannibals" introduced a new multicultural note in European
civilization. Montaigne wrote that "one calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to." By using a title like that
and describing a fair indigean society, Montaigne may have wished to provoke a surprise in the reader of his Essays.

During starvation
Cannibalism has been occasionally practiced as a last resort by people
suffering from famine. In colonial Jamestown, colonists resorted to
cannibalism during a period known as the Starving Time, from
1609-1610. After food supplies were diminished, some colonists began
to dig up corpses for food. During this time period, one man was
persuaded to confess to having killed, salted, and eaten his pregnant
wife before he was burned alive as punishment.[22]

In the US, the group of settlers known as the Donner party resorted to
Raft of the Medusa by Theodore Gericault, 1819
cannibalism while snowbound in the mountains for the winter. The last
Cannibalism 45

survivors of Sir John Franklin's Expedition were found to have resorted to cannibalism in their final push across
King William Island towards the Back River.[23] There are many claims that cannibalism was widespread during the
famine of Ukraine in the 1930s, during the Siege of Leningrad in World War II,[24] [25] and during the Chinese Civil
War and the Great Leap Forward in the People's Republic of China.[26] There were also rumors of several
cannibalism outbreaks during World War II in the Nazi concentration camps where the prisoners were
malnourished.[27] Cannibalism was also practiced by Japanese troops as recently as World War II in the Pacific
theater.[28] A more recent example is of leaked stories from North Korean refugees of cannibalism practiced during
and after a famine that occurred sometime between 1995 and 1997.[29]
Lowell Thomas records the cannibalisation of some of the surviving crew members of the Dumaru after the ship
exploded and sank during the First World War in his book, The Wreck of the Dumaru (1930). Another case of
shipwrecked survivors forced to engage in cannibalism was that of the Medusa, a French vessel which in 1816 ran
aground on the Banc d'Arguin (English: The Bank of Arguin) off the coast of Africa, about sixty miles distant from
shore.
In 1972, the survivors of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, consisting of the rugby team from Stella Maris College in
Montevideo and some of their family members, resorted to cannibalism during their entrapment at the crash site.
They had been stranded since October 13 and rescue operations at the crash site did not commence until December
22. The story of the survivors was chronicled in Piers Paul Read's 1974 book, Alive: The Story of the Andes
Survivors, in a 1993 film adaptation of the book, called simply Alive, and in a 2008 documentary: Stranded: I’ve
Come From a Plane That Crashed on the Mountains.
Jared Diamond has suggested in his "Guns, Germs and Steel" that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the
construction of the Moai caused an ecosystem collapse starting with the inaccessibility of wood to build fishing
boats.

Themes in mythology and religion

Cannibalism features in many mythologies, and is most often attributed
to evil characters or as extreme retribution for some wrong. Examples
include The witch in Hansel and Gretel and Baba Yaga of Slavic
folklore.
A number of stories in Greek mythology involve cannibalism, in
particular cannibalism of close family members, for example the
stories of Thyestes, Tereus and especially Cronus, who was Saturn in
the Roman pantheon. The story of Tantalus also parallels this. These
mythologies inspired Shakespeare's cannibalism scene in Titus
Andronicus.
Hansel and Gretel German stamp
In the Christian tradition, cannibalism is believed to be undertaken (in
some cases symbolically) in the form of communion and the Eucharist. Many Protestants, in general, consider the
Eucharist as symbolic, while Catholics, Orthodox, and Lutherans teach that the Eucharist is literal, through their
belief of either transubstantiation[30] or the sacramental union[31] .
Hindu mythology describes evil demons called "asura" or "rakshasa" that dwell in the forests and practice extreme
violence including devouring their own kind, and possess many evil supernatural powers. These are however the
Hindu equivalent of "demons" and do not relate to actual tribes of forest-dwelling people.
Cannibalism 46

The Wendigo (also Windigo, Weendigo, Windago, Windiga, Witiko,

Wihtikow, and numerous other variants) is a mythical creature
appearing in the mythology of the Algonquian people. It is a
malevolent cannibalistic spirit into which humans could transform, or
which could possess humans. Those who indulged in cannibalism were
at particular risk[32] , and the legend appears to have reinforced this
practice as taboo. The name is Wiindigoo in the Ojibwe language (the
source of the English word[33] ), Wìdjigò in the Algonquin language,
and Wīhtikōw in the Cree language; the Proto-Algonquian term was
*wi·nteko·wa, which probably originally meant "owl".[34]

Historical accounts
Among modern humans it has been practiced by various groups.[35] In
the past, it has been practiced by humans in Europe,[36] [37] South
America,[38] India,[39] New Zealand,[40] the Solomon Islands,[41] parts
of West Africa[6] and Central Africa,[6] some of the islands of
Polynesia,[6] New Guinea,[42] Sumatra,[6] and Fiji,[43] Evidence of
cannibalism has been found in the Chaco Canyon ruins of the Anasazi
culture of North America as well.[44] [45]
Saturn Devouring His Son, from the Black
Pre-history Paintings series by Francisco de Goya, 1819

Some anthropologists, such as Tim White, suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the
beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period. This theory is based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones
found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites.[46] Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic
may have occurred because of food shortages.[47] According to one historical account, aboriginal tribes of Australia
were most certainly cannibals, never failing to eat persons killed in a fight and always eating men noted for their
fighting ability who died natural deaths. "... out of pity and consideration for the body - they knew where he was then
- 'he won't stink!' "[48]

Early history
Cannibalism is mentioned many times in early history and literature. It is reported in the Bible during the siege of
Samaria (2 Kings 6:25–30). Two women made a pact to eat their children; after the first mother cooked her child the
second mother ate it but refused to reciprocate by cooking her own child. A similar story is reported by Flavius
Josephus during the siege of Jerusalem by Rome in 70 AD, and the population of Numantia during the Roman Siege
of Numantia in the second century BC was reduced to cannibalism and suicide. Cannibalism was also
well-documented in Egypt during a famine caused by the failure of the Nile to flood for eight years (1073-1064
BCE).
As in modern times, though, reports of cannibalism were often told as apocryphal second and third-hand stories, with
widely varying levels of accuracy. St. Jerome, in his letter Against Jovinianus, discusses how people come to their
present condition as a result of their heritage, and then lists several examples of peoples and their customs. In the list,
he mentions that he has heard that Atticoti eat human flesh and that Massagetae and Derbices (a people on the
borders of India) kill and eat old people.(---The Tibareni crucify those whom they have loved before when they have
grown old---). ; this points to likelihood that St. Jerome's writing came from rumours and does not represent the
situation accurately.[49]
Cannibalism 47

Researchers have found physical evidence of cannibalism in ancient times. In 2001, archaeologists at the University
of Bristol found evidence of Iron Age cannibalism in Gloucestershire.[50] Cannibalism was practiced as recently as
2000 years ago in the British Isles.[51] In Germany, Emil Carthaus and Dr. Bruno Bernhard have observed 1,891
signs of cannibalism in the caves at the Hönne (1000 - 700 BCE).[52]

Middle Ages
During the Muslim-Qurayš wars in the early 7th century, cases of
cannibalism have been reported. Following at the Battle of Uhud in
625, it is said that after killing Hamzah ibn Abdu l-Muṭṭalib, his liver
was consumed by Hind bint ‘Utbah, the wife of Abû Sufyan ibn Harb
(one of the commanders of the Qurayš army).[53] Although she later
converted to Islam, and was the mother of Muawiyah I, the founder of
the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, Muawiyah was later slandered to be
an unacceptable leader and the son of a cannibal.

Reports of cannibalism were also recorded during the First Crusade, as Ugolino and his sons in their cell, as painted by
Crusaders fed on the bodies of their dead opponents following the William Blake circa 1826. Ugolino della
Siege of Ma'arrat al-Numan. It is also possible that the Crusaders Gherardesca was an Italian nobleman that,
together with his sons Gaddo and Uguccione and
staged such incidents as part of psychological warfare. Amin Maalouf
his grand-sons Nino and Anselmuccio were
also discusses further cannibalism incidents on the march to Jerusalem, detained in the Muda, in March 1289. The keys
and to the efforts made to delete mention of these from western history. were thrown into the Arno river and the prisoners
The inhabitants of Hungary (which the Crusader marched through to left to starve. According to Dante, the prisoners
were slowly starved to death and before dying
reach the Holy Land ) were also reported to be cannibals, although this
Ugolino's children begged him to eat their bodies.
was probably false, as the Hungarians had only converted from
paganism to Christianity in the 10th century. In fact, the french word
for Hungarian, 'hongre, may be the source of the english word ogre. [54] During Europe's Great Famine of
1315–1317 there were many reports of cannibalism among the starving populations. In North Africa, as in Europe,
there are references to cannibalism as a last resort in times of famine.[55]

The Muslim explorer Ibn Batutta reported that one African king advised him that nearby people were cannibals (this
may have been a prank played on Ibn Batutta by the king in order to fluster his guest).
For a brief time in Europe, an unusual form of cannibalism occurred when thousands of Egyptian mummies
preserved in bitumen were ground up and sold as medicine.[56] The practice developed into a wide-scale business
which flourished until the late 16th century. This "fad" ended because the mummies were revealed to actually be
recently killed slaves. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties against
bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form (see human mummy confection).[57]
References to cannibalizing the enemy has also been seen in poetry written when China was repressed in the Song
Dynasty, though the cannibalizing is perhaps poetic symbolism, expressing hatred towards the enemy (see Man
Jiang Hong).
While there is universal agreement that some Mesoamerican people practiced human sacrifice, there is a lack of
scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism in pre-Columbian America was widespread. At one extreme,
anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part
of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. While most pre-Columbian historians
believe that there was ritual cannibalism related to human sacrifices, they do not support Harris's thesis that human
flesh was ever a significant portion of the Aztec diet.[58] [59] [60]
Cannibalism 48

Early modern era

European explorers and colonizers brought home many stories of cannibalism practiced by the native peoples they
encountered. The friar Diego de Landa reported about Yucatán instances, Yucatan before and after the Conquest,
translated from Relación de las cosas de Yucatan, 1566 (New York: Dover Publications, 1978: 4), and there have
been similar reports by Purchas from Popayán, Colombia, and from the Marquesas Islands of Polynesia, where
human flesh was called long pig (Alanna King, ed., Robert Louis Stevenson in the South Seas, London: Luzac
Paragon House, 1987: 45–50). It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of Sergipe in Brazil, "They eat human
flesh when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately. If she goes her time out, she
herself cuts the navel-string with a shell, which she boils along with the secondine, and eats them both.'" (See E.
Bowen, 1747: 532.)
Reports of cannibalism among the Texas tribes were often applied to the Karankawa and the Tonkawa.[61] [62]
Though cannibals, the fierce Tonkawas were great friends of the white Texas settlers, helping them against all their
enemies.[63] Among the North American tribes which practiced cannibalism in some form may be mentioned the
Montagnais, and some of the tribes of Maine; the Algonkin, Armouchiquois, Iroquois, and Micmac; farther west the
Assiniboin, Cree, Foxes, Chippewa, Miami, Ottawa, Kickapoo, Illinois, Sioux, and Winnebago; in the South the
people who built the mounds in Florida, and the Tonkawa, Attacapa, Karankawa, Kiowa, Caddo, and Comanche (?);
in the Northwest and West, portions of the continent, the Thlingchadinneh and other Athapascan tribes, the Tlingit,
Heiltsuk, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, Nootka, Siksika, some of the Californian tribes, and the Ute. There is also a tradition
of the practice among the Hopi, and mentions of the custom among other tribes of New Mexico and Arizona. The
Mohawk, and the Attacapa, Tonkawa, and other Texas tribes were known to their neighbours as "man-eaters."[64]
As with most lurid tales of native cannibalism, these stories are treated with a great deal of scrutiny, as accusations
of cannibalism were often used as justifications for the subjugation or destruction of "savages." However, there were
several well-documented cultures that engaged in regular eating of the dead, such as New Zealand's Māori. In one
infamous 1809 incident, 66 passengers and crew of the ship the Boyd were killed and eaten by Māori on the
Whangaroa peninsula, Northland. (See also: Boyd massacre) Cannibalism was already a regular practice in Māori
wars.[65] In another instance, on 11 July 1821 warriors from the Ngapuhi tribe killed 2,000 enemies and remained on
the battlefield "eating the vanquished until they were driven off by the smell of decaying bodies".[66] Māori warriors
fighting the New Zealand Government in Titokowaru's War in New Zealand's North Island in 1868–69 revived
ancient rites of cannibalism as part of the radical Hauhau movement of the Pai Marire religion.[67]
Other islands in the Pacific were home to cultures that allowed cannibalism to some degree. The dense population of
Marquesas Islands, Polynesia, was concentrated in the narrow valleys, and consisted of warring tribes, who
sometimes cannibalized their enemies. In parts of Melanesia, cannibalism was still practiced in the early 20th
century, for a variety of reasons — including retaliation, to insult an enemy people, or to absorb the dead person's
qualities.[68] One tribal chief in Fiji is said to have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record
his achievement.[69] The ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters,
giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles.
This period of time was also rife with instances of explorers and seafarers resorting to cannibalism for survival. The
survivors of the sinking of the French ship Medusa in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft
and their plight was made famous by Théodore Géricault's painting Raft of the Medusa. The misfortunes of the
Donner Party in the United States are also well-known. After the sinking of the Essex of Nantucket by a whale, on
November 20, 1820, (an important source event for Herman Melville's Moby-Dick) the survivors, in three small
boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive.[70] Sir John Franklin's lost polar
expedition is another example of cannibalism out of desperation.[71]
The case of R v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273 (QB) is an English case which dealt with four crew
members of an English yacht, the Mignonette, which were cast away in a storm some 1600 miles (2600 km) from the
Cape of Good Hope. After several days one of the crew, a seventeen year old cabin boy, fell unconscious due to a
Cannibalism 49

combination of the famine and drinking seawater. The others (one possibly objecting) decided then to kill him and
eat him. They were picked up four days later. Two of the three survivors were found guilty of murder. A significant
outcome of this case was that necessity was determined to be no defence against a charge of murder.
Roger Casement writing to a consular colleague in Lisbon on 3 August 1903 from Lake Mantumba in the Congo
Free State said: “The people round here are all cannibals. You never saw such a weird looking lot in your life. There
are also dwarfs (called Batwas) in the forest who are even worse cannibals than the taller human environment. They
eat man flesh raw! It’s a fact.” Casement then added how assailants would “bring down a dwarf on the way home, for
the marital cooking pot...The Dwarfs, as I say, dispense with cooking pots and eat and drink their human prey fresh
cut on the battlefield while the blood is still warm and running. These are not fairy tales my dear Cowper but actual
gruesome reality in the heart of this poor, benighted savage land.” (National Library of Ireland, MS 36,201/3)

Modern era

World War II
Many instances of cannibalism by necessity were recorded during World War II. For example, during the 872-day
Siege of Leningrad, reports of cannibalism began to appear in the winter of 1941–1942, after all birds, rats and pets
were eaten by survivors. Leningrad police even formed a special division to combat cannibalism.[72] [73] Following
the Soviet victory at Stalingrad it was found that some German soldiers in the besieged city, cut off from supplies,
resorted to cannibalism.[74]
Later, in February 1943, roughly 100,000 German soldiers were taken prisoner of war (POW). Almost all of them
were sent to POW camps in Siberia or Central Asia where, due to being chronically underfed by their Soviet captors,
many resorted to cannibalism. Fewer than 5,000 of the prisoners taken at Stalingrad survived captivity. The majority,
however, died early in their imprisonment due to exposure or sickness brought on by conditions in the surrounded
army before the surrender.[75]
In parts of Eastern Europe during World War II, there are anecdotal accounts of people finding human fingernails in
sausage suggesting the foodstuffs were composed of human flesh.
Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and
investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese soldiers, in many parts
of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war.
According to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and
under the command of officers".[76]
In some cases, flesh was cut from living people. An Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan),
testified that in New Guinea: "the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and
killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the
Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of
sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where
their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later
died."[77]
Another well-documented case occurred in Chichijima in February 1945, when Japanese soldiers killed and
consumed five American airmen. This case was investigated in 1947 in a war crimes trial, and of 30 Japanese
soldiers prosecuted, five (Maj. Matoba, Gen. Tachibana, Adm. Mori, Capt. Yoshii, and Dr. Teraki) were found guilty
and hanged.[78] In his book Flyboys: A True Story of Courage, James Bradley details several instances of
cannibalism of World War II Allied prisoners by their Japanese captors.[79] The author claims that this included not
only ritual cannibalization of the livers of freshly-killed prisoners, but also the cannibalization-for-sustenance of
living prisoners over the course of several days, amputating limbs only as needed to keep the meat fresh.[80]
Cannibalism 50

Other cases
• The Leopard Society were a West African society active into mid-1900s that practiced cannibalism. They were
centred in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. The Leopard men would dress in leopard skins,
waylaying travelers with sharp claw-like weapons in the form of leopards' claws and teeth.[81] The victims' flesh
would be cut from their bodies and distributed to members of the society.[82] In Tanganyika, the Lion men
committed an estimated 200 murders in a single three-month period.[83]
• The Aghoris of northern India consume the flesh of the dead floated in the Ganges in pursuit of immortality and
supernatural powers. Members of the Aghori drink from human skulls and practice cannibalism in the belief that
eating human flesh confers spiritual and physical benefits, such as prevention of aging.[84] [85] [86]
• During the 1930s, multiple acts of cannibalism were reported from Ukraine and Russia's Volga, South Siberian
and Kuban regions during the Holodomor.[87]
• Cannibalism was proven to have occurred in China during the Great Leap Forward, when rural China was hit hard
by drought and famine.[88] [89] [90] [91] [92] Allegations of cannibalism during the Cultural Revolution in China
have also emerged. These allegations claim that cannibalism was practiced for ideological purposes.[93] [94]
• Prior to 1931, New York Times reporter William Buehler Seabrook, allegedly in the interests of research, obtained
from a hospital intern at the Sorbonne a chunk of human meat from the body of a healthy human killed by
accident, and cooked and ate it. He reported that, "It was like good, fully developed veal, not young, but not yet
beef. It was very definitely like that, and it was not like any other meat I had ever tasted. It was so nearly like
good, fully developed veal that I think no person with a palate of ordinary, normal sensitiveness could distinguish
it from veal. It was mild, good meat with no other sharply defined or highly characteristic taste such as for
instance, goat, high game, and pork have. The steak was slightly tougher than prime veal, a little stringy, but not
too tough or stringy to be agreeably edible. The roast, from which I cut and ate a central slice, was tender, and in
color, texture, smell as well as taste, strengthened my certainty that of all the meats we habitually know, veal is
the one meat to which this meat is accurately comparable."[95] [96]
• The Soviet writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, in his novel The Gulag Archipelago, describes cases of cannibalism in
the twentieth-century USSR. Of the famine in Povolzhie (1921–1922) he writes: "That horrible famine was up to
cannibalism, up to consuming children by their own parents — the famine, which Russia had never known even
in Time of Troubles [in 1601–1603]...".[97] He says of the Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944): "Those who
consumed human flesh, or dealt with the human liver trading from dissecting rooms... were accounted as the
political criminals...".[98] And of the building of Northern Railway Prisoners Camp ("SevZhelDorLag")
Solzhenitsyn writes: "An ordinary hard working political prisoner almost could not survive at that penal camp. In
the camp SevZhelDorLag (chief: colonel Klyuchkin) in 1946–47 there were many cases of cannibalism: they cut
human bodies, cooked and ate."[99]
• The Soviet journalist Yevgenia Ginzburg, former long-term political prisoner, who spent time in the Soviet
prisons, Gulag camps and settlements from 1938 to 1955, describes in her memoir book "Harsh Route" (or "Steep
Route") the case, which she was directly involved in late 1940s, after she had been moved to the prisoners'
hospital.[100] "...The chief warder shows me the black smoked pot, filled with some food: 'I need your medical
expertize regarding this meat.' I look into the pot, and hardly hold vomiting. The fibers of that meat are very
small, and don't resemble me anything I have seen before. The skin on some pieces bristles with black hair (...) A
former smith from Poltava, Kulesh worked together with Centurashvili. At this time, Centurashvili was only one
month away from being discharged from the camp (...) And suddenly he surprisingly disappeared. The wardens
looked around the hills, stated Kulesh's evidence, that last time Kulesh had seen his workmate near the fireplace,
Kulesh went out to work and Centurashvili left to warm himself more; but when Kulesh returned to the fireplace,
Centurashvili had vanished; who knows, maybe he got frozen somewhere in snow, he was a weak guy (...) The
wardens searched for two more days, and then assumed that it was an escape case, though they wondered why,
since his imprisonment period was almost over (...) The crime was there. Approaching the fireplace, Kulesh killed
Centurashvili with an axe, burned his clothes, then dismembered him and hid the pieces in snow, in different
Cannibalism 51

places, putting specific marks on each burial place. (...) Just yesterday, one body part was found under two
crossed logs."
• When Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed into the Andes on October 13, 1972, the survivors resorted to
eating the deceased during their 72 days in the mountains. Their story was later recounted in the books Alive: The
Story of the Andes Survivors and Miracle in the Andes as well as the film Alive, by Frank Marshall, and the
documentaries Alive: 20 Years Later (1993) and Stranded: I've Come from a Plane that Crashed in the Mountains
(2008).
• Cannibalism was reported by the journalist Neil Davis during the South East Asian wars of the 1960s and 1970s.
Davis reported that Cambodian troops ritually ate portions of the slain enemy, typically the liver. However he,
and many refugees, also report that cannibalism was practiced non-ritually when there was no food to be found.
This usually occurred when towns and villages were under Khmer Rouge control, and food was strictly rationed,
leading to widespread starvation. Any civilian caught participating in cannibalism would have been immediately
executed.[101]
• Cannibalism has been reported in several recent African conflicts, including the Second Congo War, and the civil
wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. A U.N. human rights expert reported in July 2007 that sexual atrocities against
Congolese women go 'far beyond rape' and include sexual slavery, forced incest, and cannibalism.[102] This may
be done in desperation, as during peacetime cannibalism is much less frequent;[103] at other times, it is
consciously directed at certain groups believed to be relatively helpless, such as Congo Pygmies, even considered
subhuman by some other Congolese.[104] It is also reported by some that witch doctors sometimes use the body
parts of children in their medicine. In the 1970s the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin was reputed to practice
cannibalism.[105] [106]
• The self declared Emperor of the Central African Republic, Jean-Bédel Bokassa (Emperor Bokassa I), was tried
on 24 October 1986 for several cases of cannibalism although he was never convicted.[107] [108] Between 17 April
and 19 April 1979 a number of elementary school students were arrested after they had protested against wearing
the expensive, government-required school uniforms. Around one-hundred were killed. Bokassa is said to have
participated in the massacre, beating some of the children to death with his cane and allegedly ate some of his
victims.[109]
• It has been reported by defectors and refugees that, at the height of the famine in 1996, cannibalism was
sometimes practiced in North Korea.[110]
• Médecins Sans Frontières, the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary
evidence of ritualized cannibal feasts among the participants in Liberia's internecine strife in the 1980s to
representatives of Amnesty International who were on a fact-finding mission to the neighboring state of Guinea.
However, Amnesty International declined to publicize this material; the Secretary-General of the organization,
Pierre Sane, said at the time in an internal communication that "what they do with the bodies after human rights
violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern". The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in
Liberia was subsequently verified in video documentaries by Journeyman Pictures of London.[111]
• Dorangel Vargas known as "El comegente", Spanish for "maneater", was a serial killer and cannibal in
Venezuela. Vargas killed and ate at least 10 men in a period of two years preceding his arrest in 1999.
• Another serial killer, Jeffrey Dahmer of the United States, became notorious for murdering his victims and then
eating their body parts before his arrest and imprisonment in 1991. Traces of human flesh and bones were found
on pots and pans inside his home.
• In March 2001 in Germany, Armin Meiwes posted an Internet ad asking for "a well built 18 to 30 year old to be
slaughtered and consumed". The ad was answered by Bernd Jürgen Brandes. After killing Brandes and eating
parts of his body, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and later, murder. The song "Mein Teil" by Rammstein
and the song "Eaten" by Bloodbath is based on this case.
• In February 2004, a 39 year old Briton named Peter Bryan from East London was caught after he killed and ate
his friend. He has been arrested for murder before, but was released shortly before this act was committed.[112]
Cannibalism 52

• In September 2006, Australian television crews from 60 Minutes and Today Tonight attempted to rescue a
six-year-old boy whom they believed would be ritually cannibalized by his tribe, the Korowai, from West Papua,
Indonesia.[113]
• On August 14, 2007, a member of the far-left Maoist Naxalite group engaged in cannibalism. In the Indian state
of Orissa, the leftist killed a police informant and consumed his flesh in order to terrorize the local villagers
against reporting on Naxalite criminal activities[114] .
• On September 14, 2007, a man named Özgür Dengiz was captured in Ankara, the Turkish capital, after killing
and eating a man. Dengiz in his initial testimony said he "enjoyed" eating human flesh. He frequently burst into
long laughing sessions during the testimony, police officers said. In 1997, he was jailed for murder of a friend,
when he was 17, but he got out of jail on parole after serving three years. Dengiz said he did not know Cafer Er,
his 55 year old victim, who worked as a garbage collector. Dengiz shot Er in the head with a firearm, because he
felt Er was making the area "too crowded." After cutting slices of flesh from his victim's body, Dengiz distributed
the rest to stray dogs on the street, according to his own testimony. He ate some of Er's flesh raw on his way
home. Dengiz, who lived with his parents arrived at the family house and placed the remaining parts of Er's body
in the fridge without saying a word to his parents. Also in his testimony he said, "I have no regrets, my conscience
is free. I constantly thought of killing. I had dreams where I was being sacrificed. I decided to kill, to sacrifice
others in place of me."[115] [116]
• In January 2008, Milton Blahyi, 37, confessed being part of human sacrifices which "included the killing of an
innocent child and plucking out the heart, which was divided into pieces for us to eat." He fought versus Liberian
president Charles Taylor's militia.[117]
• During Charles Taylor's war crimes trial on March 13, 2008, Joseph Marzah, Taylor's chief of operations and
head of Taylor's alleged "death squad", accused Taylor of ordering his soldiers to commit acts of cannibalism
against enemies, including peacekeepers and United Nations personnel.[118]
• In Tanzania in 2008, President Kikwete publicly condemned witch doctors for killing people with albinism for
their body parts which are thought to bring good luck. Twenty-five albinic Tanzanians have been murdered since
March 2007.[119] [120]
• In a documentary by Colombian Journalist Hollman Morris, a demobilized paramilitary confessed that during the
mass killings that take place in Colombia's rural areas, many of them performed cannibalism. He also confesses
that they were told to drink the blood of their victims on the belief that it would make them want to kill more.[121]
• In November 2008, a group of 33 illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic who were en route to Puerto
Rico were forced to resort to cannibalism after they were lost at sea for over 15 days before being rescued by a
U.S. Coast Guard patrol boat.[122]
• As of February 9, 2009, five members of the Kulina tribe in Brazil were wanted by Brazilian authorities on the
charge of murdering, butchering and eating a farmer in a ritual act of cannibalism.[123]
• The rap artist Big Lurch was convicted of the murder and partial consumption of an acquaintance while both were
under the influence of PCP. [124]
• November 14, 2009, three homeless men in Moscow, Russia were arrested for killing and eating the parts of a
twenty-five year old man. The remaining parts were then sold to a local pie/kebab house.
Cannibalism 53

See also
• Albert Fish
• Alferd Packer
• Androphagi
• Armin Meiwes
• Asmat people
• Cannibalism in popular culture
• Chijon family
• Essex, a sunken whaleship whose sailors resorted to cannibalism for survival
• Hannibal Lecter
• Homo antecessor
• Issei Sagawa
• Kuru, disease among Fore tribe of Papua New Guinea
• Manifesto Antropófago
• Manhunter (movie series)
• Placentophagy
• R v Dudley and Stephens
• Self-cannibalism
• Soylent Green
• The Texas Chain Saw Massacre
• Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
• Vorarephilia

External links
• All about Cannibalism: The Ancient Taboo in Modern Times (Cannibalism Psychology) [125] at
CrimeLibrary.com
• The Straight Dope [126] Notes arguing that routine cannibalism is myth
• Did a mob of angry Dutch kill and eat their prime minister? [127] (from The Straight Dope)
• Harry J. Brown, 'Hans Staden among the Tupinambas.' [128]

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[77] Lord Russell of Liverpool (Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill Books, 2002, p.121
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ed.). Boston, MA: Back Bay Books. pp. 229–230, 311, 404. ISBN 0316159433. . Retrieved 2007-12-26.
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[88] Courtis, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; et al. The black book of communism. Harvard University Press.
[89] Jung Chang. Wild swans: three daughters of China. Touchstone Press.
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[98] A.Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago" part I, comments to chapter 5
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[101] Tim Bowden. One Crowded Hour. ISBN 0-00-217496-0
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AR2007073001849. html), July 31, 2007. The Washington Post.
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[104] Paul Salopek, "Who Rules the Forest", National Geographic Sept. 2005, p. 85
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[106] Orizio, Riccardo (2003-08-21). "Idi Amin's Exile Dream" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
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[111] Gillison, Gillian (2006-11-13). "From Cannibalism to Genocide: The Work of Denial". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History (MIT
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[116] Newspaper Milliyet September 16, 2007 (http:/ / www. milliyet. com. tr/ 2007/ 09/ 16/ guncel/ agun. html) (Turkish)
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[117] Paye, Jonathan (2008-01-22). "news.bbc.co.uk, I ate children's hearts, ex-rebel says" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 7200101. stm).
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[118] AP:Top Aide testifies Taylor ordered soldiers to eat victims (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ africa/ 03/ 13/ warcrimes. taylor. ap/
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[119] Living in fear: Tanzania's albinos (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 7518049. stm), BBC News
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[121] "Confesiones de un Ex-paramilitar" (parte I) //CONTRAVÍA// (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=uYcMKq6jBCs), YouTube.
[122] Dominican migrant: We ate flesh to survive - A small group turned to cannibalism after being stranded in mid-ocean (http:/ / www. msnbc.
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[123] Amazon Indians accused of cannibalizing farmer (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2009/ WORLD/ americas/ 02/ 09/ brazil. ritual. cannibalism/
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[128] http:/ / www. lehigh. edu/ ~ejg1/ natimag/ Harry. html
 58

Using a Washing machine

Washing machine
A clothes washer, or washer, is a machine designed to wash laundry,
such as clothing, towels and sheets. The term is mostly applied only to
machines that use water as the primary cleaning solution, as opposed to
dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed
by specialist businesses) or even ultrasonic cleaners.
All washer machines work by using mechanical energy, thermal
energy, and chemical action. Mechanical energy is imparted to the
clothes load by the rotation of the agitator in top loaders, or by the
tumbling action of the drum in front loaders. Thermal energy is
supplied by the temperature of the wash bath. The spin speed in these
machines can vary from 500 to 1600 rpm (or higher).

Front-loading washing machine

History

Tirreler Bauerntradition shows an early Miele washing machine in the Roscheider Hof, Open Air Museum

This video size: 50% 100kbit

Other sizes and bitrates: 25% 64kbit‎ 75% 220kbit 100% 270kbit Original 1100kbit

To clean clothing it is necessary to rub and flex the cloth to break apart solids and help the soap penetrate. At first
this was done by pounding or rubbing the clothing with rocks in a river, and later developed into the corrugated wash
board. In Roman times a person would whiten clothing by rubbing it against a rock while letting soap lay on it. The
soap was made of animal fat.
Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the drudgery of this scrubbing and rubbing process by
providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest
machines were often hand-operated. As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, these early
machines were often operated by a low-speed single-cylinder hit and miss gasoline engine.
Because water usually had to be heated on a fire for washing, the warm soapy water was precious and would be
reused over and over, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier clothing. While the
earliest machines were constructed from wood, later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the
washtub, to keep the water warm throughout the day's washing.
Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. The soaking wet
clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. To help reduce this labour, the
Washing machine 59

wringer/mangle was developed, which uses two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of the clothing.
Each piece of clothing would be fed through the wringer separately. The first wringers were hand-operated, but were
eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub
so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next wash load.
The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed.
Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an
extractor. A load of washed clothing would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water
spun out.[1] These early extractors were often dangerous to use since unevenly distributed loads would cause the
machine to shake violently. Many efforts have been made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, first by
mounting the spinning basket on a free-floating shock-absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump
switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load can be manually redistributed. Many modern
machines are equipped with a sealed ring of liquid that works to counteract any imbalances.
What is now referred to as an automatic washer was at one time referred to as a washer/extractor, which combines
the features of these two devices into a single machine, plus also includes the ability to fill and drain water by itself.
It is possible to take this a step further, to also merge the automatic washing machine and clothes dryer into a single
device, but this is generally uncommon because the drying process tends to use much more energy than using two
separate devices; a combined washer/dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also need to dry out the wash chamber
itself.
In 2009, L'Osservatore Romano, the semi-official newspaper of the Holy See, pronounced the washing machine an
important milestone in the liberation of women, as it freed them from the drudgery of household chores.[2]

Washing machine milestones

The first English patent under the category of Washing and Wringing
Machines was issued in 1691.[3] A drawing of an early washing
machine appeared in the January 1752 issue of "The Gentlemen's
Magazine," a British publication. In Germany, Jacob Christian
Schäffer's washing machine design was published in 1767.[4] In 1782
Henry Sidgier was issued a British patent for a rotating drum washer.

The first United States Patent titled "Clothes Washing" was granted to
Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire in 1797. Fire destroyed the patent
office and no description of the device exists so it is not known what 19th-century Metropolitan washing machine
kind of washing device Briggs invented. A device that combined a
washing machine with a wringer mechanism did not appear until 1843 when John E. Turnbull of Saint John, New
Brunswick patented a "Clothes Washer With Wringer Rolls."[5]

Electric washing machines were advertised and discussed in newspapers as early as 1904.[6] Louis Goldenberg of
New Brunswick, New Jersey invented the electric washing machine around the late 1800s to early 1900s. He worked
for the Ford Motor Company at that time, and all inventions that were created while working for Ford under contract,
belonged to Ford. The patent would have been listed under Ford and or Louis Goldenberg. Alva J. Fisher has been
incorrectly credited with the invention of the electric washer. The US patent office shows at least one patent issued
before Mr. Fisher's US patent number 966677 (e.g. Woodrow's US patent number 921195).
Washing machine 60

US electric washing machine sales reached 913,000 units in 1928.

However, high unemployment rates in the Depression years hit sales;
by 1932 the number of units shipped was down to about 600,000.
The first laundromat opened in Fort Worth, Texas in 1934. It was run
by Andrew Clein. Patrons used coin-in-the-slot facilities to rent
washing machines. The term laundromat can be found in newspapers
as early as 1884 and they were widespread during the depression. It is
almost impossible to determine who had the first laundromat. England
established public wash rooms for laundry along with bath houses
throughout the nineteenth century.[7]

A vintage German model

Washer design improved during the 1930s; the mechanism was now enclosed within a cabinet; more attention was
paid to electrical safety; spin dryers were introduced, to replace the dangerous power wringers of the day.
Early automatic washing machines were usually connected to the water supply via temporary slip-on connectors to
the sink taps. Later, permanent connections to both the hot and cold water supplies became the norm. Most modern
front-loading European machines now only have a cold water connection (i.e. cold fill) and rely completely on
electric heaters to raise the water temperature.
By 1940, 60% of the 25,000,000 wired homes in the United States had an electric washing machine. Many of these
machines featured a power wringer, although built-in spin dryers were not uncommon.
Bendix introduced the first automatic washing machine in 1937,[8] having applied for a patent in the same year.[9] In
appearance and mechanical detail, this first machine is not unlike the front loading automatic washers produced
today. Although it included many of the today's basic features, the machine lacked any drum suspension and
therefore had to be anchored to the floor to prevent "walking".
Many of these early automatic machines had coin-in-the-slot facilities
and were installed in the basement laundry rooms of apartment houses.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, US domestic washer production had
to be suspended for the duration of World War II. However, many US
appliance manufacturers were given permission to undertake the
research and development of washers during the war years. Many took
the opportunity to develop automatic machines, realising that these
represented the future for the industry.
1910 advertisement
An improved front loading automatic model, the Bendix Deluxe
(which retailed at $249.50) was introduced in 1947.[10]
General Electric introduced the first top loading automatic also in 1947. This machine had many of the features that
are incorporated into modern machines.
A large number of US manufacturers introduced competing automatic machines (mainly of the top loading type) in
the late 1940s/early 1950s. Several manufacturers even produced semi-automatic machines, where the user had to
Washing machine 61

intervene at one or two points in the wash cycle. A common semi-automatic type (available from Hoover in the UK
until at least the 70's) included 2 tubs: one with an agitator or impeller for washing and/or rinsing; another, smaller,
tub for water extraction or centrifugal rinsing.
One early form of automatic washing machine manufactured by Hoover used cartridges to programme different
wash cycles. This system, called the Keymatic, used plastic cartridges with key-like slots and ridges around the
edges. The cartridge was inserted into a slot on the machine and a mechanical reader operated the machine
accordingly. The system did not really take off, since it offered no real advantage over the more conventional
programme dial, and the cartridges were prone to getting lost. In hindsight it can be seen as a marketing gimmick
rather than offering any really useful functionality.
Since their introduction in the late 1930s/mid 1940s, automatic washing machines have relied on mechanical timers
to sequence the washing and extraction process. Mechanical timers consist of a series of cams on a common shaft. At
the appropriate time in the wash cycle, each cam actuates a switch to engage/disengage a particular part of the
machinery (e.g. drain pump motor). The timer shaft is driven by a small electric motor via a reduction gearbox.
On the early mechanical timers the motor ran at a constant speed throughout the wash cycle, although it was possible
for the user to truncate parts of the program, by manually advancing the control dial. However, by the 1950s demand
for greater flexibility in the wash cycle led to the introduction of electronic timers to supplement the mechanical
timer. These electronic timers enable greater variation in such functions as the wash time. With this arrangement, the
electric timer motor is periodically switched-off to permit the clothing to soak, and is only re-energised just prior to a
micro-switch being engaged/disengaged.
Despite the high cost of automatic washers, manufacturers had difficulty in meeting the demand. Although there
were material shortages during the Korean War, by 1953 automatic washing machine sales in the US exceeded those
of wringer-type electric machines.
In the UK and in most of Europe, electric washing machines did not become popular until the 1950s. This was
largely because of the economic impact of World War II on the consumer market which did not properly recover
until the late 1950s. The early electric washers were single tub, wringer-type machines, automatic washing machines
being extremely expensive. During the 1960s, twin tub machines briefly became very popular, helped by the low
price of the Rolls Razor washers. Automatic washing machines did not become dominant in the UK until well into
the 1970s and by then were almost exclusively of the front-loader design.
In early automatic washing machines, any changes in impeller/drum
speed were achieved by mechanical means or by a rheostat on the
motor power supply. However, since the 1970s electronic control of
motor speed has become a common feature on the more expensive
models.
Early front loading machines, especially those manufactured in
Mediterranean countries (e.g. Italy), had low spin speeds (e.g. 800 rpm
or less). Nowadays, a spin speed of 1200 rpm is common and a peak
spin speed as high as 1600 rpm is available on many machines. Now
models in Europe have speeds of 1800 rpm and a few European
washing machines have a spin speed of 2000 rpm. However, because
they were not susceptible to gravitational forces, some early top
loading machines had spin speeds in excess of 1000 rpm, although
some were as low as 360 rpm. Most US top-loading washers have spin
speeds less than 1000 rpm.
A 1950s model
In the late 1990s, the British inventor James Dyson launched a type of
washing machine with two cylinders rotating in opposite directions; which, it is claimed, reduces the wash time and
produces cleaner results; however, this machine is not now in production.
Washing machine 62

In the early 1990s, upmarket machines incorporated microcontrollers for the timing process. These proved reliable,
so many cheaper machines now incorporate microcontrollers, rather than mechanical timers. Washing machines are a
classic application for fuzzy logic. Miele, from West Germany, was the top of the line front load washer, and was
introduced in Kananaskis, Alberta by Glenn Isbister starting a revolution in Laundry in Canada.
In 1994, Staber Industries released the System 2000 washing machine, which is the only top loading, horizontal-axis
washer to be manufactured in the United States. The hexagonal tub spins like a front loading machine, only using
about third of the water as conventional top-loaders. This factor has led to an Energy Star rating for its high
efficiency.
In 2001, Whirlpool Corporation introduced the Calypso, the first vertical-axis high efficiency washing machine to be
top-loading. A washplate in the bottom of the tub nutated to bounce, shake, and toss the laundry around. As this
happened, water containing detergent was sprayed on to the laundry. The machine proved to be good at cleaning but
gained a bad reputation due to frequent breakdowns and destruction of laundry and the washer was recalled with a
class-action lawsuit and pulled off the market.
In 2007, Sanyo introduced the first drum type washing machine with ‘Air Wash’ function.[11] This washing machine
uses only 50L of water in the recycle mode.
In 2008, the University of Leeds created a washing machine that uses only a cup (about 0.5 imperial pints (280 ml))
of water to carry out a full wash. The machine leaves clothes virtually dry, and uses less than 2 per cent of the water
and energy otherwise used by a conventional machine. As such, it could save billions of litres of water each year. [12]

Modern machines
Modern washing machines are available in two configurations: top loading and front loading.
The top loading design or V-axis clothes washer, most popular in Australia, Canada, the United States and Latin
America, places the clothes in a vertically-mounted perforated basket that is contained within a water-retaining tub,
with a propeller-like agitator in center of the bottom of the basket. Clothes are loaded through the top of the machine,
which is covered with a hinged door. During the wash cycle, the outer tub is filled with water sufficient to suspend
the clothing freely in the basket, and the movement of the agitator pulls the clothing downward in the center towards
the agitator paddles. The clothing then moves outward and up the sides of the basket to repeat the process.
Top-loaders are not well-suited to cleaning large objects such as pillows or sleeping bags due to the tendency for
them to just float on the surface of the water without circulating, and the aggressive agitator action can damage
delicate fabrics.
In most top loading washers, if the motor spins in one direction, the gearbox drives the agitator; if the motor spins
the other way, the gearbox locks the agitator and spins the basket and agitator together. Similarly if the pump motor
rotates one way it recirculates the sudsy water; in the other direction it pumps water from the machine during the
spin cycle. Because they usually incorporate a gearbox, clutch, crank, etc, top loading washers are mechanically
more complex than front loading machines but are generally lower maintenance since there is no need for a door seal
(described below).
Washing machine 63

The front loading design or H-axis clothes washer, most popular in

Europe and the Middle East, mounts the inner basket and outer tub
horizontally, and loading is through a door at the front of the machine.
The door often but not always contains a window. Agitation is supplied
by the back-and-forth rotation of the cylinder and by gravity. The
clothes are lifted up by paddles on the inside wall of the drum and then
dropped. This motion flexes the weave of the fabric and forces water
and detergent solution through the clothes load. Because the wash
action does not require the clothing be freely suspended in water, only
enough water is needed to moisten the fabric. Because less water is
required, front-loaders typically use less soap, and the aggressive
dropping and folding action of the tumbling can easily produce large
amounts of foam.

Front-loaders control water usage through the surface tension of water,

and the capillary wicking action this creates in the fabric weave. A
Arctic BE1200A+ is a front loading budget
front-loader washer always fills to the same low water level, but a large model sold in 2008 with 6 kg load, LCD
pile of dry clothing standing in water will soak up the moisture, indicator, 1200 RPM
causing the water level to drop. The washer then refills to maintain the
original water level. Because it takes time for this water absorption to occur with a motionless pile of fabric, nearly
all front-loaders begin the washing process by slowly tumbling the clothing under the stream of water entering and
filling the drum, to rapidly saturate the dry clothes with water.
Front loading washers are mechanically simple compared to top-loaders, with the main motor normally being
connected to the drum via a grooved pulley belt and large pulley wheel, without the need for a gearbox, clutch or
crank. But front-load washers suffer from their own technical problems, due to the drum lying sideways. For
example, a top loading washer keeps water inside the tub merely through the force of gravity pulling down on the
water, while a front-loader must tightly seal the door shut with a gasket to prevent dripping water onto the floor
during the wash cycle. This access door is locked shut during the entire wash cycle, since opening the door with the
machine in use could result in water gushing out onto the floor. For front-loaders without viewing windows on the
door, it is possible to accidentally pinch fabric between the door and the drum, resulting in tearing and damage to the
pinched clothing during tumbling and spinning.
Nearly all front-loader washers for the consumer market must also use a folded flexible bellows assembly around the
door opening, to keep clothing contained inside the basket during the tumbling wash cycle. If this bellows assembly
were not used, small articles of clothing such as socks could slip out of the wash basket near the door, and fall down
the narrow slot between the outer tub and basket, plugging the drain and possibly jamming rotation of the inner
basket. Retrieving lost items from between the outer tub and inner basket can require complete disassembly of the
front of the washer and pulling out the entire inner wash basket. Commercial and industrial front-loaders used by
businesses (described below) usually do not use the bellows, and instead require all small objects to be placed in a
mesh bag to prevent loss near the basket opening.
This bellows assembly around the door is the source of problems for the consumer front-loader. The bellows has a
large number of flexible folds to permit the tub to move separately from the door during the high speed extraction
cycle. On American machines, these folds can collect lint, dirt, and moisture, resulting in mold and mildew growth
and a foul odor. Some front-loading washer operating instructions say the bellows should be wiped down monthly
with a strong bleach solution, while others offer a special freshening cycle where the machine is run empty with a
strong dosing of bleach. In the past, suggested remedies have included adding vinegar to the laundry detergent,
running an empty cycle with bleach every few weeks, wiping the door gasket with a diluted bleach solution every
other week, and leaving the front-loading washer door ajar between loads.
Washing machine 64

A top-loading washer suffers from none of these continued maintenance problems and needs no regular freshening.
During the spin cycle, a top-loading tub is free to move about inside the cabinet of the machine, using only a lip
around the top of the inner basket and outer tub to keep the spinning water and clothing from spraying out over the
edge.
There are many variations of these two general themes. Top loading machines in Asia use impellers instead of
agitators. Impellers are similar to agitators except that they do not have the center post extending up in the middle of
the wash tub basket. There is also a top loading variant of the horizontal axis design that is loaded from the top,
through a small door in the circumference of the drum. These machines usually have a shorter cylinder and are
therefore smaller, but offer the efficiency of a front-loader while eliminating the problems of the flexible bellows.
This kind of washing machine is sold and popular in Europe, especially in small households, because it offers the
same drum system as front loaders, just with a smaller footprint.
Front-loaded machines are ideal for fitted/finished kitchens, since they can be installed under a countertop/worktop.
A front loading washing machine, in a fully-fitted kitchen, is often disguised as an ordinary base cabinet/unit. They
are also ideal for small homes and apartments with limited space, because the dryer can be installed directly above
the washer. They're also more convenient for little people and those with paraplegia, as the controls are
front-mounted and the horizontal drum eliminates the need for standing and/or climbing.
Many front loading machines have electrical heating elements to heat the wash bath to near boiling. Chemical action
is supplied by the detergent and other laundry chemicals. Front loaders use special detergents that are designed to
release different chemical ingredients at different temperatures. This is so that different type of stains and soils will
be cleaned from the clothes as the wash water is heated up by the electrical heater. Front loaders also need to use low
sudsing detergents because the tumbling action of the drum folds air into the clothes load that can cause
over-sudsing. Due to the concentration of water and detergent, though, the sudsing issue of front-loaders can also be
controlled by simply using less detergent without lessening cleaning action.
Tests comparing front loading and top loading machines have shown that, in general, front-loaders wash clothes
more thoroughly, cause less wear, and use less water and energy than top-loaders. As a result of using less water,
they require less detergent to be used, or conversely, they can use the same amount of detergent with less water,
which increases detergent concentration and increases the amount of chemical action. They also allow a dryer to be
more easily mounted directly above the washer.
Top-loaders have had the advantage that they complete a washing cycle much faster and allow clothes to be removed
at intermediate stages of the cycle (for instance, if some clothes within a wash are not to be spun). Many current
front-loaders, though, can be stopped and added-to or removed-from because the water level in the horizontal tub is
still below the door level. They also tend to be easier to load and unload, since reaching into the tub does not require
stooping. Again, this issue can be mitigated due to the offering of risers (usually with storage drawers underneath) to
raise the door opening closer to the user's level. The top loader's spin cycle between washing and rinsing allows an
extremely simple fabric softener dispenser, which operates passively through centrifugal force and gravity. The same
objective must be accomplished by a solenoid-operated valve on a front loader. Another advantage to the top loading
design is the reliance on gravity to contain the water, rather than potentially trouble-prone or short-lived front door
seals.
Traditionally, top loading machines have tended to be more complex mechanically than front loading washers,
because the former generally require a transmission, clutch assembly, and brake to perform the wash/spin cycle.
However, the electro-mechanical components in conventional top-load washers have largely reached maturity. In
contrast, complications caused by higher-speed drum rotation on consumer-level front-load machines, combined
with the addition of electronic circuit boards, control touchpads, and various sensors has significantly impacted
frequency-of-repair and expected service life.
Washing machine 65

Rinsing
Washing machines perform several rinses after the main wash to remove most of the detergent. Modern washing
machines use less water due to environmental concerns, however this has led to the problem of poor rinsing on many
washing machines on the market,[13] which can be a problem to people who are sensitive to detergents. The Allergy
UK website suggests re-running the rinse cycle again.[14]

Maintenance wash
Washing machine manufacturers are now advising users to perform a regular maintenance wash which cleans the
inside of the washing machine. A maintenance wash is performed without any laundry on the hottest wash
programme,[15] using either one of the following: white vinegar, a detergent with bleaching properties (it's not
advisable to put actual bleach inside the washing machine!) or you could use a proprietary washing machine cleaner.
The purpose of a maintenance wash is to remove any mould, bacteria, old detergent residue and gunge. If using
white vinegar, it's important to allow the washing machine to fill for about 30 seconds before adding the vinegar, as
the first bit of water goes into the sump.[16]

Front- and top-loader comparisons

Some top-loader advocates have argued that a top-loader leans more towards efficiency with dramatically faster
wash times, although comparisons of energy use show this to be wrong -- front loaders generally use less energy,
water and detergent and clean almost as effectively as the best top loaders.[17] Newer U.S. top loaders (manufactured
in the US after 2007) however come out poorly since new regulations have reduced the amount of energy they
consume, which has resulted in shortened cycles and less effective cleaning. Front loaders do tend to have longer
cycle times but lean toward lower overall energy consumption (especially hot washes) by virtue of dramatically
lower amounts of water and less detergent required.

Consumer

Feature Top Loading Washer Front Loading

Washer

European Market Share 10%** 90%

US Market Share 65% 35%

In the United States, top-loading machines are the most commonly used. However, in Europe the front-loading style
is preferred. A factor in the preference for front-loaders in Europe is the preference for integrated appliances that sit
under countertops in kitchens and utility rooms or that can be fully integrated and concealed in kitchen cabinetry.
Also, because the first mass marketed automatic washing machines sold from the 1950s onwards in Europe were
almost exclusively front loaders European consumers tended to associate top loaders with labour intensive obsolete
technology. European households also tend to pay more attention to water and energy conservation as heavy
environmental taxes are levied on both water and energy use. Front loading machines also offer much higher spin
drying speeds of up to 2000 RPM. This makes it possible to dry clothes very quickly by hanging them on washing
lines or airing racks or can substantially reduce the length of time required in a tumble dryer. The EU also has a
comprehensive energy efficiency, wash performance and spin dry performance labelling system which rates major
appliance performance from A to G. This has driven consumers away from inefficient machines as they will
generally try to buy A rated appliances. For example a "Triple A" (AAA) rated machine = Lowest Energy
Consumption, Best Wash and Best Water Extraction (Spin) performance.
It should also be noted that while 10% of European washing machines may be top loading they are not of the same
design as North American machines. Rather than washing the clothes with an agitator, they also use a horizontally
Washing machine 66

mounted drum. The clothes are loaded through a hatch in the drum wall. Their design is mechanically identical to
that of a front loader. These machines are particularly popular for small apartments as they take up less floor space
than a conventional front loader and for historical marketing reasons are more popular in certain EU countries. For
example they are quite commonly found in French houses while they're practically unheard of in the UK and
Republic of Ireland.

Usage
Front-loaders feature a washing style that requires less water than a top-loader and today's front-loaders achieve
much better washing results while treating the garments more gently. Front-loaders offer quick programs which are
in the same time range as top-loader cycles.

Washing process
Washing times for front-loaders are more flexible and some manufacturers offer programs which last just 15
minutes.

Noise levels
Front loading machines in general tend to operate more quietly than top loaders.

European standards
Capacity and cost are the main considerations when purchasing a washing
machine. If intended for use by a single person, a capacity of under 5 kg
should be sufficient (thus saving energy and running costs).
Washing machines display an EU Energy Label with grades for washing
performance, energy efficiency and spin efficiency. Grades run from A to
G (best to worst), and provide a simple method for judging running costs
and performance. One important factor that's missing from the energy
labelling scheme is the washing machine's rinsing performance, which can
adversely affect allergy sufferers and people who are sensitive to laundry
detergents and chemicals. It's advisable to check an independent consumer
report on how well a washing machine can rinse before purchasing, as
newer washing machines use a lot less water than older ones.[13]

The EU requires washing machines carry an

efficiency label
Washing machine 67

Commercial washing machine

A commercial washing machine is intended for more frequent and
long-term usage than a consumer washing machine. Because function
is more important than style, most commercial washers have a
sharp-edged square appearance, often with stainless steel exteriors to
minimize rust and corrosion in a constantly moist environment. They
are built with large easy-to-open service covers, and the washer
mechanisms are internally laid out in a manner that does not require
access to the underside of the unit for service. Often commercial
washers are installed in long rows with a wide access passageway
behind all the machines to allow maintenance without moving the
heavy machine. Commercial washing machines in a self-service
laundromat
Many commercial washers are built for use by the general public, and
are installed in publicly accessible laundromats or laundrettes, operated
by money accepting devices or card readers. The features of a commercial laundromat washer are more limited than
a consumer washer, offering just two or three basic wash types plus an option to choose wash cycle temperatures.
The common front-loading commercial washing machine also differs from consumer models in its expulsion of wash
and rinse water. While the consumer models pump used water out allowing the waste line to be located above the
washer, front loading, commercial machines generally use gravity to expel used water. A drain in the rear, at the
bottom of the machine opens at the appointed time during the cycle and water flows out. This creates the need for a
trough behind machines which leads to a filter and drain. the trough is usually part of a cement platform built for the
purpose of raising the machines and can be seen behind washers at most laundromats.

Commercial washers for business (still often referred to as a washer/extractor) can include extra features that are
never seen in the consumer market. Many commercial washers offer an option for automatic chemical injection of
five or more different chemical types, so that the operator does not have to deal with constantly measuring out soap
products and fabric softeners for each load. Instead a precise metering system draws the detergents and wash
additives directly from large liquid-chemical storage barrels and injects them as needed into the various wash and
rinse cycles.
Some computer-controlled commercial washers offer the operator complete control over the various wash and rinse
cycles, allowing the operator to program custom washing cycles.
One special type of continuous-processing washer is known as the tunnel washer which does not have separate,
distinct wash or rinse cycles, but combines them all in sequence inside a single long large-diameter rotating tube.
Washing machine 68

Industrial washing machines

An industrial clothes washer can be used to batch process up to 300
pounds (140 kg) of textiles at once, and can be used for extremely
machine-abusive washing tasks such as stone washing or fabric
bleaching and dyeing.
An industrial washer can be mounted on heavy shock absorbers and
attached to a concrete floor so that it can extract water from even the
most severely out-of-balance and heavy wash loads. It may be mounted
on hydraulic cylinders, permitting the entire washer to be lifted and
tilted so that fabrics can be automatically dumped from the wash drum
onto a conveyor belt once the cycle is complete.

Washing machine manufacturers

• Antonio Merloni under the brand names Asko, Ardo, Philco and
Servis
• Arçelik - including the brand names Beko, Blomberg and Altus
A 1980s Belgian 180kg load industrial washer in
• Bosch - including the brand names Siemens, Neff and Constructa
Hotel Hilton, Brussels
• Candy - including the brand name Hoover and Zerowatt
• Continental Girbau
• Dyson (No longer produced)
• Electrolux - including the brand names AEG, Frigidaire, Tricity
Bendix and Zanussi
• Fagor - including the brand name Brandt
• Fisher & Paykel
• Girbau
• GE
• Haier
• Hitachi
• Indesit - including the brand names Ariston, Creda, Hotpoint and
Scholtes
• LG
• Miele
• Samsung
• SMEG
• Staber A 1980s Belgian 90kg load industrial washer.

• Whirlpool - including the brand names Admiral, Amana, Kenmore,

Maytag, Magic Chef and Roper

Role in women's liberation

In 2009, L'Osservatore Romano published an article entitled "The Washing Machine and the Liberation of Women"
that was controversially meant to demonstrate that the washing machine had done more for the liberation of woman
than the contraceptive pill and abortion pill, which are often associated to Women's Day. The article shocked Italian
feminists and provoked criticism from Opposition MP Paola Concia.[18] A study from Université de Montréal also
presented a similar point of view to that of L'Osservatore. [19]
Washing machine 69

See also
• Bleach
• Centrifugation
• Clothes dryer
• Combo washer dryer
• Detergent
• Drying cabinet
• Energetic efficiency
• Fabric softener
• Home appliance and major appliance
• Ironing
• Laundry detergent
• Laundry symbols
• Silver Nano
• Tunnel washer

References
[1] Illustration of a 1919 line shaft-driven commercial horizontal washer with a separate large vertical extractor behind it -- Don't Waste Waste,
Popular Science monthly, January 1919, page 73, Scanned by Google Books: http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HykDAAAAMBAJ&
pg=PA73
[2] Vatican’s praise for washing machine (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2009/ 03/ 10/ stories/ 2009031051721800. htm). The Hindu. 10 March 2009.
[3] Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology, Autumn Stanley, Rutgers University Press, 1995, p. 301
[4] "Deutsches Museum: Schäffer" (http:/ / www. deutsches-museum. de/ bibliothek/ unsere-schaetze/ technikgeschichte/ schaeffer/ ).
Deutsches-museum.de. . Retrieved 2010-02-16.
[5] Mario Theriault, Great Maritme Inventions 1833-1950, Goose Lane, 2001, p. 28
[6] "Electric Washing Machine the Latest. Housewives can do Washing in one-third the Time," Des Moines Daily Capitol, November 12, 1904,
p. 13.
[7] New York Times, April 13, 1884; New London Journal, July 22, 1917
[8] Photograph of Bendix' automatic washing machine, 1937 (http:/ / www. oldewash. com/ cf/ images/ IMAGES/ 327. jpg)
[9] US patent 2165884 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US2165884)
[10] video demonstration (http:/ / 68. 89. 57. 239/ VID/ 47BENDIX/ Bendix_Wash. wmv)
[11] SANYO Announces the World-First*1 Drum Type Washing Machine with ‘Air Wash’ Function (http:/ / www. sanyo. com/ news/ 2007/ 03/
27-2. html)
[12] University of Leeds creating a washing machine that needs but 2% of the water/electricity requirements of a conventional washing machine
(http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/ article-1025043/ Spin-dry-The-washing-machine-needs-just-cup-water.
html?ITO=1490Ûniversity)
[13] "Why can’t modern washing machines rinse properly?" (http:/ / www. whitegoodshelp. co. uk/ wordpress/
why-cant-modern-washing-machines-rinse-properly/ ). Whitegoodshelp.co.uk. . Retrieved 2010-02-16.
[14] "Allergy Tips and Advice for Household Cleaning" (http:/ / www. allergyuk. org/ fs_handyhints. aspx). Allergyuk.org. . Retrieved
2010-02-16.
[15] "Washing machine usage (part 2)" (http:/ / www. washerhelp. co. uk/ usage_2. html). Washerhelp.co.uk. . Retrieved 2010-02-16.
[16] "DIY washing machine repairs (Part 4)" (http:/ / www. washerhelp. co. uk/ diy-repair-help_4. html). Washerhelp.co.uk. . Retrieved
2010-02-16.
[17] "Laundry Products Research" (http:/ / www. lanfaxlabs. com. au/ washing_machines. htm). March-2008. .
[18] Washer liberated women, Vatican says (http:/ / www. nationalpost. com/ news/ story. html?id=1371528)
[19] Fridges And Washing Machines Liberated Women, Study Suggests (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 03/ 090312150735.
htm)

• William Lester, Grandson of Louis Goldenberg. Inventor for Ford Company.

Washing machine 70

External links
• Preservation and also exhibition of vintage washing machines (http://www.automaticwasher.org)
• History of Washing Machines (http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/
washing_machines.cfm)
• How Washing Machines Work (http://www.howstuffworks.com/washer.htm) Article by HowStuffWorks.com
• Washing Machine Museum (http://www.oldewash.com)
• New Devices that Ought to Make Housekeeping Easy: a long platform for the electric washing machine, rinsing,
and bluing tubs, and the basket, making for a continuous operation, Popular Science monthly, February 1919,
page 62, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62
• Open Source Washing Machine Project (http://www.oswash.org/)

Laundry
Laundry is a noun that refers to the
act of washing clothing and linens, the
place where that washing is done,
and/or that which needs to be, is being,
or has been laundered.

Laundry is hung to dry above an Italian street.

Laundry
Laundry was first done in watercourses , letting the water carry away
the materials which could cause stains and smells. Laundry is still done
this way in some less industrialized areas and rural regions. Agitation
helps remove the dirt, so the laundry is often rubbed, twisted, or
slapped against flat rocks. Wooden bats or clubs could be used to help
with beating the dirt out. These were often called washing beetles or
bats and could be used by the waterside on a rock (a beetling-stone), on
a block (battling-block), or on a board. They were once common across Laundry in the river in contemporary Abidjan,
Europe and were also used by settlers in North America. Ivory Coast.

Various chemicals may be used to increase the solvent power of water,

such as the compounds in soaproot or yucca-root used by Native American tribes. Soap, a compound made from lye
(from wood-ash) and fat, is an ancient and very common laundry aid. However, modern washing machines typically
use powdered or liquid laundry detergent in place of more traditional soap.
Laundry 71

When no watercourses were available, laundry was done in water-tight vats or vessels. Sometimes large metal
cauldrons were filled with fresh water and heated over a fire; boiling water was even more effective than cold in
removing dirt. The washboard, a corrugated slab of a hard material such as metal, replaced rocks as a surface for
loosening soil.
Once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or
clotheslines to air dry, or sometimes just spread out on clean grass.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution completely transformed laundry technology.
The mangle (wringer US) was developed in the 18th century — two long rollers in a frame and a crank to revolve
them. A laundry-worker took sopping wet clothing and cranked it through the mangle, compressing the cloth and
expelling the excess water. The mangle was much quicker than hand twisting. It was a variation on the box mangle
used primarily for pressing and smoothing cloth.
Meanwhile 18th century inventors further mechanized the laundry process with various hand-operated washing
machines. Most involved turning a handle to move paddles inside a tub. Then some early 20th century machines
used an electrically powered agitator to replace tedious hand rubbing against a washboard. Many of these were
simply a tub on legs, with a hand-operated mangle on top. Later the mangle too was electrically powered, then
replaced by a perforated double tub, which spun out the excess water in a spin cycle.
Laundry drying was also mechanized, with clothes dryers. Dryers were also spinning perforated tubs, but they blew
heated air rather than water.

Chinese laundries in North America

In the United States and Canada in the late 19th and early 20th century, the occupation of laundry worker was
heavily identified with Chinese Americans. Discrimination, lack of English-language skills, and lack of capital kept
Chinese Americans out of most desirable careers. Around 1900, one in four ethnic Chinese men in the U.S. worked
in a laundry, typically working 10 to 16 hours a day.[1] [2]
New York City had an estimated 3,550 Chinese laundries at the beginning of the Great Depression of the 1930s. In
1933, with even this looking to many people like a relatively desirable business, the city's Board of Aldermen passed
a law clearly intended to drive the Chinese out of the business. Among other things, it limited ownership of laundries
to U.S. citizens. The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association tried fruitlessly to fend this off, resulting in the
formation of the openly leftist Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance (CHLA), which successfully challenged this
provision of the law, allowing Chinese laundry workers to preserve their livelihoods.[1]
The CHLA went on to function as a more general civil rights group; its numbers declined strongly after it was
targeted by the FBI during the Second Red Scare (1947–1957).[1]

Apartments in developed countries

In some parts of the world, including Europe and North America, apartment buildings and dormitories often have
laundry rooms, where residents share washing machines and dryers. Usually the machines are set to run only when
money is put in a coin slot.
In other parts of the world, apartment buildings with laundry rooms are uncommon, and each apartment may have its
own washing machine. Those without a machine at home or the use of a laundry room must either wash their clothes
by hand or visit a commercial laundromat.
Laundry 72

Right to Dry Movement

Some organizations have been campaigning against
legislation which has outlawed line-drying of clothing in
public places, especially given the increased greenhouse gas
emissions produced by clothes dryers.
Legislation making it possible for thousands of American
families to start using a clothesline in communities where
they were formerly banned was passed in Colorado in 2008.
In 2009, clothesline legislation was debated in several states,
including Connecticut, Hawaii, Maryland, Maine, New
Hampshire, Nebraska, Oregon, Virginia, and Vermont. Other
states are considering similar bills. AOL listed the clothesline
as one of the 20 things most likely to make a comeback in
2008 and again in 2009.
Although there are homeowners' associations and other
communities in the United States that prohibit residents from
using a clothesline outdoors, or limit its use to locations that
are not visible from the street or to certain times of day, other
communities expressly prohibit rules that prevent the use of
clotheslines. Florida is the only state to expressly guarantee a
right to dry, although Utah and Hawaii have passed solar
rights legislation.

In Florida, a law states that "No deed restrictions, covenants,

Directions for hand-washing New Britain Standard Hygienic
or similar binding agreements running with the land shall
Underwear, circa 1915
prohibit or have the effect of prohibiting solar collectors,
clotheslines, or other energy devices based on renewable
resources from being installed on buildings erected on the lots or parcels covered by the deed restrictions, covenants,
or binding agreements"[3] . No other state has such explicit legislation. Vermont considered a "Right to Dry" bill in
1999, but it was defeated in the Senate Natural Resources & Energy Committee. The language has been included in a
2007 voluntary energy conservation bill, introduced by Senator Dick McCormack. Similar measures are being
introduced in some parts of Canada, including the province of Ontario, as well.

Common problems
Novice users of modern laundry machines sometimes experience accidental shrinkage of garments, especially when
applying heat. For wool garments, this is due to scales on the fibers which heat and agitation cause to stick together.
Other fabrics are stretched by mechanical forces during production, and can shrink slightly when heated (though to a
lesser degree than wool). Some clothes are "pre-shrunk" to avoid this problem.[4]
Another common problem is color bleeding. For example, washing a red shirt with white underwear can result in
embarrassingly pink underwear. Often only like colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened
by cold water and repeated washings.
Laundry symbols are included on many clothes to help consumers avoid these problems.
Laundry 73

See also
• Laundry symbols
• Washing machine
• Tunnel washer
• Clothes dryer
• Drying cabinet
• Drying rack
• Ironing
• Household chore
• Laundromat
• Industrial laundry

External links
• Coin Laundry Association, a not-for-profit trade organization serving the self-service laundry industry [5]
• Latest Laundry Technologies (video) [6]
• Project Laundry List [7], a 501c3 non-profit which campaigns to make air-drying laundry acceptable and desirable
as a simple and effective way to save energy.

References
[1] "Yung, Judy; Chang, Gordon H.; Lai, Him Mark, eds. (2006), "Declaration of the Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance.", Chinese American
Voices, University of California Press, pp. 183–185 (including notes), ISBN 0-520-24310-2
[2] Ban Seng Hoe (2004), Enduring Hardship: The Chinese Laundry in Canada, Canadian Museum of Civilization, ISBN 0-660-19078-8
[3] "Energy devices based on renewable resources" (http:/ / www. flsenate. gov/ statutes/ index. cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&
URL=Ch0163/ SEC04. HTM& Title=->2008->Ch0163->Section 04#0163. 04). The 2008 Florida Statutes. 163.04. Florida Senate. 2008. .
[4] "Why Clothes Shrink" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ transcript/ transcript. php?storyId=98759520). .
[5] http:/ / www. coinlaundry. org
[6] http:/ / homeguide123. com/ videos/ Latest_Laundry_Technologies_Video. html
[7] http:/ / www. laundrylist. org
Housekeeping 74

Housekeeping
Housekeeping or housecleaning is the systematic process of making a home neat and
clean in approximately that order. This maybe applied more broadly that just an individual
home, or as a metaphor for a similar "clean up" process applied elsewhere such as a
procedural reform. It can also be called household management, which is the act of
overseeing the organizational, financial, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and
the managing of other domestic concerns.

In the process of housekeeping general cleaning activities are completed, such as

disposing of rubbish, storing of belongings in regular places, cleaning dirty surfaces,
dusting and vacuuming. It is also the care and control of property, ensuring its
maintenance and proper use and appearance. In a hotel, "housekeeping" is also a term for the cleaning personnel.[1]
Some housekeeping is housecleaning and some housekeeping is home chores. Home chores are housework that
needs to be done at regular intervals,[2] Housekeeping includes the budget and control of expenditures, preparing
meals and buying food, paying the heat bill, and cleaning the house.[3] Outdoor housecleaning chores include
removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows, sweeping doormats, cleaning the pool, putting away lawn
furniture, and taking out the trash.[4]
Tools include the vacuum cleaner, broom and mop. Supplies such as cleaning solutions and sponges are sold in
grocery stores and elsewhere. Professional cleaners can be hired for less frequent or specialist tasks such as cleaning
blinds, rugs, and sofas. Professional services are also offered for the basic tasks. Safety is a consideration because
some cleaning products are toxic and some cleaning tasks are physically demanding. Green cleaning refers to
cleaning without causing pollution. The history of housecleaning has links to the advancement of technology.

Reasons
People perform house cleaning for the home to look better and be safer and easier to live
in. It is in response to clutter, disorder, litter, dirtiness or to prevent such. Without
housecleaning limescale builds up on taps, mold grows in wet areas, bacterial action make
the garbage disposal and toilet smell and cobwebs accumulate. With organisation
belongings are easily found and table tops are clear.[5]
Housekeeping 75

Indoor litter
Disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning, the reasons for this are
psychological, social and practical. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured
specifically for the collection of litter. Many are sized to fit common waste baskets and
trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things.
Recycling is possible with some kinds of litter.[6]

Clutter problem
Clutter is belongings that have not been put away into storage locations designed for
them. If there are not enough shelves and drawers and hangers and there can’t be more,
this is a cause of clutter. There is a limit to the number of possessions that can be neatly
stored in a home. A tangled pile of old coats, mittens, scarves, hats and boots occurs in
some hall closets. Pawnbrokers, thrift shops and garbage collectors are involved in the
prevention of clutter.[7]

Dustiness
Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces. As well as making the surfaces dirty,
when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing
trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean. Various tools
have been invented for dust removal; Feather and lamb’s wool dusters, cotton and
polyester dust cloths, disposable paper "dust cloths", dust mops for smooth floors and
vacuum cleaners. Vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove
not just from carpets and rugs, but from hard surfaces and upholstery.[8] This way can
help your things well organize.Things will look so clean likewise neat.

Dirtiness
Although one meaning of housecleaning is "improvement," the primary meaning of
housecleaning is "the cleaning of a house." A goal of housecleaning would be the removal
of mold from shower grout or smudges and splatters from a kitchen wall. Examples of
dirtiness or "soil" would be dry coffee spills and jelly drips or muddy footprints on carpet.
Soap and water is a "cleaner." Equipment used with a cleaner might be a bucket and
sponge. A modern tool is the spray bottle, but the scientific principle is the same.
Cleaning supplies have directions and are sold at janitorial and other stores. Cleaning
specialists such as carpet cleaners are listed in phone books. Housecleaning is done to
achieve and to enjoy a cleaner house.[9]
Housekeeping 76

Training
In the early 1800s throughout the industrialized
world there was a campaign to teach girls the
domestic arts (cooking, cleaning, hygiene, sewing,
art, décor, etc) in school. In the early 1870s there
were college courses in home economics and by
1880 there were high school courses. There
continues to be high school and vocational school
courses and college degrees in home economics,
which prepares students for various employment,
as well as home and family management. Home
economists are taught and teach about
relationships, children, economy, shopping,
management of home and family, sewing and
An Indian woman cleans a little courtyard
interior decoration. Although boys have not been
required to learn cooking and cleaning in school, a
few have taken a course or two.[10]

Household chemicals
Various household cleaning products have been developed to facilitate the removal of
dust and dirt, for surface maintenance, and for disinfection.[11] Products are available in
powder, liquid or spray form. The basic ingredients determine the type of cleaning tasks
for which they are suitable. Some are packaged as general purpose cleaning materials
whilst others are targeted at specific cleaning tasks such as drain clearing, oven cleaning,
lime scale removal and polishing furniture. Household cleaning products provide aesthetic
and hygiene benefits but are also associated with health risks for the users, and building
occupants.[12] The US Department of Health and Human Services offers the public access
to the Household Products Database [13]. This database provides consumer information
for over 4,000 products based on information provided by the manufacturer through the
Material Safety Data Sheet. Consumers can search for products by brand name, manufacturer, ingredients, product
recalls, and health effects.

Surfactants lower the surface tension of water, making it able to flow into smaller tiny cracks and crevices in soils
making removal easier. Alkaline chemicals break down known soils such as grease and mud. Acids break down soils
such as lime scale, soap scum, and stains of mustard, coffee, tea, and alcoholic beverages. Some solvent-based
products are flammable and some can dissolve paint and varnish. Disinfectants stop smell and stains caused by
bacteria.
When multiple chemicals are applied to the same surface without full removal of the earlier substance, the chemicals
may interact. This interaction may result in a reduction of the efficiency of the chemicals applied (such as a change
in pH value caused by mixing alkalis and acids) and in cases may even emit toxic fumes. An example of this is the
mixing of ammonia-based cleaners (or acid-based cleaners) and bleach.[14] This causes the production of
chloramines that volatilize (become gaseous) causing acute inflammation of the lungs (toxic pneumonitis), long-term
respiratory damage, and potential death.[15]
Residue from cleaning products and cleaning activity (dusting, vacuuming, sweeping) have been shown to impact
indoor air quality (IAQ) by redistributing particulate matter (dust, dirt, human skin cells, organic matter, animal
dander, particles from combustion, fibers from insulation, pollen, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that gaseous
Housekeeping 77

or liquid particles become adsorbed to. The particulate matter and chemical residual will of be highest concentrations
right after cleaning but will decrease over time depending upon levels of contaminants, air exchange rate, and other
sources of chemical residual.[14] Of most concern are the family of chemicals called VOCs such as formaldehyde,
toluene, and limonene.[16]
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released from many household cleaning products such as disinfectants,
polishes, floor waxes, air-freshening sprays, all purpose cleaning sprays, and glass cleaner. These products have been
shown to emit irritating vapors.[11] [17] [18] VOCs are of most concern due to their tendency to evaporate and be
inhaled into the lungs or adsorbed to existing dust, which can also be inhaled.[11] It has been found that aerosolized
(spray) cleaning products are important risk factors and may aggravate symptoms of adult asthma,[18] respiratory
irritation,[11] childhood asthma, wheeze, bronchitis, and allergy.[17]
Other modes of exposure to potentially harmful household cleaning chemicals include absorption through the skin
(dermis), accidental ingestion, and accidental splashing into the eyes. Products for the application and safe use of the
chemicals are also available, such as nylon scrub sponge and rubber gloves. [19] It is up to the consumer to keep
themselves safe while using these chemicals. Reading and comprehending the labels is important.
There is a growing consumer and governmental interest in natural cleaning products and green cleaning methods.
The use of nontoxic household chemicals is growing as consumers become more informed of the health effects of
many household chemicals, and municipalities are having to deal with the expensive disposal of household
hazardous waste (HHW).[20] [21]

Tools
"Modern housecleaning tools" is almost an oxymoron. There are few areas of employment where someone from 50
years ago could step into the same job today, but housecleaning is one area where there has been very little change.
Brooms remove debris from floors. Brushes clean cracks and crevices. Buckets hold cleaning and rinsing solutions.
Carpet sweepers remove surface dust and debris. Chamois do lint-free drying of windows. Clotheslines hold
doormats and rugs for cleaning. Clothespins fasten things on clotheslines . Dishwashers are machines that wash
dishes placed inside them. Dryers dry textiles placed inside them. Dusters are soft cloths for wiping dust, or are
various dust sweepers. Dustpans carry dust and debris swept into them. Floor machines remove and apply floor
finish. Rubber gloves protect hands from dish water and other cleaners. Dust mops remove dust from smooth floors.
Wet mops are for washing floors. Paper towels wipe up grease and other materials difficult to rinse from a cloth.
Polishing cloths are for applying polish and removing excess polish. Sponges apply cleaning solution and remove
soil. Spray bottles apply cleaning solution to be removed by another tool. Squeegees remove solutions from glass.
Steam cleaners are machines that help wash carpet. Vacuum cleaners remove dust from inside carpet. Upright
vacuums are best at carpet vacuuming. Canister vacuums are best at upholstery and bare floors. Wet-dry vacuums
can be used to remove spills and spot removers. Washing machines clean textiles such as dust cloths.[22]

Yard
A home's yard and exterior are sometimes subject to cleaning. The first impression of a
home's cleanliness is given by its yard and entranceway. Exterior cleaning also occurs for
safety, upkeep and usefulness. It includes removal of paper litter and grass growing in
sidewalk cracks. Rain gutters, doormats, pools and the screens and glass of windows are
also cleanable. Yard junk-removal might occur and porch clutter removal. The paint of
door frames might be washed or an old piñata thrown away.[23]
Housekeeping 78

Professional Cleaning Services

There are many professional house cleaning services located around the world. In recent years, they have grown in
popularity due to the increase in both spouses needing to work.

See also
• Homemaker
• Maid
• Cleanliness
• Floor cleaning

Notes
[1] Editorial staff. 1961. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Springfield, Massachusetts: G. &
C. Merriam Company.
[2] Gove, Philip et al. 1961. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Springfield, Massachusetts: G
& C Merriam Company
[3] Ansley, Clark et al. 1935. The Columbia Encyclopedia in One Volume. Morningside Heights, NY: Columbia University Press.
[4] Smallin, Donna. 2006. Cleaning Plain & Simple. Storey Publishing, North Adams, MA.
[5] Woodburn, Kim & MacKenzie, Aggie. How Clean is Your House? 2003. Michael Joseph, Great Britain. 2004. Dutton, New York, USA.
[6] Dellutri, Laura. 2005. Speed Cleaning 101. Meredith Books, Des Moines, Iowa.
[7] Smallin, Donna. 2006. Cleaning Plain & Simple. Storey Publishing, North Adams, MA
[8] Kennedy, Rose. 2006. 10-Minute Housekeeping. Beverly, MA: Fair Winds Press.
[9] Aslett, Don. 2005. 1981. Is There Life After Housework? 2nd Edition. Avon, Massachusetts: Adams Media.
[10] Phillips, Robert et al. 1971. Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls, Inc. New York, NY
[11] Wolkoff P, Schneider T, Kildeso J, Degerth R, Jaroszewski, and Schunk H. Science of the Total Environment, 215, (1998) pg. 135-156
[12] Kwon KD, Jo WK, Lim JH, and Jcong WS. Environ Sci Pollut Res 15, (2008) pg. 521-526
[13] http:/ / hpd. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ household/ prodtree?prodcat=Inside+ the+ Home
[14] Nazaroff, WW., Weschler, CJ., Atmospheric Environment. 38 (2004) pg. 2841-2865
[15] Reisz, GR., Gammon, RS. Toxic Pneumonitis from mixing household chemicals. CHEST 89 (1986) pg. 49-52
[16] Burton, A. Environmental Health Perspectives - Indoor Air Quality. Vol. 115 #7 (2007) pg. 350
[17] Raizenne M., Dales R., Burnett, R., Canadian Jour of Public Health. Air Pollution Exposures and Children's Health. Vol. 89, Suppl. 1
May-June 1998. pg. S43-48(
[18] Zock, JP., Plana, E.,Jarvis D. et al. Am J Resipir Crit Care Medicine. Vol. 176. (2007) pg. 735-741
[19] Bredenberg, Jeff et al. 1998. Clean it Fast, Clean it right. Emmaus, PA, USA:Rodale. ISBN 0-87596-509-1.
[20] Adams, D., Werner, CM., Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. Changing Homeowners' Behaviors Involving Toxic Household
Chemicals: A psychological, multilevel approach. (2001) pg. 1-32
[21] Slack, RJ.,Gronow, JR.,Voulvoulis N. Science of the Total Environment. 337 (2005) 119-137
[22] Bredenberg, Jeff et al. 1998. Clean It Fast, Clean It Right. Emmaus, PA: Rodale
[23] Smallin, Donna. 2006. Cleaning Plain and Simple. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing.

Timbershome

References
• Bredenberg, Jeff. 1998. Clean it Fast Clean it Right. Rodale Inc, Emmaus, PA, USA
help persons get things done faster
Detergent 79

Detergent
A detergent (as a noun) is a material intended to assist cleaning. The
term is sometimes used to differentiate between soap and other
surfactants used for cleaning. As an adjective pertaining to a substance,
it (or "detersive") means "cleaning" or "having cleaning properties";
"detergency" indicates presence or degree of cleaning property.

History
The earliest detergent substance was undoubtedly water; after that, oils,
abrasives such as wet sand, and wet clay. The oldest known detergent
[1] Detergents
for wool-washing is stale (putrescent) urine. For the history of soap,
see the entry thereon. Other detergent surfactants came from saponins
and ox bile.
The detergent effects of certain synthetic surfactants were noted in 1913 by A. Reychler, a Belgian chemist. The first
commercially available detergent taking advantage of those observations was Nekal,[2] sold in Germany in 1917, to
alleviate World War I soap shortages. Detergents were mainly used in industry until World War II. By then new
developments and the later conversion of USA aviation fuel plants to produce tetrapropylene, used in household
detergents, caused a fast growth of household use, in the late 1940s.[3] In the late 1960s biological detergents,
containing enzymes, better suited to dissolve protein stains, such as egg stains, were introduced in the USA by
Procter & Gamble.[4]

Components
Detergents, especially those made for use with water, often include different components such as:
• Surfactants to 'cut' (emulsify) grease and to wet surfaces
• Abrasive to scour
• Substances to modify pH or to affect performance or stability of other ingredients, acids for descaling or caustics
to break down organic compounds
• Water softeners to counteract the effect of "hardness" ions on other ingredients
• oxidants (oxidizers) for bleaching, disinfection, and breaking down organic compounds
• Non-surfactant materials that keep dirt in suspension
• Enzymes to digest proteins, fats, or carbohydrates in stains or to modify fabric feel
• Ingredients that modify the foaming properties of the cleaning surfactants, to either stabilize or counteract foam
• Ingredients to increase or decrease the viscosity of the solution, or to keep other ingredients in solution, in a
detergent supplied as a water solution or gel
• Ingredients that affect aesthetic properties of the item to be cleaned, or of the detergent itself before or during
use, such as optical brighteners, fabric softeners, colors, perfumes, etc.
• Ingredients such as corrosion inhibitors to counteract damage to equipment with which the detergent is used
• Ingredients to reduce harm or produce benefits to skin, when the detergent is used by bare hand on inanimate
objects or used to clean skin
• Preservatives to prevent spoilage of other ingredients
Sometimes materials more complicated than mere mixtures of compounds are said to be detergent. For instance,
certain foods such as celery are said to be detergent or detersive to teeth.
Detergent 80

Types
There are several factors that dictate what compositions of detergent should be used, including the material to be
cleaned, the apparatus to be used, and tolerance for and type of dirt. For instance, all of the following are used to
clean glass. The sheer range of different detergents that can be used demonstrates the importance of context in the
selection of an appropriate glass-cleaning agent:
• a chromic acid solution—to get glass very clean for certain precision-demanding purposes such as analytical
chemistry
• a high-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation—for hand-washing of dishware in a sink or dishpan
• any of various non-foaming compositions—for dishware in a dishwashing machine
• other surfactant-based compositions—for washing windows with a squeegee, followed by rinsing
• an ammonia-containing solution—for cleaning windows with no additional dilution and no rinsing
• ethanol or methanol in windshield washer fluid—used for a vehicle in motion, with no additional dilution
• glass contact lens cleaning solutions, which must clean and disinfect without leaving any eye-harming material
that would not be easily rinsed

Terminology
Sometimes the word detergent is used to distinguish a cleaning agent
from soap. During the early development of non-soap surfactants as
commercial cleaning products, the term syndet, short for synthetic
detergent was promoted to indicate the distinction. The term never
became popular and is incorrect, because most soap is itself
synthesized (from glycerides). The term soapless soap refers to a soap
free liquid cleanser with a slightly acidic pH.[5] Today, soapless soaps
are used in an array of products.[5] There is no universally accepted
term for detergents not made of soap other than soapless detergent, Manufacturing process of soaps and detergents

non-soap detergent or soap-free cleanser.

The term detergent by itself is sometimes used to refer specifically to clothing detergent, as opposed to hand soap or
other types of cleaning agents.
Plain water, if used for cleaning, is a detergent. Probably the most widely-used detergents other than water are soaps
or mixtures composed chiefly of soaps. However, not all soaps have significant detergency and, although the words
"detergent" and "soap" are sometimes used interchangeably, not every detergent is a soap.
The term detergent is sometimes used to refer to any surfactant, even when it is not used for cleaning.

See also
• Laundry detergent
• Cleavable detergent
• Dispersant

External links
• About.com: How Do Detergents Clean [6]
• US Patent 6472364: Detergent compositions or components [7]
Detergent 81

References
[1] von Georgievics, Georg; Charles Thomas Colley Salter (1902) (Google books), The chemical technology of textile fibres (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=OtxBAAAAIAAJ), p. 81,
[2] Analytical Chemists job description (http:/ / www. 123oye. com/ job-descriptions/ a/ analytical-chemist. htm), Analytical, retrieved 9 May
2008
[3] Spriggs, John (July 1975) (pdf), An economical analysis of the developmente of substitutes with some illustrative examples and implications
for the beef industry (http:/ / ageconsearch. umn. edu/ bitstream/ 123456789/ 22851/ 1/ p75-14. pdf), Staff paper series, pp. 34–37, , retrieved
9 May 2008
[4] Roald, Arnvid S. & Nicolaas T. DE. Oude, "Granular enzyme-containing laundry composition", US 3451935 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/
textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US3451935), issued 24 June 1969
[5] Tyebkhan G (2002). "Skin cleansing in neonates and infants-basics of cleansers" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
61r261h452j3w70m/ ). Indian J Pediatr 69 (9): 767–9. doi: 10.1007/BF02723687 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF02723687). PMID
12420908 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 12420908). .
[6] http:/ / chemistry. about. com/ od/ howthingswork/ f/ detergentfaq. htm
[7] http:/ / www. freepatentsonline. com/ 6472364. html

Fabric softener
Fabric softener (also called fabric conditioner) is used to prevent static cling and make fabric softer. It is available
as a liquid or as dryer sheets. Popular brand names include Downy (Lenor), Snuggle, Bounce, Comfort and Sta-Soft.

Varieties
Most modern washing machines have a dispenser which can add liquid fabric softener to the load of laundry
automatically on the final rinse; in launderettes one may need to add it manually. Some brands of washing powder
have fabric conditioning built-in which is claimed to save money when compared to buying ordinary washing
powder and fabric softener separately. Some fabric softeners are also claimed to make ironing easier or to make
clothes dry faster. For best results, un-diluted liquid fabric softener should not be poured directly onto clothes.
Fabric softeners may also come in the form of dryer sheets, which are added to clothing in the tumble dryer to
soften the fabrics and prevent static. Many alternative uses of dryer sheets have been suggested by users.[1]
Fabric softeners work by coating the surface of the cloth fibers with a thin layer of chemicals; these chemicals have
lubricant properties and are electrically conductive, thus making the fibers feel smoother and preventing buildup of
static electricity. Other functions are improvements of iron glide during ironing, increased resistance to stains, and
reduction of wrinkling.
Cationic softeners bind by electrostatic attraction to the negatively charged groups on the surface of the fibers and
neutralizing their charge; the long aliphatic chains are then oriented towards the outside of the fiber, imparting
lubricity. Vinegar works on some materials in a similar way, as the hydrogen ions bind to the anionic groups on the
fibers.
The disadvantage of coating fibers by hydrophobic layer is in decreasing the water absorption properties of the
fabric, which may be undesirable in towels and diapers. Therefore the cationic softeners are often combined with
other chemicals with lower affinity to the fibers. The use of fabric softener is contraindicated in some articles, such
as microfibre textiles.
Most good quality all-cotton towels do not need to be treated with fabric softener and with repeated washings and
dryings, they become softer naturally. Over time, towels that have softened with fabric softener are less absorbant.
Fabric softener 82

Composition
The earliest fabric softeners were developed during early 20th century to counteract the harsh feel which the drying
methods imparted to cotton. The cotton softeners were typically based on water emulsion of soap and olive oil, corn
oil, or tallow oil.
Contemporary fabric softeners tend to be based on quaternary ammonium salts with one or two long alkyl chains, a
typical compound being dipalmitoylethyl hydroxyethylmonium methosulfate.[2] Other cationic compounds can be
derived from imidazolium, substituted amine salts, or quaternary alkoxy ammonium salts. One of the most common
compounds of the early formulations was dihydrogenated tallow dimethyl ammonium chloride (DHTDMAC).
Anionic softeners and antistatic agents can be, for example, salts of monoesters and diesters of phosphoric acid and
the fatty alcohols. These are often used together with the conventional cationic softeners. Cationic softeners are
incompatible with anionic surfactants presenting the bulk of surfactants used in detergents, with which they form
inefficient precipitate; therefore they can not be mixed with the detergent, but have to be added during the rinse cycle
instead. Anionic softeners can be combined with anionic surfactants directly. Other anionic softeners can be based
on smectite clays. Some compounds, such as ethoxylated phosphate esters, have properties of both softening,
anti-static, and surfactant.[3]
The softening compounds differ in affinity to different materials. Some are better for cellulose-based fibers, others
have higher affinity to hydrophobic materials like nylon, polyethylene terephthalate, polyacrylonitrile, etc.
Silicone based compounds such as polydimethylsiloxane comprise the new softeners which work by lubricating the
fibers. Silicone derivatives are used as well. Modified to contain amine or amide groups; they bind better to the
fabrics and have much improved feel. They have essentially the same role as oils had in the early formulations.
As the softeners themselves are often of hydrophobic nature, they are commonly occurring in the form of an
emulsion. In the early formulations, soaps were used as emulsifiers. The emulsions are usually opaque, milky fluids.
However there are also microemulsions where the droplets of the hydrophobic phase are substantially smaller. The
advantage of microemulsions is in the increased ability of the smaller particles to penetrate into the fibers. A mixture
of cationic and non-ionic surfactants is often used as an emulsifier. Another approach is using a polymeric network,
an emulsion polymer.
Other compounds are included to provide additional functions; acids or bases for maintaining the optimal pH for
adsorption to the fabric, electrolytes, carriers (usually water, sometimes water-alcohol mixture), and others, eg.
silicone-based anti-foaming agents, emulsion stabilizers, fragrances, and colors.[4] A relatively recent form on the
market are the ultra-concentrates, where the amount of carriers and some other chemicals is substantially lower and
much smaller volumes are used.
In recent years, the importance of delivering perfume onto the clothes has possibly exceeded that of softening. The
perfume levels in fabric softeners has gradually increased, requiring high shear mixing technology to be used to
incorporate greater amounts of perfumes within the emulsions. Long term release of perfume on the fabric is a key
technology now being utilized. Each country tends to have different perfume requirements and brands may have
different softener/perfume ratio depending on the country.
Fabric softener 83

See also
• Downy Ball
• Laundry

References
• Bio Productions [5] Bio Productions UK producer of fabric softener
[1] "BounceEverywhere.com" (http:/ / www. bouncesheets. com/ en_US/ cleveruses/ index. jsp). Bouncesheets.com. . Retrieved 2009-06-04.
[2] "Main" (http:/ / www. henkelconsumerinfo. com). Henkelconsumerinfo.com. . Retrieved 2009-06-04.
[3] "Fabric softener and anti-static compositions - Patent 4118327" (http:/ / www. freepatentsonline. com/ 4118327. html).
Freepatentsonline.com. 1977-03-28. . Retrieved 2009-06-04.
[4] "Concentrated biodegradable quaternary ammonium fabric softener compositions containing quaternary ammonium compounds with short
fatty acid alkyl chains - US Patent 5643865 Claims" (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ patents/ 5643865-claims. html). Patentstorm.us. .
Retrieved 2009-06-04.
[5] http:/ / www. bio-productions. com

Bleach
A bleach is a chemical that removes colors or whitens, often via
oxidation. Common chemical bleaches include household chlorine
bleach, a solution of approximately 3–6% sodium hypochlorite
(NaClO), and oxygen bleach, which contains hydrogen peroxide or a
peroxide-releasing compound such as sodium perborate, sodium
percarbonate, sodium persulfate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, or urea
peroxide together with catalysts and activators, e.g.,
tetraacetylethylenediamine and/or sodium
nonanoyloxybenzenesulfonate. To "bleach" something is to apply
bleach, sometimes as a preliminary step in the process of dyeing.
Bleaching powder is calcium hypochlorite.

Many bleaches have strong bactericidal properties, and are used for
disinfecting and sterilizing. Most bleaches are hazardous if ingested or
inhaled, and should be used with care.

Commercial sodium hypochlorite bleach.

Other types of bleaches
Chlorine dioxide is used for the bleaching of wood pulp, fats and oils, cellulose, flour, textiles, beeswax, skin, and in
a number of other industries.
In the food industry, some organic peroxides (benzoyl peroxide, etc.) and other agents (e.g., bromates) are used as
flour bleaching and maturing agents.
Peracetic acid and ozone are used in the manufacture of paper products, especially newsprint and white Kraft
paper.[1]
Two-part bleaches are utilized in the whitening of wood, especially oak.
Bleach 84

Human and environmental safety

Studies of human safety and environmental effects associated with household use of sodium hypochlorite bleach
have been extensively documented.
• Neither carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, nor teratogenesis are indicated
• There may be minor, temporary effects such as localized skin and eye irritant (localized; potentially increasing
with concentration, but this is unlikely to be significant at levels encountered in the household). There are no
chronic effects, and while accidental acute effects can be painful, they are mostly reversible
• Hypochlorite imparts no systemic effects; it does not cause sensitization
• Excessive exposure to hair may cause thinning or temporary balding.

Environmental impact
• No emissions of sodium hypochlorite from normal household or institutional use find their way directly to the
environment. Sodium hypochlorite degrades quickly, primarily to sodium chloride, during use or in sewage
systems. It also decomposes in soil, primarily to salt. Typical use was found to be not harmful to sewage
treatment or septic tanks
• Sodium hypochlorite is toxic when undiluted (5% concentration as sold), but is rapidly diluted or decomposed to
harmless levels in soil or sewage systems.
• Bleach is highly toxic to fish and invertebrates. In confined spaces, fish will attempt to swim away from the
source. In addition, sodium hypochlorite readily disperses and degrades mostly to salt in surface waters, limiting
impact.
• Very low levels absorbable organic halides (AOX) can be found during reaction of sodium hypochlorite and soils,
including carbon tetrachloride, trihalomethanes (THM, such as chloroform), and trihaloacetic acid (THAA, in this
case trichloroacetic acid). Most AOX go into the sewer with wash water; amounts emitted to air well below safe
limits. Most AOX degrades in sewage treatment like starting soil; wastewater genotoxicity not increased.
Remnants are not harmful at levels detected (acute and chronic); no persistent or lipophilic chlorinated
compounds were detected. Limited amounts of AOX have been detectable on fabrics below significant effect
levels
• Bleach is not a source of dioxin, which only forms below pH 5. The risk of generating dioxin from use of
household bleach is non-existent
• Chlorate ion can form during decomposition of sodium hypochlorite, but is readily decomposed during waste
treatment
• Perchlorate can also form through decomposition; it is estimated that less than 5 ppb could be released in the
wash, and less than 1 ppb could be found after dilution in waste treatment and septic systems. Most prevalent
sources of perchlorate contamination in environment found to be blasting agents, military munitions, and
fireworks. Massachusetts EPA concluded that normal household discharge of bleaches into municipal sewerage or
conventional septic systems should not be an environmental issue
In 2008, the Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER) for the European Commission
concluded that the Risk Assessment Report (RAR) was of good quality, and agreed with its conclusions. No further
study on human health is indicated. [2]
Bleach 85

Chemical interactions
Hypochlorite and chlorine are in equilibrium in water; the position of the equilibrium is pH dependent and low pH
(acidic) favors chlorine,[3]
Cl2 + H2O H+ + Cl- + HClO
Chlorine is a respiratory irritant that attacks mucous membranes and burns the skin. As little as 3.53 ppm can be
detected as an odor, and 1000 ppm is likely to be fatal after a few deep breaths. Exposure to chlorine has been
limited to 0.5 ppm (8-hour time-weighted average—38 hour week) by OSHA in the U.S.[4]
Sodium hypochlorite and ammonia react to form a number of products, depending on the temperature, concentration,
and how they are mixed.[5] The main reaction is chlorination of ammonia, first giving chloramine (NH2Cl), then
dichloramine (NHCl2) and finally nitrogen trichloride (NCl3). These materials are very irritating to eyes and lungs
and are toxic above certain concentrations. Lastly there is bleach containing sodium perchlorate.
NH3 + NaOCl --> NaOH + NH2Cl
NH2Cl + NaOCl --> NaOH + NHCl2
NHCl2 + NaOCl --> NaOH + NCl3
Additional reactions produce hydrazine, in a variation of the Olin Raschig process.
NH3 + NH2Cl + NaOH --> N2H4 + NaCl + H2O
The hydrazine generated can further react with the monochloramine in an exothermic reaction:[3]
2 NH2Cl + N2H4 --> 2 NH4Cl + N2
Industrial bleaching agents can also be sources of concern. For example, the use of elemental chlorine in the
bleaching of wood pulp produces organochlorines, persistent organic pollutants, including dioxins. According to an
industry group, the use of chlorine dioxide in these processes has reduced the dioxin generation to under detectable
levels.[6] However, respiratory risk from chlorine and highly toxic chlorinated byproducts still exists.
A recent European study indicated that sodium hypochlorite and organic chemicals (e.g., surfactants, fragrances)
contained in several household cleaning products can react to generate chlorinated volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).[7] These chlorinated compounds are emitted during cleaning applications, some of which are toxic and
probable human carcinogens. The study showed that indoor air concentrations significantly increase (8-52 times for
chloroform and 1-1170 times for carbon tetrachloride, respectively, above baseline quantities in the household)
during the use of bleach containing products. The increase in chlorinated volatile organic compound concentrations
was the lowest for plain bleach and the highest for the products in the form of “thick liquid and gel”. The significant
increases observed in indoor air concentrations of several chlorinated VOCs (especially carbon tetrachloride and
chloroform) indicate that the bleach use may be a source that could be important in terms of inhalation exposure to
these compounds. While the authors suggested that using these cleaning products may significantly increase the
cancer risk,[8] this conclusion appears to be hypothetical:
• The highest level cited for concentration of carbon tetrachloride (seemingly of highest concern) is 459
micrograms per cubic meter, translating to 0.073 ppm (part per million), or 73 ppb (part per billion). The
OSHA-allowable time-weighted average concentration over an eight-hour period is 10 ppm,[9] almost 140
times higher;
• The OSHA highest allowable peak concentration (5 minute exposure for five minutes in a 4-hour period) is
200 ppm,[9] twice as high as the reported highest peak level (from the headspace of a bottle of a sample of
bleach plus detergent).
Further studies of the use of these products and other possible exposure routes (i.e., dermal) may reveal other risks.
Though the author further cited ozone depletion greenhouse effects for these gases, the very low amount of such
gases, generated as prescribed, should minimize their contribution relative to other sources.
Bleach 86

Chemistry
The process of bleaching can be summarized in the following set of chemical reactions:
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + HClO(aq)
The H+ ion of the hypochlorous acid then dissolves into solution, and so the final result is effectively:
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) 2H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + ClO-(aq)
Hypochlorite tends to decompose into chloride and a highly reactive form of oxygen:
2ClO- 2Cl- + O2
This oxygen then reacts with organic substances to produce bleaching or antiseptic effects.

Mechanism of bleach action

Color in most dyes and pigments are produced by molecules, such as beta carotene, which contain chromophores.
Chemical bleaches work in one of two ways:
• An oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the chromophore. This changes the
molecule into a different substance that either does not contain a chromophore, or contains a chromophore that
does not absorb visible light.
• A reducing bleach works by converting double bonds in the chromophore into single bonds. This eliminates the
ability of the chromophore to absorb visible light.[10]
Sunlight acts as a bleach through a process leading to similar results: high energy photons of light, often in the violet
or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering the resulting substance colorless. Extended
exposure often leads to massive discoloration usually reducing the colors to white and typically very faded blue
spectrums.[11]
Sodium hypochlorite's anti-bacterial mechanism works by causing proteins to aggregate.[12] [13]

Antimicrobial efficacy
The broad-spectrum effectiveness of bleach, for example sodium hypochlorite, owes to the nature of the chemical
reactivity of the bleach with the microbes. Rather than act in an inhibitory or specific toxic fashion in the manner of
antibiotics, the reaction with the microbial cells quickly and irreversibly denatures, and often destroys the pathogen.
Specifically, with sodium hypochlorite it is found that:
• the bleach attacks proteins in bacteria, causing them to clump up much like an egg that has been boiled,
• when exposed to bleach, the heat shock protein of bacteria become active in an attempt to protect other proteins in
the bacteria from losing their chemical structure, forming clumps that would eventually die off, and
• the human immune system produces hypochlorous acid in response to infection to kill bacterial invaders
• the lipid membrane of the bacteria is destroyed, as if popped like a balloon, as a result of the bleach being very
basic.
As noted, the range of micro-organisms effectively killed by bleach (in particular by sodium hypochlorite) is
extensive, making it extremely versatile.
Bleach 87

See also
• Disinfectant
• Household chemicals
• Tooth bleaching
• Bleaching of wood pulp
• Bleachfield
• Bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef

Further reading
• Bodkins, Dr. Bailey. Bleach. Philadelphia: Virginia Printing Press, 1995.
• Trotman, E.R. Textile Scouring and Bleaching. London: Charles Griffin & Co., 1968. ISBN 0852640676.

External links
• American Chemistry Council, Chlorine Chemistry Division [14]
• [15]

References
[1] "Ozo formulas" (http:/ / www. ozonesolutions. com/ Ozone_Color_Removal. html). Ozone Information. .
[2] "Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ health/ ph_risk/ committees/ 04_scher/ docs/ scher_o_080. pdf).
Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks. . Retrieved 2009-02-02.
[3] Cotton, F.A; G. Wilkinson (1972). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-17560-9.
[4] Occupational Safety & Health Administration (2007). and peroxide/recognition.html "OSHA -- Chlorine" (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/
healthguidelines/ chlorine). OSHA. and peroxide/recognition.html. Retrieved 2007-08-26.
[5] Rizk-Ouaini, Rosette; Ferriol, Michel; Gazet, Josette; Saugier-Cohen Adad, Marie Therese (1986), "Oxidation reaction of ammonia with
sodium hypochlorite. Production and degradation reactions of chloramines.", Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France 4: 512–21
[6] "ECF: The Sustainable Technology" (http:/ / www. aet. org/ epp/ ecf_brochure. pdf). Alliance for Environmental Technology. . Retrieved
2007-09-19.
[7] Odabasi, M., “Halogenated Volatile Organic Compounds from the Use of Chlorine-Bleach- Containing Household Products”, Environmental
Science & Technology 42, 1445-1451, (2008). Available at: http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ journals/ esthag/
[8] Odabasi, M., “Halogenated Volatile Organic Compounds from the Use of Chlorine-Bleach- Containing Household Products, Slide
presentation (2008). Available at: http:/ / www. slideworld. org/ ViewSlides. aspx?URL=5092
[9] "Chemical Sampling Information: Carbon Tetrachloride" (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ dts/ chemicalsampling/ data/ CH_225800. html).
Osha.gov. 2004-06-16. . Retrieved 2009-12-04.
[10] Field, Simon Q (2006). "Ingredients -- Bleach" (http:/ / sci-toys. com/ ingredients/ bleach. html). Science Toys. . Retrieved 2006-03-02.
[11] Bloomfield, Louis A (2006). "Sunlight" (http:/ / howthingswork. virginia. edu/ sunlight. html). How Things Work Home Page. . Retrieved
2006-03-02.
[12] Reuters (2008). "Mystery solved: How bleach kills germs" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 27700273/ ). MSNBC.com. . Retrieved
2008-11-13.
[13] Jakob, U.; J. Winter, M. Ilbert, P.C.F. Graf, and D. Özcelik (14 November 2008). "Bleach Activates a Redox-Regulated Chaperone by
Oxidative Protein Unfolding" (http:/ / www. cell. com/ abstract/ S0092-8674(08)01181-1). Cell (Elsevier) 135 (4): 691–701. doi:
10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.024 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. cell. 2008. 09. 024). . Retrieved 2008-11-19.
[14] http:/ / c3. org/ chlorine_knowledge_center/ 070397bleach. html
[15] http:/ / geb. uni-giessen. de/ geb/ volltexte/ 2007/ 4827/ pdf/ JuncuChristianGheorghe-2007-06-14. pdf
Energy Star 88

Energy Star
Energy Star is an international standard for energy efficient
consumer products. It was first created as a United States
government program by the Clinton Administration in 1992, but
Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan and the European
Union have also adopted the program. Devices carrying the
Energy Star logo, such as computer products and peripherals,
kitchen appliances, buildings and other products, generally use
20%–30% less energy than required by federal standards.[1]
However, many European-targeted products are labeled using a
different standard, TCO Certification, a combined energy usage
and ergonomics rating from the Swedish Confederation of
Professional Employees (TCO) instead of Energy Star.

The Energy Star logo is placed on energy-efficient

History products.

The Energy Star program was created in 1992 by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency in an attempt to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission by
power plants. The program was developed by John S. Hoffman, inventor of the Green Programs at US EPA, and
implemented by Cathy Zoi and Brian Johnson. The program was intended to be part of a series of voluntary
programs, such as Green Lights and the Methane Programs, that would demonstrate the potential for profit in
reducing greenhouse gases and facilitate further steps to reducing global warming gases.

Initiated as a voluntary labeling program designed to identify and promote energy efficient products, Energy Star
began with labels for computer products. In 1995 the program was significantly expanded, introducing labels for
residential heating and cooling systems and new homes.[2] As of 2006, more than 40,000 Energy Star products are
available in a wide range of items including major appliances, office equipment, lighting, home electronics, and
more. In addition, the label can also be found on new homes and commercial and industrial buildings. In 2006, about
12 percent of new housing in the United States was labeled Energy Star.[3]
The EPA estimates that it saved about $14 billion in energy costs in 2006 alone. The Energy Star program has helped
spread the use of LED traffic lights, efficient fluorescent lighting, power management systems for office equipment,
and low standby energy use.[4]
In 2008, USEPA announced Green Power Partnership program, which was designed to help achieve its goal of
encouraging the use of renewable power sources. The renewable energy credits allow companies without direct
access to renewable power achieve their goals. However, to avoid companies buying RECs years in advance of any
of the hypothetical power ever being produced, RECs are only accepted into the program when the actual equivalent
renewable power will be produced.[5]
Energy Star 89

Specifications
Energy Star specifications differ with each item, and are set by either the Environmental Protection Agency or the
Department of Energy. The following highlights product and specification information available on the Energy Star
website. [6]

Computers
New Energy Star 4.0 specifications for computers became effective on July 20, 2007. They require the use of 80
PLUS Bronze level or higher power supplies. Energy Star 5.0 became effective on July 1, 2009. [7]

Servers
The EPA released Version 1.0 of the Computer Server specifications on May 15, 2009. It covers standalone servers
with one to four processor sockets. A second tier to the specification covering servers with more than four processor
sockets, as well as blade servers and fault-tolerant machines is expected in late 2010.

Appliances
As of early 2008, average refrigerators need 20% savings over the minimum standard. Dishwashers need at least
41% savings. Most appliances as well as heating and cooling systems have a yellow EnergyGuide label showing the
annual cost of operation compared to other models. This label is created through the Department of Energy and often
shows if an appliance is Energy Star.[8] While an Energy Star label indicates that the appliance is more energy
efficient than the minimum guidelines, purchasing an Energy Star labeled product does not always mean you are
getting the most energy efficient option available. For example, dehumidifiers that are rated under 25 US pints
(12 L) per day of water extraction receive an Energy Star rating if they have an energy factor of 1.2 (higher is better),
while those rated 25 US pints (12 L) to 35 US pints (17 L) per day receive an Energy Star rating for an energy factor
of 1.4 or higher. Thus a higher-capacity but non-Energy Star rated dehumidifier may be a more energy efficient
alternative than an Energy Star rated but lower-capacity model. [9] The Energy Star program's savings calculator has
also been criticized for unrealistic assumptions in its model that tend to magnify savings benefits to the average
consumer.[10]
Another factor yet to be considered by the EPA and DOE is the overall effect of energy-saving requirements on the
durability and expected service life of a mass-market appliance built to a consumer-level cost standard. For example,
a refrigerator may be made more efficient by the use of more insulative spacing and a smaller-capacity compressor
using electronics to control operation and temperature. However, this may come at the cost of reduced interior
storage (or increased exterior mass) or a reduced service life due to compressor and/or electronic failures. In
particular, electronic controls used on new-generation appliances are subject to damage from shock, vibration,
moisture, or power spikes on the electrical circuit to which they are attached. Critics have pointed out that even if a
new appliance is energy-efficient, any consumer appliance that does not provide customer satisfaction, or must be
replaced twice as often as its predecessor contributes to landfill pollution and wastage of natural resources used to
construct its replacement.[11]
Energy Star 90

Heating and Cooling Systems

Energy Star qualified Heat pumps, boilers, air conditioning systems, and furnaces are available. In addition, cooling
and heating bills can be significantly lowered with air sealing and duct sealing. Air sealing reduces the outdoor air
that penetrates a building, and duct sealing prevents attic or basement air from entering ducts and lessening the
heating/cooling system’s efficiency.
Energy Star qualified room air conditioners are at least 10% more energy efficient than the minimum U.S. federal
government standards.[12]

Home Electronics
Energy Star qualified televisions use 30% less energy than average. In November 2008, television specifications will
be improved to limit on-mode power use, in addition to standby power which is limited by the current specifications.
A wider range of Energy Star qualified televisions will be available. Other qualified home electronics include
cordless phones, battery chargers, VCRs and external power adapters, most of which use 90% less energy.

Lighting
The Energy Star is awarded to only certain bulbs that meet strict efficiency, quality, and lifetime criteria.
Energy Star qualified fluorescent lighting uses 75% less energy and lasts up to ten times longer than normal
incandescent lights.
Energy Star Qualified Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lighting:
• Reduces energy costs — uses at least 75% less energy than incandescent lighting, saving on operating expenses.
• Reduces maintenance costs — lasts 35 to 50 times longer than incandescent lighting and about 2 to 5 times longer
than fluorescent lighting. No bulb-replacements, no ladders, no ongoing disposal program.
• Reduces cooling costs — LEDs produce very little heat.
• Is guaranteed — comes with a minimum three-year warranty — far beyond the industry standard.
• Offers convenient features — available with dimming on some indoor models and automatic daylight shut-off and
motion sensors on some outdoor models.
• Is durable — won’t break like a bulb.
To qualify for Energy Star certification, LED lighting products must pass a variety of tests to prove that the products
will display the following characteristics:
• Brightness is equal to or greater than existing lighting technologies (incandescent or fluorescent) and light is well
distributed over the area lighted by the fixture.
• Light output remains constant over time, only decreasing towards the end of the rated lifetime (at least 35,000
hours or 12 years based on use of 8 hours per day).
• Excellent color quality. The shade of white light appears clear and consistent over time.
• Efficiency is as good as or better than fluorescent lighting.
• Light comes on instantly when turned on.
• No flicker when dimmed.
• No off-state power draw. The fixture does not use power when it is turned off, with the exception of external
controls, whose power should not exceed 0.5 watts in the off state.
Energy Star 91

Home office
A new Energy Star specification for desktop computers went into effect 20 July 2007.[13] The requirements are more
stringent than the previous specification and existing equipment designs can no longer use the logo unless
re-qualified. The power requirements are for 80% or greater AC power supply efficiency using the standards defined
by 80 Plus Program.[14]

New Homes
New homes that meet strict guidelines for energy efficiency can qualify for Energy Star certification. An Energy Star
qualified home uses at least 15% less energy than standard homes built to the 2004 International Residential Code
(IRC). They usually include properly installed insulation, high performance windows, tight construction and ducts,
energy efficient cooling and heating systems, and Energy Star qualified appliances, lighting, and water heaters.[15]

Energy Performance Ratings

The US EPA's Energy Star program has developed energy performance rating systems for several commercial and
institutional building types and manufacturing facilities. These ratings, on a scale of 1 to 100, provide a means for
benchmarking the energy efficiency of specific buildings and industrial plants against the energy performance of
similar facilities. The ratings are used by building and energy managers to evaluate the energy performance of
existing buildings and industrial plants. The rating systems are also used by EPA to determine if a building or plant
can qualify to earn Energy Star recognition. [16]

Buildings
Commercial and institutional buildings rating have been developed for the following common building types:[17]
Bank/Financial Institutions, Courthouses, Hospitals (acute care and children’s), Hotels and Motels, K-12 Schools,
Medical Offices, Offices, Residence Halls/Dormitories, Retail Stores, Supermarkets, and Warehouses (refrigerated
and non-refrigerated).
Energy Star energy performance ratings have be incorporated into some green buildings standards, such as LEED for
Existing Buildings.
Energy Conservation Building Code - India

Industrial Facilities
Energy performance ratings have been released for the following industrial facilities:[18]
Automobile assembly plants, Cement Plants, and Corn Refineries(Wet Corn Mills).

Other Facilities
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

Controversies
On December 17, 2008, the EPA Office of the Inspector General released its report on the Energy Star program. The
Inspector General's audit found that the program claims regarding greenhouse gas reductions were inaccurate and
based on faulty data. Additionally, the IG found that Energy Star program's reported energy savings were unreliable,
and that many of the touted benefits could not be verified. "Deficiencies included the lack of a quality review of the
data collected; reliance on estimates, forecasting, and unverified third party reporting; and the potential inclusion of
exported items," the report concluded.[19]
Energy Star 92

Additionally, the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Consumer Reports, and the trade website
ApplianceAdvisor.com,[20] have released statements claiming that Energy Star test procedures contained loopholes
that allow many inefficient products to receive Energy Star labels. Specific claims include:
• U.S. Department of Energy regulations allowed the manufacturers to test the refrigerators with their ice-makers
turned off, which is not how they are normally used in the home.
• Using outdated testing rules and loose standards to award Energy Star ratings.
• The program allows manufacturers to test their own products and only selectively spot-checks the test results they
submit.
• There are so many individually rated refrigerator categories that even inefficient product categories (such as Side
by Sides) are certified.
Before the complaints were raised in 2008, 2006 federal court had required the DOE to update and tighten
misleading Energy Star ratings given to products in almost two dozen categories, including dishwashers, air
conditioners, heaters, furnaces and clothes dryers. The updates were to settle complaints by 14 states, including
Pennsylvania. However, categories such as room air conditioners and clothes dryers would not be completed until
June 2011.[21]
US Environmental Protection Agency had released reports in 2007 and 2008 claiming Energy Star labels were
misleading. Inspector general issued a report that said Energy Star's savings claims were 'not accurate or verifiable.'
The report also found that shipment data for Energy Star products were not being adequately reviewed and in some
cases, were based on estimates instead of actual shipping totals.[22]
Martin Hellman revealed that Energy Star standby mode requirement can be compromised when an electronic device
uses Download Acquisition Mode (DAM) feature to update TV Guide listing during standby mode. Hellman first
found the feature on Sony KDL-37XBR6.[23]

See also
• One Watt Initiative
• Power management
• E-waste
• Green computing
• Green energy
• House Energy Rating (Australia)
• European Union energy label
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• Weatherization
• Miscellaneous electric load
• List of computer standards
• Bureau of Energy Efficiency India
Energy Star 93

External links
• Official Energy Star web site [24]
• Energy Star Australia [25]
• Energy Star Canada [26]
• Energy Consumption Calculator [27]
• Energy Star entry at Ecolabelling.org [28]
• Energy Efficiency [29] Breakdown of the costs, savings, and energy efficiency of Energy Star appliances
• Energy Star qualified Energy Service & Product Providers list [30]
• Energy Star qualified Service Provider example [31]
• Energy Star 5.0 Computer specification [32] (November 14, 2008)

References
[1] Alena Tugend (10 May 2008). "If Your Appliances Are Avocado, They're Probably not Green" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 10/
business/ yourmoney/ 10shortcuts. html?scp=1& sq=appliances avocado green& st=cse). New York Times. . Retrieved 29 June 2008.
[2] EnergyStar.gov, “Milestones: ENERGY STAR.” (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?c=about. ab_milestones) 2007. Retrieved on 1
March 2008.
[3] US Environmental Protection Agency, "2006 Annual Report: Energy Star and Other Climate Protection Partnerships." (http:/ / www.
energystar. gov/ ia/ news/ downloads/ annual_report_2006. pdf). Retrieved 1 March 2008.
[4] EnergyStar.gov, "History: ENERGY STAR." (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?c=about. ab_history). Retrieved 1 March 2008.
[5] Timmer, John (2008-12-23). "EPA tightens rules on its Green Power Partners" (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ old/ content/ 2008/ 12/
epa-tightens-rules-on-its-green-power-partners. ars). Arstechnica.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[6] http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?fuseaction=find_a_product.
[7] Ng, Jansen (01 July 2009). "New Energy Star 5.0 Specs for Computers Become Effective Today" (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ New+
Energy+ Star+ 50+ Specs+ for+ Computers+ Become+ Effective+ Today/ article15559. htm). DailyTech. . Retrieved 2009-07-01.
[8] EnergyStar.gov, "Learn More about EnergyGuide: Energy Star." (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?c=appliances. pr_energy_guide).
Retrieved 1 March 2008.
[9] Green Energy Efficient Homes, Energy Efficient Dehumidifiers (http:/ / www. green-energy-efficient-homes. com/
energy-efficient-dehumidifiers. html)
[10] Belzer, Richard Energy Star Appliances: EPA's Savings Calculator Exaggerates Savings (http:/ / www. neutralsource. org/ content/ blog/
detail/ 985/ . html), Regulatory Economics, 5 March 2008
[11] Muñoz, Sara Schaeffer, Do 'Green' Appliances Live Up To Their Billing, The Wall Street Journal, Business, 2 August 2007
[12] "EnergyStar.gov, "Room Air Conditioners Key Product Criteria" Retrieved 2008-07-17" (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index.
cfm?c=roomac. pr_crit_room_ac). Energystar.gov. . Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[13] PowerPulse.net, "New Energy Star Promoting New Specs at APEC and PPDC". (http:/ / www. powerpulse. net/ story. php?storyID=15059)
March 20, 1948. Retrieved June 8, 2006.
[14] 80plus.org, "The 80 Plus Program | About" (http:/ / www. 80plus. org/ 80what. htm). February 23, 2007. Retrieved March 03, 2007.
[15] "ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes : ENERGY STAR" (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ homes). Energystar.gov. 2009-01-27. . Retrieved
2009-03-23.
[16] See www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=evaluate_performance.pt_neprs_learn and www.energystar.gov/benchmark
[17] ""Criteria for Rating Building Energy Performance"" (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?c=eligibility.
bus_portfoliomanager_eligibility). Energystar.gov. . Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[18] "Industries in Focus : ENERGY STAR" (http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?c=in_focus. bus_industries_focus#plant).
Energystar.gov. 2009-03-16. . Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[19] Environmental News Service, Energy Star Climate Change Claims Misleading, Audit Finds (http:/ / www. ens-newswire. com/ ens/
dec2008/ 2008-12-31-092. asp), Washington, D.C., 31 December 2008
[20] (http:/ / applianceadvisor. com/ content/ open-letter-steven-chu-obamas-choice-head-doe0099)
[21] "Energy stars may not be all they say they are" (http:/ / www. housingzone. com/ articleXml/ LN888056763. html). Housingzone.com. .
Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[22] Why Obama’s Energy Savings Estimate May Be Skewed (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 02/ 07/ washington/ 07energy. html)
[23] Hruska, Joel (2009-02-09). "Sony LCD exceeds Energy Star power draw 75% of time" (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ gadgets/ news/ 2009/ 02/
sony-lcd-exceeds-energy-star-power-draw-75-of-time. ars). Arstechnica.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-23.
[24] http:/ / www. energystar. gov/
[25] http:/ / www. energystar. gov. au/
[26] http:/ / oee. nrcan. gc. ca/ energystar/ index. html?text=N& printview=N/
[27] http:/ / www. eu-energystar. org/ calculator. htm
Energy Star 94

[28] http:/ / ecolabelling. org/ ecolabel/ energy-star/

[29] http:/ / www. homeconstructionimprovement. com/ 2007/ 10/ clean-green-and-money-in-your-pocket. html
[30] http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ index. cfm?fuseaction=estar_partner_list. showPartnerResults& s_code=ALL& partner_type_id=SP&
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[31] http:/ / www. mrelectricseattle. com
[32] http:/ / www. energystar. gov/ ia/ partners/ prod_development/ revisions/ downloads/ computer/ Version5. 0_Computer_Spec. pdf

Clothes dryer
A clothes dryer or tumble dryer is a household
appliance that is used to remove moisture from a
load of clothing and other textiles, generally
shortly after they are cleaned in a washing
machine.
Most dryers consist of a rotating drum called a
tumbler through which heated air is circulated to
evaporate the moisture from the load. The
tumbler is rotated relatively fast in order to
maintain space between the articles in the load.
Using these machines may cause clothes to
shrink, become less soft (due to loss of short soft
fibres/ lint) and fade. For these reasons, as well
as environmental concerns, many people use
open air methods such as a clothes line and
clotheshorse.

A modern front load tumble clothes dryer for the home. Click image to
enlarge
Clothes dryer 95

Fuel types
There are two general classes of rotating dryers: electric and gas. Both
of these refer to the method used to raise the temperature of the air
flowing through the tumbler, since the tumbling action is usually
electrically powered.
The electric dryer generally uses a coiled wire that is heated with
electric current. The amount of electric current is varied to adjust the
air temperature. In the United States and Canada, where NEC and
NEMA standards are in use, electric dryers typically have a 4-wire
NEMA 14-30 plug, rather than the 3-wire NEMA 5-15 plug used by
Coin-operated, gas-powered dryer found in a
most appliances, and need a 30-ampere, 240-volt centre-tapped laundromat
single-phase circuit. Small "portable" clothes dryers, popular with
urban dwellers, normally use conventional 110 volt connections. In the rest of the world, most electric dryers in
homes are somewhat smaller than those used in North America, typically with a load capacity of 5 kg (11 lb). These
dryers are also easily connected to standard single-phase 240V/50Hz 10Amp powerpoints (outlets).

The gas dryer employs a gas burner that burns natural gas, propane, or butane to form a jet of hot gases that are
directed into a metal heat exchanger; a fan pulls in ambient air past the heat exchanger to raise its temperature, while
combustion byproducts stay separate from the heated air and are vented to the outside. The air temperature can be
altered by adjusting the size of the gas flame or, more simply, by extinguishing it and relighting it under thermostat
control. Gas dryers still require electricity to spin the clothes, but the amount of electrical power needed for this is
sufficiently low that a dedicated 240-volt connection is not needed and the machine can run on standard 120-volt
electricity, although it will now require a dedicated gas connection instead.
Some types of clothes dryers installed in steam-heated buildings use a steam-based system to warm the incoming air,
in lieu of a electric heating element or gas-fired heater. In this case, hot steam is piped through the dryer's steam coil
(a steam-capable heat exchanger) that transfers thermal energy to the incoming air. A solenoid valve at the steam
inlet, controlled by the dryer, can set the temperature of the heated air simply by opening and closing it at regular
intervals. Like a gas dryer, an electrical connection is still required to spin the drum, operate the steam solenoid, and
power the controls.

Traditional dryers
Traditional dryers continuously draw in the cool, dry, ambient air around them and heat it before passing it through
the tumbler. The resulting hot, humid air is usually vented outside to make room for more dry air to continue the
drying process.
The traditional design makes no effort to recycle the heat put into the load, and so is inefficient. Nevertheless, the
basic design is simple, reliable, and cheap.
It should be noted that some methods of salvaging this heat for in-home heating, by use of inline vent boxes
equipped with a flapper valve to direct heat to indoor areas, may increase humidity within a dwelling. Humidity from
these devices causes a likelihood of mold, mildew, and bacterial growth inside a home. Indoor venting may also be
against local regulations. Gas dryers must especially be vented outdoors in all cases, as the products of combustion
are vented along with the moist air. It is recommended that dryers, whether electric or gas, be vented outdoors with a
4-inch diameter piping.
An Indoor Lint Trap Kit poses a similar and serious concern of increased humidity within the dwelling. Numerous
articles have been written about the hazards of not actually venting a dryer to the exterior. Terminations into the
attic, soffit or crawlspace are similarly hazardous and should be avoided at all costs.
Clothes dryer 96

Ventless dryers

Spin dryers
These machines simply spin their drums faster than a typical washer
could in order to extract additional water from the load. They may
remove more water in two minutes than a heated tumbler dryer can in
twenty, thus saving significant amounts of time and energy. Although
spinning alone will not completely dry clothing, this additional step
saves a worthwhile amount of time and energy for large laundry
operations such as those of hospitals.
In some cases, dryers may use spin alone. Larger gyms and natatoria
("pools") may have small spin dryers for the convenience of exiting
patrons. Extracting much of the water from a swimsuit means fewer
problems in gym bags and later, laundry hampers. Full drying is not
necessary, as the patron typically launders the swimsuit soon after.

Condenser dryers Spin dryer type TS66

Just as in a normal dryer, condenser dryers pass heated air through the
load. However, instead of exhausting this air, the dryer uses a heat exchanger to cool the air and condense the water
vapor into either a drain pipe or a collection tank. Afterwards, this air is run through the loop again. The heat
exchanger typically uses ambient air as its coolant, therefore the heat produced by the dryer will go into the
immediate surroundings instead of the outside, increasing the room temperature slightly. In some designs, cold water
is used in the heat exchanger, eliminating this heating, but requiring increased water usage.

In terms of energy use, condenser dryers typically require less system-wide energy use than conventional dryers. The
bulk of the savings results from the HVAC system from not having to heat or cool additional air to replace that
exhausted by a traditional dryer. Typically this savings is sufficient to offset the slight increase in power draw,
longer drying times, and ambient cooling requirements associated with condensation dryers.[1]
Because the heat exchange process simply cools the internal air using ambient air (or cold water in some cases), it
will not dry the air in the internal loop to as low a level of humidity as the fresh, ambient air. As a consequence of
the increased humidity of the air used to dry the load, this type of dryer requires somewhat more time than a
traditional dryer. Condenser dryers are a particularly attractive option where long, intricate ducting would be
required to vent a traditional dryer.
Clothes dryer 97

Heat pump dryers

Whereas condensation dryers use a passive heat exchanger cooled by
ambient air, these dryers use a heat pump. The hot, humid air from the
tumbler is passed through a heat pump where the cold side condenses
the water vapor into either a drain pipe or a collection tank and the hot
side reheats the air. In this way not only does the dryer avoid the need
for ducting, but it also conserves much of its heat within the dryer
instead of exhausting it into the surroundings. Heat pump dryers can
therefore use less than half the energy required by either condensation
or traditional dryers.

As with condensation dryers, the heat exchanger will not dry the
internal air to as low a level of humidity as the ambient air. With
respect to ambient air, the higher humidity of the air used to dry the
clothes has the effect of increasing drying times; however, because
heat pump dryers conserve much of the heat of the air they use, the
already-hot air can be cycled more quickly, possibly leading to shorter
drying times than traditional dryers, depending on the model.
A closed cycle heat pump clothes dryer, using a
Mechanical steam compression dryers heat pump to dehumidify the process air. Such
dryers typically use less than half the energy per
A new type of dryer in development, these machines are a more load of a condenser dryer.
advanced version of heat pump dryers. Instead of using hot air to dry
the clothing, mechanical steam compression dryers use water recovered from the clothing in the form of steam. First,
the tumbler and its contents are heated to 100 °C. The wet steam that results purges the system of air and is the only
remaining atmosphere in the tumbler.
As wet steam exits the tumbler, it is mechanically compressed (hence the name) to extract water vapor and transfer
the heat of vaporization to the remaining gaseous steam. This pressurized, gaseous steam is then allowed to expand
and is superheated before being injected back into the tumbler where its heat causes more water to vaporize from the
clothing, creating more wet steam and restarting the cycle.
Like heat pump dyers, mechanical steam compression dryers recycle much of the heat used to dry the clothes, and
they operate in a very similar range of efficiency as heat pump dryers. Both types can be over twice as efficient as
traditional dryers. The considerably higher temperatures used in mechanical steam compression dryers result in
drying times on the order of half as long as those of heat pump dryers.

Dehumidifier dryers
By keeping a low humidity, dehumidifier dryers encourage fast evaporation without high heat. This type of dryer is
suitable for clothes that can withstand tumbling but not high heat.

Convectant drying
Marketed by some manufacturers as a "static clothes drying technique", convectant dryers simply consist of a
heating unit at the bottom, a vertical chamber, and a vent at top. The unit heats air at the bottom, reducing its relative
humidity, and the natural tendency of hot air to rise brings this low-humidity air into contact with the clothes. This
design is slow and relatively energy-efficient, but is only marginally faster than line-drying.
Clothes dryer 98

Solar clothes dryer

The solar dryer is a box-shaped static construction which encloses a second compartment where the clothes are held.
It uses the sun's heat without direct sunlight reaching the clothes.

Static
Clothes dryers can cause static cling, through the triboelectric effect.

History
A hand-cranked clothes dryer was created in 1800 by M. Pochon from France.[2] Electric tumble dryers appeared in
the early 20th century. Industrial designer Brooks Stevens developed the first electric dryer with a glass window in
the 1940s.[3]

Lint Build-up (Tumble Dryers)

As stated above a tumble dryer works by forcing hot dry air through a
turning drum. The combination of the rapid replacement of hot dry air
and the slow tumbling dries the clothes. Moisture and lint are
byproducts of this process and are pulled from the drum by a fan motor
and then pushed through the remaining exhaust conduit to the exterior
termination fitting. Typical exhaust conduit comprises flex transition
hose found immediately behind the dryer, the 4 " rigid galvanized pipe
and elbow fittings found within the wall framing, and the vent duct
hood found outside the house.
Obviously a clean, unobstructed dryer vent improves the safety and
efficiency of your dryer. As the dryer duct pipe becomes obstructed
and filled with lint, drying time increases and causes the dryer itself to
overheat. Likewise, this prevents the ample removal of air and
moisture from the dryer, and a typical 45 minute cycle turns into an
Upper image shows a severely kinked and
hour and 40 minute cycle, resulting in a waste of energy, additional blocked dryer transition hose used to vent a
clothes fibres lost and the frightening possibility of a fire. Clothes tumble dryer. In this case the dryer was located or
dryers are one of the most costly appliances in your home to operate. pushed back too far against the wall. Lower
image shows initial lint build-up in the flex
Several factors can contribute to or accelerate rapid lint build-up. transition hose. Click image to enlarge
These include excessively long or restrictive ducts, bird or rodent nests
in the termination, crushed or kinked flex transition hose, terminations with screen-like features, and condensation
within the duct due to un-insulated ducts traveling through cold spaces, i.e. crawl space or attic.

Safety
Dryers expose flammable materials to heat. Underwriters Laboratories[4] suggests:
• Clean the lint filter every cycle for safety and energy efficiency.
• Provide adequate ventilation around the dryer.
• Keep glass fiber, rubber, foam and plastic items out of the dryer—or anything that has had a flammable substance
spilled on it.
Other Suggestions:
Clothes dryer 99

• Either DIY or have your dryer vent duct cleaned professionally at a minimum of every two years. Preferred: every
18 months. Generally involves a rotating brush on a flexible stem and a blower or vacuum.

Environmental impact
The average home clothes dryer has a carbon footprint of approximately 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) of CO2 per load of
laundry dried.[5]
Energy Star, a United States government program concerned with energy efficiency in consumer products, does not
rate clothes dryers.
In the European Union, the EU energy labeling system is applied to dryers; dryers are classified with a label from A
(best) to G (worst) according to the amount of energy used per kilogram of clothes (kWh/kg).
Sensor dryers can automatically sense that clothes are dry and switches off the dryer. This means over-drying is not
as frequent. Most of the European market sells sensor dryers now and are normally available in condensor and
vented dryers.

See also
• Drying cabinet
• Sheila Maid
• Combo washer dryer
• WikiHow - How to Vent a Dryer [6]

External links
• Analysis of the economy of gas versus electric dryers [7] In the follow-up article, there is also a spreadsheet [8] for
you to calculate the monetary tradeoff.
• Comparison of foil and aluminum flex duct [9] In this link there is a good visual comparison of the two most
popular transition flex hoses used to vent a tumble dryer. It is interesting how the material collapses into the
interior of the pipe closing down the actual diameter.

References
[1] What is a 'condenser' dryer ?? - Laundry Room (http:/ / ths. gardenweb. com/ faq/ lists/ laundry/ 2004120958010854. html)
[2] Building systems for interior designers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=64XXBGwYRroC& pg=PA264& lpg=PA264& dq=pochon+
dryer+ -"named+ pochon"& source=bl& ots=cGJGSDGLja& sig=-xCfCViInlpfAx9CSOTcwFxNmUg& hl=en&
ei=Hh7KSvHjD5L6sQOHm9mhBQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2#v=onepage& q=pochon& f=false). Wiley. . Retrieved
2009-10-04.
[3] Brooks Stevens (http:/ / www. wisconsinhistory. org/ topics/ stevens/ index. asp), Wisconsin Historical Society, , retrieved 2009-10-04
[4] "Underwriters Laboratories" (http:/ / www. ul. com/ newsroom/ urban/ index. html). .
[5] "Six Products, Six Carbon Footprints" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB122304950601802565. html). Wall Street Journal. .
[6] http:/ / www. wikihow. com/ Vent-a-Clothes-Dryer
[7] http:/ / www. jimcarson. com/ 2005/ 08/ gas-versus-electric-dryers/
[8] http:/ / www. jimcarson. com/ a/ gas_versus_electric. xls
[9] http:/ / www. dryerbox. com/ pages/ flexhose/ comparison. htm
Article Sources and Contributors 100

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Aircraft safety card  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=346180341  Contributors: Airodyssey, Betacommand, Bluemoose, Capricorn42, Change1211, DavidMcKenzie,
EK777-300ER, Edward, Funandtrvl, Gshc11, Hooperbloob, IlyaHaykinson, IronDyke, JJJJust, Jer10 95, KeasbeyMornings, LAAzerwolf, LeaveSleaves, Maestrosync, Man nited.com, Melchoir,
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Sunday roast  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=347320855  Contributors: 2D, Adambro, Alan Peakall, Andy Marchbanks, Arthur3030, Beastiepaws, Belovedfreak, Bymiller,
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(renamed because of SUL), ShelfSkewed, SimonArlott, SimonTrew, Sjorford, Smb1001, SqueakBox, Sss333, Steven J. Anderson, Stutley, Surv1v4l1st, Swerdnaneb, TJRC, The Thing That
Should Not Be, VoidPoint, Websitedesigners, Wereon, Wimt, Yorkshirian, ZooFari, 142 anonymous edits

Roasting  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=345933578  Contributors: Acidburn24m, Adam Bishop, Afluent Rider, Albamhandae, AnonEMouse, Avant Guard, Aveekbh,
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Barbecue  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=347154278  Contributors: 2brothersbrand, AMAPO, Aarondoyle, Absinthe88, Acalamari, Adammacia, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier,
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Article Sources and Contributors 101

Cls14, Cmdrjameson, Cokekiller, ColDickPeters, Coldbourne, Comatose51, Confuzion, Crzyeyes2006, Cst17, Cyde, D. Recorder, D88, DO'Neil, DSRH, DabMachine, Dale Arnett, Damicatz,
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Standing rib roast  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=334644113  Contributors: Acalamari, AdmRiley, Ares76, BD2412, Cavan, Cburnett, Chensiyuan, Desertstormer,
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Article Sources and Contributors 102

Thingg, Thirteen squared, This gives me the jitters!, Thiskidiscool, Thivierr, Thumperward, TigerShark, Tigermyboo, Tiggerjay, Tikiwont, Tim1357, TimBentley, TimVickers, Tingeling5, Tiniti,
Tiphareth, Tobby72, Toiyabe, TomTheHand, TomViza, Tomchiukc, Tony Sidaway, Too Old, Tothebarricades.tk, Townmouse, Trasman, Tregoweth, Trevor MacInnis, Trevyn, Treybien, Tristan
benedict, Trogadoore, Trolleymusic, Tronno, Trouble tim, Trusilver, Twas Now, Twiceshook2, Tyler, Tyw7, Tznkai, Ucanlookitup, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Uncle Dick, Untitled and
unidentified1, Uzgeek, VMS Mosaic, Vald, Valley2city, Vampiric jesus, Verbalcontract, Verdadero, Versageek, Vicarious, Vidkun, ViennaUK, Vipinhari, Viriditas, Viz, Vkt183, Vordabois,
Vranak, Vsion, Vulture19, WAS, WAS 4.250, WLU, Wack'd, Wateva101, Weissmann, Wes52353, Wetman, Wheelsthem, Wideeyedraven, Wiki alf, WikiParker, Wikidudeman, Wikied, Wimt,
Wingsandsword, Wolfe, Woohookitty, Wragge, Write2me today, Writtenonsand, Wtmitchell, Wwwwolf, XLR8TION, XSG, Xanman117, Xanthar, Xaurtmj, Xeryus, Xxpor, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Yidisheryid, Yintan, Yoggsaron, Ypacaraí, Yuje, Ywaz, ZacharyS, Zafiroblue05, Zaharous, ZayZayEM, Zellss, Zereshk, Zh, Zhouzhenning, Zntrip, Александър, 1736 anonymous edits

Washing machine  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=347325079  Contributors: 16@r, 84user, A Arthur Ascott, A More Perfect Onion, ADM, Adamd1008, Addshore, Agatron,
Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Albedo, Alexf, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Altermike, Amg37, Amire80, Andru nl, AngelOfSadness, Antandrus, Apwagner, Armsnacks, Arpingstone, Aude,
Austinrafter, AzaToth, Barneca, Bclark7113, Benroberts, Betterusername, Bige1977, Biokinetica, Bradshaws1, Brenont, Brian0918, BrokenSegue, Burbank, Canifis, Capricorn42, Celithemis,
Chairweb11, Chan Yin Keen, Cheesytots, Chrisoule, Circeus, Ckatz, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cocacolakicksass, Cometstyles, Commander, CommonsDelinker, Concordbandgeek,
Cooljuno411, Cosmic Latte, Cpeterson12, Crazycomputers, Cvgs 0007, D64, DMacks, DMahalko, Dan Guan, Dank, Danski14, Darkwind, DavidFisher, Dbentall, Dellant, Delldot, Deltabeignet,
Denimadept, Deor, Descoffey, Destynova, Deus Ex, DevastatorIIC, Discospinster, Dragonwish, Dudelolwtf, Dweller, ERcheck, Edetic, Edward, Egmontaz, EldraShanks, Elenseel, Elf, Elkman,
Emersoni, EoGuy, Epbr123, Erik9, EscapingLife, Essjay, Everyking, Ex-Nintendo Employee, Fieldday-sunday, Fiilott, Fingal, Freakofnurture, FreplySpang, Fursday, Fys, G I P funny colours,
GRAHAMUK, Garthonl, Gene Nygaard, Gilbert04, Gilliam, Gillyweed, Glen, Golfreak, GraemeL, Graham87, Grandonia, GregorB, Grsing, Guy Harris, Gökhan, Hackwrench, HelgeRieder,
HenryLi, Heron, HiFiGuy, Hooperbloob, Hot water heater, Hubbidaha, Huwizz, Icantthinkofasuitableusername, IronGargoyle, Itub, J.delanoy, JFreeman, JTN, Jaeger5432, James.gibson1977,
Jaranda, Jh51681, Jkhdjkhdsfjkh, Jll, Jmlk17, JoaoRicardo, Joejojreoj, John254, Jordsta, Joyous!, Jpbowen, Julesd, Kelly Martin, Kizzard, Kniveswood, Kostisl, Kozuch, LMB, LachlanA,
Laur2ro, Lewisdg2000, Lightmouse, Linkoman, Livajo, LizardJr8, Lksljkjfdks, Longhair, Loren.wilton, Lt. penguin, Luna Santin, Lyrl, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Macademe, Magnus Manske, Manop,
Marblewonder, Marek69, Mariegriffiths, Markhobley, Matt Gies, Maymay, Mediumemu, Melchoir, Mikaey, Millzdogg, Mindmatrix, Miranda, Monkeyman, Mr.Z-man, MrOllie, Nakon,
NativeForeigner, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Neekhu, Netoholic, Nick Graves, NickBush24, Numbo3, Nv8200p, O mores, Oberiko, Ocatecir, Odie5533, Ohnoitsjamie, Oldewash, OrigamiGuy,
Orv1952, Ost316, OverlordQ, Owen, Oxymoron83, Page Eater, Panneercselvam, Patrick, Paul August, Pauljoffe, Petiatil, Phantomsteve, PhilKnight, Philosophy.dude, Phyllis James, Pilotguy,
Pinethicket, Pjbflynn, Pollyflinders234, PrestonH, Prodego, PrologFan, Psychonaut, Pyrologik, RFBailey, RadicalBender, Rdsmith4, Readparse, Reneeholle, Reywas92, RickK, Riverfront4416,
Rjwilmsi, Robert Merkel, Rodeosmurf, Roscoe x, Rowengaurd, Rtyq2, SCEhardt, SJP, Sdunn4, SeanMack, Seldumonde, Sentryspotter2121, Seraphim, Severa, Shadowjams, SiobhanHansa,
Sionus, Sir Intellegence, Skarebo, Slowking Man, SoCalSuperEagle, SoWhy, Sopoforic, Squashed, Stansfield, Stephenb, Stern, Stevietheman, Stevy777, StewE17, Subzerolosangeles, Suruena,
Suyogaerospace, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tanthalas39, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Tckma, Temblast, Texture, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheDrunkard, Thierry Caro,
Thumperward, Titoxd, Tjwood, Tom harrison, Tonkpilshax, TonyBallioni, TreasuryTag, TurboForce, Tysalpha, Usrnme h8er, Utcursch, Vakidis55, Verne Equinox, Vertigo Acid, Vkhoria,
Voyagerfan5761, Washingmachinemike, Wiki0709, Wikimike2007, Wytech, Xiibaro, Xphill64x, Yar2, Zondran, Zzorse, Zzuuzz, ‫ينام‬, 651 anonymous edits

Laundry  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=347072100  Contributors: 16@r, AdjustShift, Aemiliano, Altenmann, AndreasPraefcke, Andrevruas, Anonyhole, Apparition11, Art
LaPella, Babbage, Barbara Shack, Barney33, Bart133, Bbx, Beland, Bhadani, Bongwarrior, Bummy18, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Capricorn42, Chasingamy, Chasingsol, Cheesymama, Chris 73,
Clark89, Cleankidnyc, Cookiemonster4, Credema, Creidieki, Daa89563, Darth Panda, Davesquires, Dawnseeker2000, Deus Ex, Dharmabum420, DiLuna25, Dreadstar, ERcheck, Eatsaq, Edokter,
EncMstr, Enix150, EoGuy, Epbr123, Erik Latranyi, Eu.stefan, Evil Monkey, Furrykef, GSalvatore, Ghaly, Gorgonzilla, Gveret Tered, H Padleckas, HelgeRieder, Hockeyfreek1112, Huw Powell,
Hyad, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Ilikelaudry, IronChris, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JaGa, JackyR, Jake Wartenberg, Jbar the correctonator, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jibi44, Jmabel, Josh Parris, Julle, Jusdafax,
Jutta, Karenfixe, Kgasso, Killiondude, KnowledgeOfSelf, Krawunsel, Leafyplant, Liberlogos, LizGere, Lucyin, MagicSword, Maharhwa, Marcelvr, Martinl, Martpol, Melchoir, Mixer, Mllebsas,
Netoholic, Noroton, PamD, Patrick, PhJ, Piano non troppo, Pollyflinders, Pollyflinders234, PoorRicardo, Prof.Palty, Professor marginalia, Purgatory Fubar, Quadell, Rchamberlain,
RedWordSmith, Reo On, Ripe, Rjwilmsi, Ronhjones, SDC, Sandstein, Saranixon, SarekOfVulcan, Sasangps, ScottDavis, Sdunn4, Secretlondon, Sherurcij, Signalhead, SimonTrew, Sky Attacker,
Smedpull, Sophiii, Stebulus, Swerdnaneb, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Tedder, TerriersFan, TheDrunkard, Thingg, ThisApparition, Tim Ivorson, Toliar, Tom harrison, Tsemii, Ukexpat, Vinvalentino,
Wavelength, WhatamIdoing, Wikiguy1, Wyatt915, Xhienne, Yopienso, Zora, 151 anonymous edits

Housekeeping  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=346142157  Contributors: 16@r, Alex S, Arathey, Benanhalt, Blaxthos, Bluemoose, BritishWatcher, CALR, Chuck Marean,
Cowpepper, David290, Efyoo2, Eric Bekins, Fishal, Furrykef, Healthwise, La goutte de pluie, Lambiam, MarnetteD, Mysdaao, NickPenguin, Onco p53, Patstuart, Purplefeltangel, Quiddity,
Quill, Ritchie the idiot calo, SWAdair, Sandolsky, Sgeureka, Sjö, Spalding, Squids and Chips, TDS, Tassedethe, TastyPoutine, Thehollowblah, TimVickers, Timbershome, Twinzor, ZimZalaBim,
Zodon, 19 anonymous edits

Detergent  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=343010424  Contributors: 5zulaswar, AThing, Abdull, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex.tan, Allstarecho, Andygharvey, Aramgutang,
Arcadian, Arjun saxena, Asdfih, Ashleighbrn, Bensaccount, Biophys, Black and White, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, BorgQueen, CIreland, Cacycle, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cdylans, Cffrost,
Christopher Parham, Circeus, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Corpx, Cubs Fan, Davewild, Ddstretch, Dj Capricorn, DocWatson42, Drphilharmonic, Duagloth, Dutch Users, Dwmyers, ESkog,
Ed, Edgar181, Edward, Eliz81, Ellywa, Eras-mus, Esanchez7587, Esobocinski, Everyking, EvilRedEye, Ezhiki, Feťour, Fiet Nam, Fmorton, Friend-of-soap, G3pro, Gimboid13, Guanaco, Gurch,
Hadal, Haham hanuka, Imunuri, Intrested in stuff?, JFD, James pic, JaredWBurt, Jay Gatsby, Jim1138, John254, JuJube, Justin Eiler, Jwesley78, Kaboytes, Kakurady, Katalaveno, Kevin, Kjkolb,
Knuckles, Knucmo2, Lakers, Langbein Rise, Libcub, Lightdarkness, Liz Betz, Llamaboy23, LorenzoB, MER-C, MWOAP, MartinHarper, Mathwizxp, Mattbr, Maxis ftw, Mosca, Mrappleton,
Mushin, Mxenam, Myanw, Nabla, NawlinWiki, Nick C, Nubiatech, OffsBlink, Peterlewis, Philip Trueman, Philwkpd, Piano non troppo, Pinkadelica, Poccil, PolymerTim, Possum,
Prestonmcconkie, Prettyinpink88, Prolog, Puppy8800, R. S. Shaw, RSido, Regibox, Reo On, Rich Farmbrough, Richard A Hall, Rlquall, RobDe68, Ronhjones, Rror, Senator Palpatine, Sfahey,
Sfmammamia, Shaddack, Shenme, SimonP, Sistertwin1, Sjschen, SmthManly, Soap, Sponge, Sry85, Stephenb, Tarquin, TheGerm, Tide rolls, Timc, Tjwood, Tomtheman5, Trounce, Ufim, Uq,
Uvainio, Vary, Versageek, W.F.Galway, Wavelength, 311 anonymous edits

Fabric softener  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340420783  Contributors: B. Wolterding, Barrympls, Bmileham, Bobo192, CO, Caltas, ChrisCork, Cpl Syx, Dismas, Edetic,
Edoderoo, Enviroboy, Epastore, Epbr123, FironDraak, FreplySpang, Furrykef, Gsp, Igno2, Jtalledo, Julesd, Kcr, Kyouteki, LHOON, Leujohn, Leuko, Lradrama, M3tech01, MONGO, Mashford,
Mdd4696, Michael Devore, Musephil2006, NSR, NewEnglandYankee, Pearle, Pjkarn, Rebecca Michael, Rifleman 82, Rockingbeat, Shaddack, ShelfSkewed, Silivrenion, Spacenookie, Squad51,
That Guy, From That Show!, TheEditrix, Thumperward, Trolleytimes, Trusilver, Uriah923, Vegaswikian, Wikhull, Wikigurl828, Wombatcat, Zephalis, 85 anonymous edits

Bleach  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=347177054  Contributors: -DjD-, 24fan24, 2help, =ICC= WORLDWARII, A Sunshade Lust, A8UDI, ABF, AThing, Abce2, Abtract,
ActivExpression, Adambiswanger1, Addshore, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alesnormales, AlexiusHoratius, Alynna Kasmira, Amorymeltzer, Anas2048, Andrew
Maiman, Andrew73, Andreworkney, Androsyn, Andy Barlow, Ann Stouter, Anthony Liang, Apostrophe, Aquaviann, Arch dude, Ardonik, Arensb, Arichnad, Arjun01, Arshille, Astral, Aude,
Auric, Avi saig, Avs5221, Axetouch80, Azn dave mik, Aznspazboi, Bacony97, Badgernet, Badseed, Ballinboi17, Banpei, Baralheia, Bardsandwarriors, BarretBonden, Barticus88, Baysofhale,
Bdevel, Beach drifter, Becker22, Belg4mit, Ben.wedin, BenFrantzDale, Benbest, Berkay0652, BeteNoir, Bleach156, Bluezy, Bmenrigh, Bobbyjoesmith22, Bobianite, Bobo192, Bobobeebo3,
Bodnotbod, Boghog2, Bongwarrior, Br1ght, Brien Clark, Bsadowski1, C628, CTJames, CWii, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canthusus, Capitalistroadster,
Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Catgut, Celarnor, ChaosNil, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chasingsol, Chickenbanana, Chiefentry1212, Chillpillz42, Chowfonsin, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham,
Chrono23x, Chrylis, Chrysaor, Closedmouth, Cobra libre, Cocoaguy, Collectonian, Compass NW, Cool Hand Luke, Corebowe, Countmippipopolous, Crdtubuffalo, Crmadsen, Cyktsui,
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IronGargoyle, Ivan, Iversonali3, Iwritefakestuff, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JLaTondre, Jabebus-kirst, Jabeles, Jackfork, Jackm16, Jackyjoe7890, Jag123, James086, Jamisonhalliwell,
Javert, Jclemens, Jeffrey Mall, Jh51681, Jishacj, Jmb, Joe n bloe, Jogloran, Jogp, Johnleemk, Johnsonmp09, Jojhutton, Jomasecu, Jonnythesunofthestars, Josquius, Jusdafax, JustAGal,
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Llamadog903, Lom angel15, Lord Air, LordRM, Lradrama, Luna Santin, Lunakeet, MBisanz, MER-C, Mageonly1995, Mangaman10, Marcinjeske, Marek69, MarkGallagher, MarkMarek,
Martinp23, Master of Puppets, Master of the Oríchalcos, Master5971, Matt Heard, Matthew Yeager, MattieTK, Maurog, Maurreen, Mbc362, Mc roach, Mcmike94, Mdd4696, Meadohsum,
Meeples, Melchoir, Melsaran, Metalman969, Michael Shields, Michael93555, Michaeld42, Mickthefish, MightyWarrior, Mike.lifeguard, Miranda, Monkmo, Montgomery '39, Montgomery.tg,
Mortus Est, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mr Bound, Mr Stephen, Mr kc, Mr.Clown, MrsPlum, Muchness, Muffinladdie, Muhdkipz, Mustafa.odabasi, Mygerardromance,
Mystiscool, Nakon, Naruto3696, NarutoKun1, Narutoandino, Natewest, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Ndenison, Neelix, Nehrams2020, Nemodan, NewEnglandYankee, Nihonjoe, Nixongate74,
Nlu, Noisy, NuclearWarfare, Nv8200p, Oldgregg, Olessi, Omicronpersei8, Onceonthisisland, Onorem, Orangutan, Oxymoron83, Painisgood12, Pak21, Panneercselvam, Paradoxian,
Paragon12321, Penguinstar19, Pepperpiggle, Persian Poet Gal, Pgk, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Pholox, Piano non troppo, PiccoloNamek, PicklesofDOOM,
Pinkadelica, Pip2andahalf, Pizza1512, Pol098, Polikujy911, Porqin, Prashanthns, Pschemp, Puchiko, Quintote, Quixada, Qxz, RB972, RSido, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rann-Dum, Ratel,
Ratiocinate, Ravanacker, Rawrmeep, Rawrzors, Raxx123, Reerpizza, Relly Komaruzaman, Remek, Rettetast, Rex1 Wiki*, RexNL, Reywas92, RickK, Robbyrocks, Rolypolyman, Ronbo76,
Article Sources and Contributors 103

Ronhjones, Rsfreak99, RussellMcKenzie, Russoc4, Rustyschackelford, Rweba, RxS, Ryoutou, Ryulong, S h i v a (Visnu), SDC, Sairen42, Sakkura, Sango123, Saros136, Savant13,
SaveThePoint, ScaldingHotSoup, SchfiftyThree, Science4sail, Semperf, Sesshomaru, Seven of Nine, Sfahey, Sfmammamia, Shaddack, Shadow1101, Shii, Shoeofdeath, Sigmamax, Silentdan13,
SilverWolf1898, Silverchemist, Silverdragon706, Sinistro, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Siroxo, Sithalos, Sjorford, Skarebo, Skunkboy74, Skywalkerhomie, Slakr, Slowking Man,
Sluzzelin, Smalljim, Snicker, Snowolf, Softlavender, SparrowsWing, Spartan-James, Specter01010, Speedracerrox, Spellcast, Spiderham12, Spitfire, SpuriousQ, Spuzzum, Staffwaterboy,
Stannlolol, Stephenb, StradivariusTV, SummerPhD, Super-Magician, Superdanielz11, SupernovaTai, Suva, Synchronism, T-rex, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TMS63112, Tatsukismile, TedE,
Tedder, Template namespace initialisation script, Ten Thousand Bullets, Tentacle Monster, Tetirs, Th1rt3en, The Evil Spartan, The Fifth Horseman, The Hybrid, The Rogue Penguin, The Thing
That Should Not Be, TheDJ, Thingg, Thumperward, Thunderbrand, Tide rolls, Tills, Timmaye, Tiptoety, Tivedshambo, Tktktk, Tkynerd, Tobyc75, Tojo940, Tom harrison, Tommy Kronkvist,
Transcendence, Triona, Triwbe, Truno, Trusilver, Turboduded, TylerJarHead, Uglylillydude, Ulric1313, Ultimate sickness, Umalee, Unaiaia, Uncle Milty, Urod, Useight, VI, Vailz20, Veeraane,
Veesicle, Versus22, Victorc4a, Vinsfan368, VioAdmin, Violentbob, WadeSimMiser, Waggers, Walkerma, Walrus heart, Wassermn, Weiteck, WesleyDodds, Whicky1978, WhisperToMe,
Whispering, WhiteLens, Wiki alf, WikiLaurent, Wikibofh, Wikiscient, Wombatcat, Wormintheworks, Wysprgr2005, X!, X1987x, Xcentaur, Xetxo, Xiner, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yojimbo501,
Z.E.R.O., ZZX81, Zaui, Zer0faults, ZeroBeat1234567, Zro, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, 1223 anonymous edits

Energy Star  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=345653633  Contributors: Airplaneman, Aloedarling, ArnoldReinhold, BeebLee, Benhocking, Bhadani, Bkell, Britt25, CMBJ,
CactusWriter, Calmer Waters, Calvinleemk, ClemMcGann, Connormah, Crohnie, Danthemankhan, Davodd, Dfrankow, Dofo, Duckfootx, Frap, Fred114, From Selma to Stonewall, GT, Gralo,
Gurchzilla, Hemant 17, Hermógenes Teixeira Pinto Filho, Hezery99, Huw Powell, Ivsyd, JabberWok, Jacob Poon, Jacobmalthouse, JakeVortex, Jerehill, Johnfos, Kbdank71, Kennard2, Kiand,
King of Hearts, Koochekhalvat, Kozuch, Kschneid, Mandarax, Maxi-media006, Mikeblas, Muffinon, N5iln, NJA, Natitude, Neelix, Ng.j, Nixdorf, Nkaufman, Nopetro, Nukeless, Olsonist, One
small step, Pengo, Postdlf, Qkowlew, RadioActive, Rgatgeeh, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Sfan00 IMG, Tgwena, TimSSG, Tregoweth, Trycatch, Vaceituno, WikiEditorContributor,
Wimt, WizardDuck, Woohookitty, Wtshymanski, Wtunnessen, Yintan, Ysangkok, Zippanova, Zodon, 110 anonymous edits

Clothes dryer  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=344375128  Contributors: 16@r, AlexTG, Als0123, Altermike, Amdma2003, Andymellie, Angela, Badharlick, BeNude,
BenFrantzDale, Betterusername, Bobo192, Bobprime, BrokenSphere, Bsrousse, Ccrrccrr, Chameleon, Chris the speller, ClimbWild, Closedmouth, Cornellrockey, Cybertooth85, Debresser,
Decoratrix, Deglr6328, Dogah, Dreadstar, Dsm, Dustimagic, Dyslexik, Experiencedsenior, Farside268, Finisterre, Folajimi, Frank, Frank Lofaro Jr., Furrykef, GB fan, Graham87, Greentopia,
Guerillajess, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hot water heater, Hu12, Hydraton31, Interiot, JIP, Jim carson, Jll, Jmax-, JohJak2, Jusdafax, Keenan Pepper, Kristindorsett, LachlanA, Luckypapers,
MagicSword, MarcoLittel, Melchoir, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mtcv, Mulad, Natitude, NeilN, NellieBly, Nixeagle, Nuflodvs, Numbo3, Ogama, Ohnoitsjamie, OverlordQ, Photojournie, Piano non
troppo, Pjbflynn, Postmanpat69, Preslethe, Pretzelpaws, Pyrologik, Radon210, RainbowOfLight, Randroide, RickK, Rickharp, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Rob33322, SandyGeorgia, Scwlong,
Sdunn4, Sky Attacker, Somebody in the WWW, Spiritia, Subzerolosangeles, Suffusion of Yellow, Suzyj, Synchronism, Tabby, Tgoyle, Thinker jones, Thumperward, Timtrent, Tom harrison,
Unmitigated Success, Vectro, Wtshymanski, 169 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 104

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:IPod Nano 4G black.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IPod_Nano_4G_black.jpg  License: Trademarked  Contributors: User:Aconcagua
Image:Kitchen aid mixer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kitchen_aid_mixer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gveret Tered, Majorly, ‫ןתיא‬6
File:WesternElectric302.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WesternElectric302.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was ProhibitOnions at
en.wikipedia
Image:Fendersrvstratfront.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fendersrvstratfront.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Dodek,
GreyCat, Mrbill, Red Rooster, Wickler, 1 anonymous edits
Image:VW 1300 side.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VW_1300_side.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: M62
Image:Taco shell loofa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taco_shell_loofa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:N8VanDyke
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 105

Image:Waschvollautomat Constructa 1950er.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waschvollautomat_Constructa_1950er.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation

License  Contributors: Andre Engels, Nordelch, Ranveig, Stahlkocher
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License 106

License
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