07-11-2014

GROUND IMPROVEMENT
TECHNIQUES

APPLICATION OF
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Grouting
Significance

Grouting

Groutingtechnologyhasbecomeacommongroundimprovement
methodusedfrequentlyforundergroundandfoundation
constructions.
Theprocessofgroutingconsistsoffillingporesorcavitiesinsoil
orrockwithaliquidformmaterialtodecreasethepermeability
andimprovetheshearstrengthbyincreasingthecohesionwhen
itisset.
Injectionofchemicals,lime,cementetc,intosubsoils improve
subsoilbyformationofbondsbetweensoilparticles
Methods
Intrusiongrouting
Permeationgrouting
Compactiongrouting
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy,
JetgroutingIIT Kanpur

Thistechniqueisapplicableto
fissurerock, gravelylayer,sand
orsilty sandlayer.

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

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07-11-2014

Grouting

Grouting

Groutingprocessistheinjectionofspecialliquidorslurrymaterialscalled
groutintothegroundforthepurposeofimprovingthesoilorrock.
Therearetwoprimarykindsofgroute.g. Cementitious groutandchemical
grouts.
Cementitious groutsaremadeofPortlandcementthathydratesafter
injection,formingasolidmass.
Chemicalgroutsincludesawiderangeofchemicalsthatsolidifyonce
they are injected into ground These includes silicates resins etc
theyareinjectedintoground.Theseincludessilicates,resinsetc.,
Chemicalgroutscanbeusedwherecementgroutsareineffective.
Chemicalgroutsareexpensive,toxicandcorrosive.
Cementbasegroutmixesarecommonlyusedforgravelylayersorfissure
rocktreatment.Butthesuspensiongrainsizemaybetoobigtopenetrate
sandorsiltysandlayers.Inthiscase,chemicalororganicgroutmixesare
alsoused.Inrecentyears,theavailabilityofultrafinegroutmixeshas
extendedtheperformanceofhydraulicbasegroutforsoiltreatment.

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Grouting

Thegroutvolumetobeinjecteddependson:
groundporosity,
geometryofthetreatedzone,
groutholespacing,
stagelengthand
totaldepthtobetreated.
total depth to be treated
Thegroutability ofsoilwithparticulategroutinghasbeenevaluatedbasedon
theNg value:
Ng isdefinedasNg1 =(D15)Soil/(D65)Grout.
GroutingisconsideredfeasibleifNg1 >24andnotfeasibleifNg1 <11
AnotheralternativeistouseNg2 =(D10)Soil/(D95)Grout.
GroutingisconsideredfeasibleifNg2 >11andnotfeasibleifNg2 <6

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Grouting

MethodsofGrouting

Criteriafordesign

MethodsofGrouting

Intrusiongrouting/slurrygrouting/Highmobilitygrouting
Permeationgrouting/chemicalgrouting/lowviscositygrouting
Compactiongrouting/displacementgrouting/lowmobilitygrouting
Jetgrouting

Intrusion/slurry/cement/highmobilitygrouting:
Intrusiongrouting,isagroutingtechniquethatfillsporesin
granularsoilorvoidsinrockorsoil,withflowable particulate
grouts.
Dependingontheapplication,Portlandcementormicrofine
cementgroutisinjectedunderpressureatstrategiclocations
eitherthroughsingleportormultipleportpipes.

Foranimation:
http://www.hayward
baker.com/

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Thegroutparticlesizeandsoil/rockvoidsizemustbeproperly
matchedtopermitthecementgrouttoentertheporesorvoids.
Thegroutedmasshasanincreasedstrengthandstiffness,and
reducedpermeability.Thetechniquehasbeenusedtoreduce
waterflowthroughrockformationsbeneathdamsandto
cementgranularsoilstounderpinfoundationsorprovide
excavationsupport.
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT

Kanpur

07-11-2014

Grouting

Grouting

MethodsofGrouting

MethodsofGrouting

Permeation/chemical/lowviscositygrouting:

Compaction/displacement/lowmobilitygrouting:

Permeationgroutingisagroutingtechniquethattransforms
granularsoilsintosandstonelikemasses,bypermeationwitha
lowviscositygrout.

Compactiongroutingisagroutingtechniquethatdisplacesand
densifies loosegranularsoils,reinforcesfinegrained soilsand
stabilizessubsurfacevoidsorsinkholes,bythestagedinjection
oflowslump,lowmobilityaggregategrout.

Thesoilsbestsuitedforthistechniquearesandswithlowfines
content.

Typically,aninjectionpipeisfirstadvancedtothemaximum
treatmentdepth.Thelowmobilitygroutistheninjectedasthe
pipeisslowlyextractedinlifts,creatingacolumnofoverlapping
groutbulbs.Theexpansionofthelowmobilitygroutbulbs
displacessurroundingsoils.

Typically,asleeveportpipeisfirstgroutedintoapredrilled
hole.Thegroutisinjectedunderpressurethroughtheports
locatedalongthelengthofthepipe.Thegroutpermeatesthe
soilandsolidifiesitintoasandstonelikemass.
Acommonapplicationofpermeationgroutingistoprovideboth
excavationsupportandunderpinningwhenanexcavationis
plannedimmediatelyadjacenttoanexistingstructure. Itis
wellsuitedfortunneling applications.
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT

Whenperformedingranularsoil,compactiongroutingincreases
thesurroundingsoilsdensity,frictionangleandstiffness.

Kanpur

Compactiongroutingfortreatmentbeneathexistingstructures
isoftenselectedbecausethelowmobilitygroutcolumnsdonot
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur
requirestructuralconnectiontothefoundations.

Grouting

Grouting

MethodsofGrouting

MethodsofGrouting

Jetgrouting:
Jetgroutingisagroutingtechniquethatcreatesinsitugeometriesof
soilcrete (groutedsoil),usingagroutingmonitorattachedtotheendof
adrillstem.
Thejetgroutmonitorisadvancedtothemaximumtreatmentdepth,at
which time high velocity grout jets (and sometimes water and air) are
whichtimehighvelocitygroutjets(andsometimeswaterandair)are
initiatedfromportsinthesideofthemonitor.Thejetserodeandmix
theinsitusoilasthedrillstemandjetgroutmonitorarerotatedand
raised.
Dependingontheapplicationandsoilstobetreated,oneofthree
variationsisused:thesinglefluidsystem(slurrygroutjet),thedouble
fluidsystem(slurrygroutjetsurroundedbyanairjet)andthetriple
fluidsystem(waterjetsurroundedbyanairjet,withalowergroutjet).
Jetgroutinghasbeenusedtounderpinexistingfoundations,construct
excavationsupportwalls,andconstructslabstosealthebottomof
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT
plannedexcavations.

Kanpur

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

07-11-2014

Grouting
MethodsofGrouting

Reinforcement

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Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

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Reinforcement
Significance
Reinforcementmaybeintheformofdensegranularmaterialsin
theformofstonecolumnsorhorizontalorverticalstripsand
membrane.
Thereinforcementservesignificantlytoincreasethecapacityof
soiltowithstandtensile,shearandcompressiveloadsand
contributetowardsimprovementinstiffnessandconsequently
loadcarryingcapacityandsuitabilityofsoilmass.
Thistechniqueisapplicableto
sandsaswellasfinegrained
soils

CE451A

Methods
Stonecolumns
Geosyntheticreinforcement
Steelreinforcement
Fiberreinforcement

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns
Amethodnowbeingusedtoincreasethebearingcapacity
ofshallowfoundationsonsoftclaylayersormixeddeposits
istheconstructionofstonecolumns.
Stonecolumnconstructioninvolvesthepartialreplacement
ofunsuitablesubsurfacesoilswithacompactedvertical
columnofstonethatusuallycompletelypenetratesthe
weak strata.
weakstrata.
Itisgenerallyconsideredtobepartofdynamicreplacement
themeduetothemethodinvolvedinconstruction.
Stonecolumnsareconstructedbydrillingholes
throughtheweaklayer(s)inthefieldatregular
Stonecolumnscanbemade
intervals.Theholesarethenbackfilledwithgravels
using:
andthencompacted.
Vibrofloatation technique
Afterstonecolumnsareconstructed,0.3mthick
rotarydrillingandthen
drainageblanketisplacedoverthegroundsurfaceand
backfillingwithstone
compactedbeforethefoundationisconstructed.
drillingbycontinuousflight
Thegravel usedforthestonecolumnhasasizerangeof
augerwithahollowstemand
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy,
IIT Kanpur
6to40mm.
backfillingwithstone

07-11-2014

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Stonecolumns

Suitability/Benefits
Stonecolumnsworkmoreeffectivelywhentheyare
usedtostabilizealargeareawheretheundrained
shearstrengthofthesubsoilisintherangeof10to
50kPa.Subsoilsweakerthanthatmaynotprovide
sufficientlateralsupportforthecolumns.
Forlargesiteimprovement,stonecolumnsaremost
g
p
effectivetoadepthof6to10mbutcangoupto20
30m.
Toimprovesettlementbyafactorof1.5to3on
mostprojectsatallowableloads.
Toimprovestiffnessoftheground
Toreduceliquefactionpotential
Toacceleratethedissipationofexcessporewater
generatedbyloadingpressures.
Asanalternativetomoreexpensivepilingsystems
duetospeedofinstallationandcheapermaterials.

CE451A

Reinforcement

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Factorsgoverningsoilcolumnbehaviour
Undrainedshearstrengthofthesoil
In situlateralstressofthesoil
Radialstress straincharacteristicsofthe
soil
Frictionangleandstress strain
characteristics of the column material
characteristicsofthecolumnmaterial
Initialcolumndimensions
Constructionmethodology disturbance
Treatmentdepthandtermination
Commonapplications
Airporttaxiwaysandrunways,chemical
plants,storagetanksandsilos,pipelines,
bridgeabutmentsandapproaches,offshore
bridgeabutments,roadandrailway
embankments,bothland/offshore
applications.

CE451A

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Basicdesignparameters
StoneColumnDiameter,D:
Installationofstonecolumnsinsoftcohesivesoilsisbasicallyaselfcompensatingprocess
thatissofterthesoil,biggeristhediameterofthestonecolumnformed.Duetolateral
displacementofstones duringvibrations/ramming,thecompleteddiameteroftheholeis
alwaysgreaterthantheinitialdiameteroftheprobeorthecasingdependinguponthe
soil type its undrained shear strength gravel size characteristics of the vibrating probe/
soiltype,itsundrainedshearstrength,gravelsize,characteristicsofthevibratingprobe/
rammerusedandtheconstructionmethod.
Spacing,S:
Thedesignofstonecolumnsshouldbesitespecificandnopreciseguidelinescanbegiven
onthemaximumandtheminimumcolumnspacing.However,thecolumnspacingmay
broadlyrangefrom2to3timesstonecolumndiameterdependinguponthesite
conditions,loadingpattern,columnfactors,theinstallationtechnique,settlement
tolerances, etc.

CE451A

Stonecolumnsusuallyhavediametersof
0.5to0.75m andarespacedatabout1.5
to3mcenter tocenter.

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Basicdesignparameters
Pattern:
Stonecolumnsshouldbeinstalledpreferablyinan
equilateraltriangularpatternwhichgivesthemost
densepackingalthoughasquarepatternmayalsobe
used.
Equivalentdiameter,De:
Thetributory areaofthesoilsurroundingeach
stonecolumnformsregularhexagonaroundthe
column.Itmaybecloselyapproximatedbyan
equivalentcircularareahavingthesametotalarea.
De =1.05S(foranequilateraltrianglepattern)
De =1.13S (forasquarepattern)
WhereS spacingofthestonecolumns

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

07-11-2014

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Basicdesignparameters

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns
Basicdesignparameters
Areareplacementratio:as
Toquantifytheamountofsoilreplacedbythestone,thetermreplacementratio,as,isused.
Itisdefinedasthefractionofsoiltributarytothestonecolumnreplacedbythestone.i.e
as =As/A=As/(As+Ag)
Where:As =areaofthestonecolumn,Ag =areaofgroundsurroundingthecolumn,andA=
total area within the unit cell
totalareawithintheunitcell.

UtilisationofUnitcellidealisationintheanalysis:
AnequivalentcylinderofcompositegroundwithdiameterDe enclosingthetributary
soilandonestonecolumnisknownasunitcell.
Forpurposeofsettlementandstabilityanalysis,thecompositegroundrepresentingan
infinitelywideloadedareamaybemodelledasaunitcell comprisingthestonecolumn
andthesurroundingtributory soil.Thebehaviourofgroupcolumnsbeneathauniformly
loadedareacanbesimplifiedtoasinglecolumninstalledatthecentreofacylinderof
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur
clayrepresentingthecolumnszoneofinfluence.

Theareareplacementratio,as,canbeexpressedintermsofthediameterandspacingofthe
stonecolumnsasfollows:
as =C1(D/S)2
Where,D=diameterofthecompactedstonecolumn,S=centertocenter spacingofthestone
columns,C1 =aconstantdependentuponthepatternofstonecolumnsused;
ForasquarepatternC1 = /4andforanequilateraltriangularpattern/(23)
Foranequilateraltriangularpatternofstonecolumns
CE451A
Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy,
theareareplacementratioisthen

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

Basicdesignparameters
StressConcentrationFactor,n

Basicdesignparameters
StressConcentrationFactor,n

Stressconcentrationoccursonthestonecolumnbecauseitisconsiderablystifferthanthe
surroundingsoil.Fromequilibriumconsiderations,thestressinthestifferstonecolumns
shouldbegreaterthanthestressinthesurroundingsoil.
The
Thestressconcentrationfactor,n,duetoexternallyappliedload
stress concentration factor n due to externally applied load isdefinedastheratioof
is defined as the ratio of
averageeffectivestressinthestonecolumn,s to,theaverageeffectivestressinthesoil, c
withintheunitcell.
n=s / c

Improvementinthesoil
owingtothestonecolumn
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IIT Kanpur

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Thevalueofn generallyliebetween2.5and5atthegroundsurface.
Thestressconcentrationfactorincreaseswithtimeofconsolidationanddecreasesalong
the length of the stone column Higher n value atgroundsurfacemayresultifloadis
thelengthofthestonecolumn.Highernvalue
at ground surface may result if load is
appliedtothecompositegroundthrougharigidfoundationascomparedtotheflexible
foundation.
Thestressconcentrationfactor maybepredictedusingelastictheoryasafunctionofthe
modularratioofthestoneandtheclayassumingequalverticaldisplacements.However,
asthemodularratiocanvarywithinwidelimits,itshouldbeselectedfromtheequation.

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

07-11-2014

Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Stonecolumns

FailureMechanism

Stonecolumns
FailureMechanism

Failuremechanismofasinglestonecolumnloadedoveritsarea
significantlydependsuponthelengthofthecolumn.
Forcolumnshavinglengthgreaterthanitscriticallength(thatis
about4timesthecolumndiameter)andirrespectivewhetherit
isendbearingorfloating,itfailsbybulging
g
g
y
g g ((seeFig.a).
g )
However,columnshorterthanthecriticallengtharelikelytofail
ingeneralshear ifitisendbearingonarigidbase(seeFig.b)
andinendbearingifitisa floatingcolumnfailbypunching(Fig.
c.)

Inpractice,astonecolumnisusuallyloaded
overanareagreaterthanitsowninwhichcase
itexperiencessignificantlylessbulgingleading
togreaterultimateloadcapacityandreduced
settlements sincetheloadiscarriedbyboththe
stone column and the surrounding soil
stonecolumnandthesurroundingsoil.
Agroupofstonecolumnsinasoftsoilundergoesacombinedbulgingandlocalbearing,type
failure(Fig.a).Shortstonecolumngroupscanfailinendbearing(Fig.b)orperhapsundergoa
bearingcapacityfailureofindividualstonecolumnssimilartothefailuremodeofshort,singlestone
columns.Inthecaseofembankment overtheweakfoundation,thesoilbeneathandtothesidesof
thefoundationmovelaterally (Fig.c)orcanfailbycircularfailuresurface.

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

Reinforcement
Stonecolumns

a
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Dr. Rajesh
b Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

VariousGroundImprovementTechniques

EstimationofLoadCapacityofaStoneColumn

Loadcapacityofthetreatedgroundmaybeobtainedbysummingupthecontributionof
eachofthefollowingcomponentsforwidespreadloads,suchastankages and
embankments:
Capacityofthestonecolumnresultingfromtheresistanceofferedbythesurrounding
soilagainstitslateraldeformation(bulging)underaxialload,
Capacityofthestonecolumnresultingfromincreaseinresistanceofferedbythe
surrounding soil due to surcharge over it and
surroundingsoilduetosurchargeoverit,and
Bearingsupportprovidedbytheinterveningsoilbetweenthecolumns.
CapacitybasedonBulgingofcolumn:
Consideringthatthefoundationsoilisatfailurewhenstressedhorizontallydueto
bulgingofstonecolumn,thelimiting(yield)axialstressinthecolumnisgivenby
thesumofthefollowing:

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur

07-11-2014

Benefits(1 Mainbenefit/2 Secondarybenefit)

Technique

Higher
Bearing
Capacity

INTRODUCTION
Faster
Ground

Less/more
Even
settlement

Settlem
ent

Vibroreplacement

Dynamic
Compaction

Precompression

VerticalDrainage

g
/
Reinforcingsoil/
soilnailing

Structuralfill

Lime/cement
admixture

Permeation
grouting

Grouting

water
control

Reduced
Liquefaction
potential

Increased
Erosion
resistance

Improved
slope/face
stability

Groundfreezing

Slurrycutoff
trench&pumping

1
2

CE451A

Dr. Rajesh Sathiyamoorthy, IIT Kanpur