November 03, 2014

Origins

Preserve hut of Romulus on a hill in the Palatine

People in the area were known as Latium
Did not start writing their history until 200 BCE
Livy wrote the best history down with stories of leaders who sacrificed their lives, their bodies,
or their children to the state to guarantee a military victory, freedom from tyranny, or political
stability
Farmer named Cincinnatus assumed supreme command of the army in an emergency and
returned to his farm when it was over
Publius Decius Mus charged suicidal into enemy lines to win favour of the gods in battle
Poverty and simplicity were important values and ambivalence about conquests is important to
their themes
IMPORTANT DATES
753 BCE
Foundation of Rome
510 BCE
Expulsion of the kings
494 BCE
451 550 BCE
390 BCE
264 241 BCE
218 201 BCE
197 BCE

Society of Rome

First secession of the Plebs; creation of tribune

Promulgation of the Twelve Tables
Rome sacked by Gauls
First Punic war
Second Punic war
Defeat of Philip V at Cynoscephalea in Second
Macedonian war
184 BCE
Censorship of Cato the elder
168 BCE
Perseus defeated at Pydna in Third Macedonian War
146 BCE
Sack of Carthage in Third Punic War and sack of Corinth
133 BCE
Assassination of Tiberius Gracchus
63 BCE
Ciceros consulship
49 45 BCE
Civil war between Caesar and Pompey
44 BCE
Assassination of Julius Caesar
WHO WERE THE ROMANS?
o Did not need to be born roman to be roman
o Two stories of their origins
Roman settlers were fugitive debtors and criminals granted asylum by Romulus
and there were no women so kidnapped women from the Sabines
Romulus was a descendant of Aeneas and he married a Latin princess
FROM VILLAGE TO CITY
o Oldest trace of settlement date to 1000 BCE

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Forum an empty public space which became the citys nerve-center

In the late 500s, the Romans were a leading power in Latium and had a pop. of est.
30,000

THE ETRUSCANS
o In the 500s BCE, Rome was subject to foreign kings (dynasty of Etruscans) who built
public works and monuments that that formed it into a city
o Their language is hard to decipher since it is not like any other language
o Not quite sure where they were from either from the Italian peninsula or emigrated
from the East
o Main archaeological sites are cemeteries with chamber tombs known as tumuli with
similar structures for males and females to show a degree of equality of those of higher
rank
o By 600 BCE the Etruscans portrayed their gods Anthropomorphically (looking like
humans) perhaps with an idea from the Greeks
o Earliest temple is from c. 500 BCE at Veti
o Roman sources tell of a temple of Jupiter with the same style of Etruscan craftsmen
o Were skilled at divination and haruspicia (reading omens in the entrails of a sacrificed
animal)
o 7th and 6th century developments show urbanization, permanent house structures,
public architecture, and show possibilities of Latin and Etruscan culture developing sideby-side

Historical Orientation

History is a telling of legend so difficult to construct history

200 BCE was the first time a Roman wrote down history of city
Can trace history to the Roman-Carthaginian wars
OVERVIEW OF SOURCES
o Archeological evidence pottery, mirrors, jewellery, tombs, walls, remains of
architectures, alters
o literal evidence Livy, Dionysisius , Senator Thebeius Pictor (sp?).
Greek writers of the 5th and 4th centuries wrote to attract attention of outsiders
Pictor would have drawn on the ^^ histories
o Documents and Family oral history would have influenced history; Can date back to
further
o Great Yearly Chronical (Annales maximi) consists of year by year records which was
edited and placed into a book form filled with rare events like droughts, eclipses,
famines, floods perished
o Antiquarian Writers scholars who interested in historical facts w/o interested in
historical narratives (ie Senator Varro)
Roman kingship was elective; divided up into three geographical based tribes, and 30 wards
Roman male population was first divided up for armies

INFRA CLASSEM unnamed fighting troops

TARQUINIUS THE PROUD what the last king of Etruscan and was like a Greek Strongman
o Son raped Lucrecia and caused a de coup against them
Lars Porsena helped Tarquinius gain power again
Rise of plebians to full equality was called partritians Plebs could have been the poorest;
weighted down by debt
IMPERIUM is the power of command in military Rome
NEXUM ancient form of debt bondage and abolished in 326 BCE
o Involved a formal sale for a man into bondage
o Self-sale/pledge in which the debter put himself into the hands of the creditor
Before 338 BCE, Rome took the lead in established colonization
Rome was one of a number of communities that collected together
In legend it was founded by a true civic polity and the beginnings of the political founding was in
the mid 8th century BCE
To the 6th century BCE there was a nuclear scattering of huts and habitation and marked by the
gradual demarking of private and public places and the creation of the Roman forum area.
o Increase in wealth in transition to Greek Archaic style houses
Just as in Greece, the settlements began to change as in contact with Greek settlers
Evidence suggests villages of about 100 ppl but began to grow close to other village
In late 9th century BCE there was a prototype of fusing villages together
Scholars speak of a population uptake with the establishment of new settlements
In the second half of the late 8th century there was a rise in goods such as olives (wines, oil,
olives) and an increase in wheel-made pottery
Into 580 BCE Lacium, the neighbours, Etruscans, can see chamber tombs
o Accumulation of wealth in a few hands and the forms of the tombs and their
furnishings including their weapons, bronzes, and imported ceramics (ie from Greek
mainland
o Purpose was to show family solidarity and a presence of a social structure of the Gens
o Tombs cut across in their unity which is connected to the influence of the Greeks with
(feasting, gift giving, manly powers, and friendship) which are values seen in Homers
poetry.
GENS (CLAN) (latin term) - found throughout central peninsular Italy and into the 7th Century BCE
are well established social units
o Patrilineal descent group who claim descent from a common ancestor
o Naming system use the two name system in which each member had two names; a
personal (given) PRAENOMEN, and a clan name NOMEN GENTILICIUM (ie Gaius, Ceaser)
o
Towns of Latium speak a form of Latin and other villages speak a form of Etruscan (like Linear B)
Transition from Kingship to republic (510 BCE 490 BCE) a series of events (violent) led to the
overthrowing of Tarqunius led to creation of the consul.

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Tarquinius and his family were besieging the neighbouring city when his son raped
Lucretia (wife of his cousin) and they sieged control of the city
Lars Porsena helped Tarquinius besiege Rome but he was driven out
Attus Clausus a Sabine warlord
Used armed companions (sodales)
One distinct feature is the presence of Aristocratic warlords who were always on the
move
Vulerius Publicola could have been a foreign warlord but dont know

Government and the Society in the Early Republic

A woman named Lucretia was raped by the kings son and avenged by her relatives shows
how Romans try to relate their history to the Greeks
RES PUBLICA system of government that wasnt ruled by kings (the public matter)
THE RULING CLASS the constitution resembled a politeia
o Had an assembly, senate, magistrates (controlled army, legislation, and judged cases),
o Consuls chief magistrates that were elected every year; them and senates only came
from the best families
Wielded IMPERIUM (signified the power to command the army, and condemn ppl
to death; had a civil, judicial and military aspect)
o Comitia centuriata Romans voted in units
o Legal authority was centered on individuals of high power/status could be consuls,
or PRAETOR (public judge)
o Patronage social relations were dominated by this system; people of unequal rank
were bound by ties of loyalty and gratitude the higher-ranked person (patron) would
sometimes lend his support to the lower ranking one (client). The client would do any
kind of favour for his benefactor
Many wealthy people would get multiple dependents and use it for votes ect.
The Fabii raised a private army
A dynamic system everybodys status was continuously changing
o Social relationships amongst those of = power were also important as Aristocrats took
advice of a council of friends
KINGSHIP
o C 500 BC Romulus to Trarqiunn the prous - 7 kings known but that is not enough people
to fill up the time of the monarchy
kingship was not her
outside Rome and some were related to past King
no recorded Roma
patrician
THE PLEBEIANS AND PATRICIANS there was a class struggle between the two
o patrician comes from patres
o patres were not head of clans because in history there were never one single clan
leader in Romeo also not a senator class

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one did not have to be a partician to be in senateo senate was chosen by king not a real
senate but body of friends and advisors
patres - patricians in general
patres conferred the auspices on kings term
auspices - right to read the will of gods from birds bird watching; revealed the
general mood of the gods? - happy/mad
plebeians- Roman citizen stock (mob) (non - patricians)o revolutionary group - badge of
honour
could still be a part of clans
plebs as a distinct group did not emerge until republic era
no plebs in monarchy
plebs begin as revolutionary movement
first secession of plebs - removed themselves from Rome 494 BC
poor people of Rome - debt, famine, bad treatment
in emerging archaic Rome plebs constituted only a portion of non-patricians not
majority - early republic

o populus were those that were not plebs or patricians and were part of military
(male ranks) third group of persons and were inc. in number during 5th c.
o 136 clans (patricians)
o number of patricians by end of 5th c. only 14 left
o later rulers would elevate the power of people to patricians in order to up the #
o pop. of Rome during early monarchic period were devided into 3 geo based
tribes (still Roman citizens) (TITIES: RAMNES: LUCERES)
o each tribe had ten curiae (wards)
o in 600 BC ish or a bit after 3000 heavily armed infantry, 300 horse soldiers each
tribe provided a third
o artificial grouping mainly based on locality and birth
o relationship b/w army and kings
o problems were attached to king who ruled from 578-555 BC Servius Tolius
divided people into new tribes and carried out first census
4 tribes not 3
divided people into classes into 5 classes by wealth and then again into
sentries
each sentry contained 100 men
counted 6000 infantry men (people who could equipe themselves)
in this sceam the free male pop. were devided into those who were able
to serve as heavy infantry that is the classis and the remainder who could
afford to fight as light armed troops (or just helped move stuff) called the
infra classem

most fights were territory stuff

partly economic conditions made people identify themselves as plebs
in late century - when pay for service was introduced - war happens- that
the original system was definitively replaced with graded property classes
flexible military classes, light and heavy armed troops
senior and junior troops as well
o social distinction b/w patrons and clans
patronage arises from wealth different
partons can give benefits and protections
there were wealth non-patrician clans who were patrons
plebs did not benefit from patrons - did not enter patronage
obedience and support who got patrons were those that had to sell
themselves
some were in patrons private army

crutial point is that not all Romancitizens were in or benefited from patronage self-help group
it is also important to stress that overtime plebeians could become patrons of
other pleb clans
o no pleb was ever a client of a non pleb patron
o Only a small number of families had patrician status and could only be born one; they
dominated the consulship; they partly monopolized the high political offices and could
oppress plebeians with unfair legal decisions. They were richer that plebs and many
plebs were indebted to them and debt laws were harsh
o The plebs gradually succeeded in their struggle for more equality as a new sort of
magistrate known as the tribune was created; tribunes could cancel the actions of any
other magistrate with a veto. You could not assault/kill them. The plebs could force
patricians to publish parts of the law so it could be applied more consistently.
o The first legal code was the Twelve Tables. The plebs won the right to hold consulship
and create an assembly called the comitia tribute.
SOCIETY IN THE TWELVE TABLES
o Drawn up by a board of 10 magistrates in 451 BCE
o Reflect on environment where writing was not widespread.
o Economy is overwhelmingly agricultural; harsh penalties for debters defaulting
o Paterfamilias the male head of a household who held a power of PATRIA POTESTAS
over sons and daughters
o Manus the power of a husband over his wife; easy for a voice to avoid coming under
legal authority of her husband, esp. if an independent women
WARFARE AND THE CONQUEST OF ITALY
o Army was divided into legions under the command of the consuls
Seven MILITARY TRIBUNES per legion

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Started off like the hoplite army but developed to a more flexible formation and a lightarmed troops were added; there was a property qualification for serving in the army;
poorest citizens not drafted
Went to war nearly every year; by the 3rd century they had brought most of Italy south
of the Po river under their control
One set back includes that of 390 BCE when Rome was sacked by the Gauls.
Conquest of Samnites is a good example of military achievement in Italy were a
confederacy of tribes in the mountains and b/w 343 and 290 BCE, the romans fought 3
wars w/ them. They continued to oppose robe by taking sides with their enemies in the
war w/ Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and the Social War
The Romans did not treat defeated ppl. the same way as those of Rome; adapted their
rule to the situation some gained citizenship, others had right to vote, others were
simply allies
Sometimes founded colonies. They annexed land from their subjects (ager publicus)
and gave it to citizens without founding a colony
Used a census to count citizens and asses their property to gain info for taxation known
as the tribute which paid for the army.
Gradually became more unified and Romanized; the network of roads made travel
easy and after 167 BCE, Italians no longer paid tribute and Roman military ventures
were financed based on their overseas subjects; after the Social War of 91-89 BCE, the
citizenship was extended to all subjects
Caecilius Metellus gave a speech as he held many offices; held first parade of with
elephants (died 221 BCE); fulfilled 10 things that a wise man sough best warrior, best
orator, bravest commander, led the best commands, held the highest magistrate,
highest resourcefulness, held senatorial rank, made a great deal of money in approved
fashion, left many children, and was the most illustrious person in the state
Every aspiring office holder needed to have completed ten annual military campaigns
(even if had years between them)
Cicero held title of imperator which he won as a result of his campaigns against
mountain tribes
Quaestor
Cilicia
Laus high reputation; every office holder/warrior hoped to gain this from his fellow
citizens as well as gloria
Gloria - glory
Virtus Manly courage and the competition for glory; important in every state but
especially at of Rome; victory monuments, temples and paintings show triumph of
military generals; triumph was the embodiment of glory. General dressed up as Jupiter
and paraded through Rome
Sallust a friend of Julius Caesar; saw desire for glory and ceased it as a factor in
Roman history and uses it an explanation of the growth of the empire incredible
how much the state grew within a brief period once freedom had been gained...

Relatives of the deceased wore the masks known as imagines

Triumphatores a victorious general who petitioned for senate and the right to engage
in a Military parade along the sacred way of the inclined path to the temple of Jupiter.
15/20 of those who reached victory ran for council
Needed a minimum body count ~ 5000 enemy dead
Accompanied by slave(s) that reminded the triumphatores that he was a mortal
man
o Plautus playwright who wrote c 200 BCE uses a lot of military language and
metaphors
o Before 150 BCE, there is a unwillingness to serve in the Legions due to the length of
campaigns in Spain
o Bia - Used violence in wars; when stormed Carthage, directed troops toward the city
and told them to kill citizens
o In 171 BCE, many more men volunteered because members of the prev. war came back
rich considered booty to be the main idea behind warfare
o Before the battle of Zama, Scipio (General) tells his troop that if they win the battle,
they will be securely in control of affairs of events in Africa, but will gain control of the
rest of the world
o Fides Roman protection for foreign states
o Counsular a counsel
o Apotropaic evil adverting
o Alliances
Bilateral alliances with potential enemies; stripped of their free capacity to deal
with each other and subordinated to that of Roman policy
Allies took part and gained a share of the profits of military campaigns
CONQUESTS OVERSEAS
o Polybius wrote the most interesting accounts of Romes overseas expansions c. 160 BCE
Became friends with the prominent aristocrats; witnessed destruction of
Carthage, and confirmed rule in Greece after 146 BCE
Thought that after the First Punic war, Romans had the intentions of conquering
the Roman world
PROVINCIA originally meant a magistrates assigned sphere of action, became
the territorial meaning only gradually
Romans believed they were in danger unless everyone was terrified of and
obedient to them
One of the driving factors was their image of themselves as a warlike people and
their social system in the ability to command respect through benefaction or
intimidation was paramount
o Carthage and the West
Romes first overseas enemy; founded by the Phoenicians c 8-9th century BCE
known as the Punic Wars
Fought three wars b/w 264 146 BCE; first two were long and difficult
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In the second, general Hannibal invaded Italy from Spain and won three
devastating battles
In 203 BCE, they invaded Africa and Hannibal was recalled to defend
unsuccessfully
In 149 BCE they responded to Carthage after much distrust with a treaty
violation and demolished the city three years later
The result was Rome asserting its influence in areas that formerly belonged to
Carthage
Permanently occupied Spain
Romans appointed magistrates with imperium and extended the number of
praetors to six; extended magistrates term of office with a prorogation so they
could serve one year as a praetor/consul and 2+ years after as a propreator or
proconsul in his provincia
o Rome and the Hellenistic Kingdoms
First confrontation with the eastern kingdoms was with Philip V of Macedonia
and Antiochus III of Syria; defeated Philip at Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE which
was a portal shock; the Hellenistic kingdoms found they could no longer ignore
the power in the west
Expected Greek cities to obey heir will but left the monarchs in place as long as
they were obedient and respectful would retaliate severely if their demands
were ignored
Philips son Perseus tried to reassert their power and they suffered a defeat at
Pydna in 168 BCE and the Macedonian kingdom was divided into four republicas
Romans devastated the people of Epirus which had supported Perseus and
enslaved 150,000 prisoners
A pretender by the name Philip Andriscus tried to assert himself but Romans
crushed them (148 Bce)
Overtime, Hellenistic monarchs disappeared; the Seleucids and Ptolemies
continued to rule until the first century BCE
IMPERIALISM AND CULTURE
o After First Punic war, Romans imposed an indemnity of 25 mil denarii (= Greek drachma
or one days worth of pay) to be paid to the treasury
o Much larger indemnities were collected in subsequent wars
o Also collected direct and indirect taxes from their subjects and after 167 BCE Romans
no longer had to pay tribute
o Effects of imperialism were dramatic as Roman culture had been influenced by Greek
culture since the beginnings ie Roman gods, architecture, sculptures, art
o Porcius Cato the elder was a NEW MAN - born in a small town and became a senator;
he was skilled at legal oratory and his war record, virtue through political success, held
consulship, and became a CENSOR (revised the roll of senators and was more prestigious
than consulship)

Cultivated his image as an exemplar of Roman virtues was a hard working

farmer
Reputation for his hostility toward the Greek
Criticized Greek rhetoric, philosophy, and education could read and speak
Greek; though they were inferior
Wrote Roman Demosthenes

Army

Legions - made of Roman citizens

Auxilia - pepregrini (foreigners
billeting
Nonius Datus
Gaius Julius Macer, son of Agedillus <--- Celtic name
o became a non commissioned officer (like a corporal) served for 32 years, decorated for
valour by other soldiers Celtic background, west central France
o name given on enlistment
o fathers completely non Roman name (Celtic)
o he probably had a Celtic name that was changed
members needed a letter of recommendation
had to meet health and height requirements
all roman legionaries had to be citizens
some awarded citizenship when recruited - not many
some pepregrini transferred to legions and granted citizenship -happens a bit more often
needed 9-12 thousand new recruits every year
auxiliary service are on enlistment are not citizens but when term done granted citizenship wives and children included up until 2nd c. AD
after 2nd c.AD wife and children do not
produces a demographic mixing
military is an avenue of social mobility
Centurions - soldiers that rise through the ranks - top centurion = first javelin/spear
serving soldiers did suffer some legal disabilities
o when still on the move - Caesar Augustus prohibited legal marriages until early 3rd c. AD
- there were still informal unions - there were children
o are allowed to make valid wills while in service, even if fathers are still alive accumulate and pass on property
veterans
o honourably discharged
o enjoyed certain privileges
o exempt from many taxes
o immune from billeting - civilians hosting passing soldiers at own expense

exempt from compulsory public service - local citizens compelled to offer up service for
betterment of city for a couple days (4-6)
soldiers were sometimes a pest to same towns
soldiers serve in peaceful ways as well
o centurions in peace time capacity - act as judges in peripheries of empire
o seconded to staff members of imperial financial officials
o serving as personal involved in censes
o act as tax collectors
o act a labour - road building, mining, harbour construction
o specks to construction prowess of Roman military
o

Post Republic Period

OCTAVIAN (=Augustus) 63 BCE 14 CD

o Naval battle of Actium 31 BCE, the Roman world was awash with men at arms; 51
55 legions (5000 men/legion) + sailors at arms
o Troops show conscription and tax drain on empire
o Any claim to power could tamper with loyalty to the troops and lead to civil wars
o Octavian moved to demobilize these troops
o Set the number of legions to 28, which drops to 25 in CE 9 after a defeat
o From CE 40 to CE 2, there are about 30 legions, and increases to 33
o Also reduces size of Roman fleet
o Smaller naval bases ie in Syria and Alexandria
o Kept most major armies under his control and kept loyalty to others away by rewarding
soldiers by his own funds and later institutionalizes a form of pension and bonuses from
the treasury funded by his own money which was replenished by inheritance tax for
Roman citizens
o Made it a largely volunteer force and eliminates conscription
o Creates set term of service with 20 years for citizens, 25 years naval for auxiliary service
and for the elite Pretorian guard with 16 years
o The average salary in denari is maintained at 200 silver denari which is later raised to
300, and then 500, then later to 800 denari not all of it is in coin; often outsourced
deductions like food, clothing, maintenances of religious structures, and supplies;
should not be minimized and is slightly more than a skilled carpenter/woodworker to
ensure professionalization of the army
o Gaius Marius institutes the training of swords and gladiators; systemizes the baggage
train, and inventor in Roman technology (creates a new metal spear)
TACTICAL STRUCTURE OF ARMY
o Heavily armed Legion shock troops
o Legion divided into 10 cohorts
o Had a short sword, 2 javelins, a dagger, and a shield, a shirt, and a queras

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Main tactical unit is the cohort divided into 6 centuries with 80 men commanded by
a centurion who was the back bone of the army; were ex-rankers w/ 10-20 years of
service. Could be promoted directly from the equestrian order
Centuries divided into 8 squads of 10 men, known as tent mates
Chief centurion of the first cohort (which is sometimes double strength) in all the
Legions was known as the first javelin was the senior non-commissioned officer. Could
go on to hold officer positions
Below the centurion = principle soldiers (immune soldiers) who are non-commissioned
officers; they are excused from ordinary fatigues. Can be military surveyors, or have a
variety of other jobs
Main legionary commander (except Egypt who was though best to be given to that of
an equestrian officer) was person of senatorial rank like a praetor known as a Legate
Below the legate were six military tribunes who were either of (with at least one
senatorial) senatorial or equestrian rank was the ranking member and second overall in
the legion
The third command (prefect of the camp) was a man of considerable power who had
previously held first javelin of the camp
Auxilia non Roman citizens in enlistment who after 25 years receive their citizenship
as an award after their completion of service would have been 150,000-160,000
citizens in Legion and 160,000 170,000 auxilia commanded by citizen ranking soldiers
Alae (wings) cavalry wings who fought in the phalanx w/ c. 500 riders;
There were mixed cohorts of riders and cavalry men
The miliary units had about 1000 men
Numeri irregular troops fighting as infantry or cavalry who are men enlisted under the
command of their native commands brought into Roman troops and show no
complicated fore structures
Weapons = bows, slings, long swords, throwing spears, and heavy lances
Praetorian cohorts are stationed at the praetorian camp made up of Roman citizens to
form the imperial body guard
Augustus guard had 9 cohorts with 375 starting denari to 700 to 1000; the number and
size varies but always had 8-10
Josephus accompanied the army and saw them at peace time and at war time (a
writer); refers to them as engaging in bloodless battles/bloody training

OPERATIONAL TACTICS
o Training was harsh by todays structures
o Vexillations drawn from a variety of legions to march in smaller numbers and move
with speed
o 4:1 superiority
o Training emphasized how to survive in things like trenches and gave them a sense of
psychological security; allowed them to have time to form in rank if attacked
o Marching camp was a labour saving device in which few men were needed to guard
camp at night

Orders

ORDO rank/orders; social categories defined by the state both through statutory (legal) and
customary rules
Augustus restored orders but with sharper definition especially the upper ranks
SENATORS
EQUESTRIANS (EQUITES)
DECURIONS
o Class of local town counsellors/office holders
o Needed respectable birth, minimum wealth that varied based on the size of the town
o Men with a criminal past, or those in demeaning jobs were not able to run (ie
auctioneers ect), and were in place to allow only those worthy to run of counsel and
had property sometimes people were appointed who were not worthy ie in times of
debt, allowed freeborn sons, foreigners, ect
o Had to sometimes pay a set fee to enter the counsel or become a priest
PLEBS (PLEBIANS)
SLAVES

The Aristocracy

Top of the hierarchy was the class of senate; small group and only ever 300 at a time what
they did affected everyone due to interconnectivity
Senate were large landowners forbidden from owning ships and engaging in commerce but
some found ways around it; most were sons of other senators but men from other families
could enter senate if rich enough (new men)
Only senators would hold the highest offices, and most were first elected to quaestorship (used
to help with praetor and consuls as well as financial responsibly); senators were responsible to
hold praetorship before consulship; could also serve as tribune of the plebes or aedile
(supervised public works and games and the distribution of free grain)
Laws evolved gradually in an effort to regulate the intensifying competition for power
Senatorial families had a strong sense of identity an their place in a tradition; ie at funeral
procession, actors impersonated their ancestors; the families defined themselves largely by
their tradition of public achievement (ie office holdings and military victories)
The history of Rome could be seen a string of ancestral accomplishments and aristocratic
families thus identified themselves with the state to a profound degree
Aristocracys inability to subordinate personal power to the prestige of the state was a factor to
the Republics downfall
The senator ranks remained under Augustus with about 600 senators in any given time who
along with their immediate family were perceived worthy by worth, wealth and moral
excellence

Purged the senate of dubious standing during the civil war period; distinguished those of
different ranks; had to meet a given amount of wealth of 1 mil cestricies (sp?) known as the
census
Latus clavus the ceremonial robes with a broad purple stripe that was restricted to the higher
classes
Co-opt adlect the power to kick out senators
Allowed senators to marry ex-slaves and have concubines
Banded senators, their families, and equestrians from disgracing themselves by preforming in
public spectacles like gladiator games, chariot racing, performances
The ordo of senator was not always hereditary, but entry into the senate induced Augustus to
premade the hereditary principle to raise the stature of senators
Extended to descendants of senators for up to three generations itself
By second century AD, spouses as senators were considered to share the senatorial status of
their husbands itself

The Knights: Provincial Government and Corruption

PUBLICAN the individuals who (wealthy) undertook public tax contract

EQUITES knights which the main qualification was property in excess of 100,000 denarii
No sharp separation between senators and equites
Even after senators were banned from official equestrian order, sons remained equites until
became senators
RES REPETUNDAE things to be recovered; the trying of magistrates for extortion; the corruption
was a major source of wealth for the senatorial lass; even a governor who did nothing illegal
could gain a huge fortune Gaius Gracchus replaced the jury of senators with that of knights
Knights also had a financial stake in imperial administration might punish a senator who had
tried to limit their predatory practices by convicting him of extortion and at least one notorious
case of this occurred
Second ordo
Had a similar type to senators in sense that it was hereditary, restrictive, need for minimum
amount of wealth
Added by Tiberius
Many equestrians arent always able to claim free descent
o Needed at least two generations of free birth
o Shows the need for separation between the classes
Banned as well for public performances
Might have been 20,000 30,000 individuals
Public horse honorific title which was a gift from the state which defines a true Equestrian made true equestrian as the emperor gave him the horse
Had the right to sit in the first 14 rows of the theatre for the holding of chariot races in Rome
and Roman colonies

Some equestrians had moderate fortunes and had no political ideals beyond that of their own
town
Title of excellent man was reserved for office holders and that of most accomplished was
attached to senior prospects and most renowned to designate the top equestrian of them al
Local elites m marked up the formal right of any equestrian to wear a large golden ring itself and
had the right to wear the citizen toga (LATUS ANGUSTUS CLAVUS) the narrow striped toga

Decurions

Class of local town counsellors/office holders

Needed respectable birth, minimum wealth that varied based on the size of the town
Men with a criminal past, or those in demeaning jobs were not able to run (ie auctioneers ect),
and were in place to allow only those worthy to run of counsel and had property sometimes
people were appointed who were not worthy ie in times of debt, allowed freeborn sons,
foreigners, ect
Had to sometimes pay a set fee to enter the counsel or become a priest

Peasants: Gracchus Land Reforms/ Plebs

freeborn + citizen ex-slaves + peregrine (defacto/foreigners)

133 BCE 0 a mob of senators and their dependents lynched Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the
plebes, and his supporters in the forum
Gracchus had taken up the cause of peasantry by proposing the redistribution of the land b/c of
economic crisis as too much land had made its way into the hands of the wealthiest families
Peasantry decline could have been due to military drafting
A law of 376 BCE limited the amount of public land that an individual could cultivate so Gracchus
proposed to enforce this law rich felt threatened
Used the tribunes constitutional privileges and was the first to use the power to veto
enemies thought he was attempting to act like a patron to those it would help
Tribunes after Gracchus continued to propose similar reforms which eventually lead to the
Social War and finally was granted in 90 BCE

Slaves

1:4 people was a slave by the end of the Republic

Wealthy families could own hundred often of foreign origins and POW or kidnapped and sold
by pirates
Estate is run by a foreman (vilicus). Urban domestic slaves might have intimate ties to their
owners nannies, tutors, and wetnurses. Could have quite specialized jobs like skill workers
(craftsmen, hairdressers, actors, midwives, doctors) of either free of slave status. Some would
become poets as well. Were also secretaries, accountants, or stenographers.

Emancipations is mentioned frequently as a normal occurrence

Freed slaves often retained social and economic ties with their former masters (patrons) and
some continued to live with and work for their patrons; patrons counted on their loyalty
Slaves rarely attempted to revolt by had other ways of resistance such as running away with the
exception of the revolt of Spartacus which stated at a school for gladiators which was crushed in
71 BCE whose army defeated 3 legions that were = 100,000
Debarred from a variety of things
PRINCIPATE the period ushered by the first emperor through a monarchy of Caesar of 27 BCE
14 CE
Principal source of slaves was from war
Towards late republic period, an increase in anarchy takes place; piracy becomes an important
form of slaves Would take prisoners
During its heyday, the southern Agean sea could process up to thousands of slaves in their
markets in one day (c. 10,000 slaves) at Delos
Caesar himself was captured by the pirates; Rome only stops form of slaves from pirates
Origins of slaves are more dirty
VERNAE home born slaves that are distinguished in the sources; single largest source of slaves
allude to sources of slaves born to households which display compliments of their slave
familia
Formal marriage was denied to slave, but owners encouraged conjugal type unions to replenish
slave numbers
Many slaves came for Germany, Africa, Balkans, or even areas such as Syria and further on;
there was a tax on the import of slaves who were brought into the empire itself
Continued to engage in military engagements into Germany
Wars did not cease into the principate
INFANT EXPOSURE setting out of children in the Greek world; parents would abandon newborn
infants on the confines of society for a variety of reasons; these children would mainly perish,
but a good deal of them were raised as foster children, or raised and breed them as slaves;
parents sometimes sold their children into slavery (especially in Anatolia)
CONTRACT SLAVERY would sell themselves into slavery 25 30% of slaves in the expectation
that there was a set term and the sale price was returned to the person who sold themselves at
release as a form of slave allowance (Pelculium)
People specialized in the slave trade were part of a wider portfolio; occupation was
malodourous but could sometimes be people of substantial wealth
Slave sales needed to provide information about slave name, age, if suffered any illnesses,
physical condition, escape attempts
Occupation of slaves were varied used in a variety of contexts:
o In private urban households would take care of houses accounts, wet nursing, hair
dressing, dressing, attendance of jewellery/furniture, watching entrance to house,
cooking, cleaning;

Petronius a senator who wrote the SATYRICON which gives us a certain

look TRIMALCHIO in which we learn an army serves him and his mistress and their guests;
he punishes his slaves as they wait on him and his guests; also pleased Trimalchio and
mistress sexually
o Slaves could be owned by a public entity ie a town or civic corporation as a
scribe/office attendance, heralds, guards.
o Slaves in the country sides served a variety of roles did the same domestic contexts,
but also helped with planting and processing of rural products; or ordinary farm hands
who helped with animal husbandry.
o There were a serious of revolts in south Italian herders last of the major slave revolts
to rock Italy (by Spartacus)
o Freeborn people would work in the mines alongside the slaves
o Many slaves lived in domestic contexts, and could become intimately involved in the
care of children and the concerns of their masters
o Peculium a slave allowance which they could use to eventually purchase their freedom
o Were set up in business as agents to represent the work of their masters
Slaves may represented 10 30 % of total populations of core areas of Italy, southern France,
western Asia Minor, and Spain, and > 5% in other areas with a large amount of free labour
Were the property of their owners and would be subjected to psychological and physical cruelty
injured/attempting to injure their masters would be treated with badly
SECUNDUS - In AD 61, the Prefect of Rome was injured by his slave and killed
Premium on young children who acted like children either innate or enforced
Would prevent flight by attaching collars with name, address, and reward would impose
punishment on those who harboured slaves
Would add punishment to improve condition of slaves (ie ill ones) to promote stability and
attempt to reign in cruelty
o Emperor Hadrian once poked out eye of slave
Slave holdings could range from 1 2 members to hundreds of slaves, and sometimes several
thousands
Destinies many slaves ended their days as free persons; having be freed by their masters. The
most frequent form (manumition) occurred through formal manumition or by will. In the latter
form, slaves were set free through the wishes of their master (testimonial). Would be done
based on the profit to their masters
o Augustus needed to set caps on the number of slaves at one time who could be freed by
establishing certain standards like age minimum of slave masters needed to free a slave
o Slaves freed through formal mean using a formal rod by a citizen would become a
roman citizen themselves; freed by non-roman citizens would not become citizens
o Operae would remain close to their masters and offer them services as a condition of
their freedom
o Many wealthy free slaves might join institutions of AUGUSALES priests for the worship of
the emperor
o

Slaves could also be informally free; did not achieve full citizenship and perks had a
status less than full citizenship but needed to engage in a provision to the state to
undergo a formal emanumition
o Ex-slaves could never completely escape the stigma attached to their formal slave.
Freed men could not become magistrates or marry senators (freed women)
o Condition of full chattel slaves had converged to an extent in which the title slave all but
disappeared
Roman citizens are prohibited to sell themselves into slavery but can get sold into it in a various
of ways
Considered to be natural people but not free
o

Final Exam

Social stratification
the minimal wealth qualification in cetrities (learn about nest week)- 1 million cestricies to be a
senator
to what class by birth did Julius Cesar belong to? patricians
Senators typically commanded auxiliary units. True or FALSE
about patronage- by the late rebublican period the clients showed respect by ritually greeting
their patron at dawn and accompanied their patron to and from places,
o The actual Q- What is not part of the patron client relationship?
C) Equality of relationship
The Fabii where an example of what? - D) Gens ("clan")
In ancient Rome Laus refers to what? - good reputation/ repute usually through ilitary activity
Chronology - The first secession of the plebs occurs in - 494BC