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19-03-2013

HYDROLOGY
Groundwater Hydrology may be define as the science of the occurrence,
distribution, and movement of water below the surface of earth.
Geohydrology has an identical association and hydrogeology differs
only by its greater importance on geology. Utilization of groundwater datas
from ancient times, although an understanding of the occurrence and
movement of subsurface water as part of the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrology is the science that treats the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation, and distribution, their chemical and physical
properties, and their reaction with the environment, including the relation to
living things. The field of hydrology embraces the full life history of water
and
earth.

The

Hydrologic

Cycle:

(the

water

cycle)

It is the journey water takes as it circulates from the

land to the sky and back again.
This process is powered by the sun's energy, which moves
water between the oceans, the sky, and the land. It is continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.
Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time,
individual water molecules can come and go, in and out of
the atmosphere. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as
from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical
processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff,
and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases:
liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor)
We
can
start
our
examination
of
the
hydrologic cycle with the
oceans, which hold over
97% of the planet's
water. The sun causes
evaporation of water on
the surface of the ocean.
The water vapor rises
and condenses into
tiny droplets which
cling to dust particles.
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These droplets form clouds. Water vapor usually remains in the

atmosphere for a short time, from a few hours to a few days until it turns
into precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can
accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for
thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as
rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of
runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving
water towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored as
freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the
ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and
replenishes aquifers, which store freshwater for long periods of time.
Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as
freshwater springs. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our
water cycle started.
20-03-2013

How does the Hydrological Cycle work?

The stages of the cycle are:

Evaporation
Transport
Condensation
Precipitation
Infiltration
Groundwater
Run-off

Here is details of these stages.

Evaporation:

The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases

as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying
atmosphere.. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar
radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants,
though together they are specifically referred to
as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration
amounts
to
approximately
505,000
3
km (121,000 cu mi)
of
water,
434,000
3
km (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the
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oceans.
Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from a
liquid state to a gaseous state. A considerable amount of heat, about 600
calories of energy for each gram of water, is exchanged during the change
of state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air
temperature, vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the
amount of natural evaporation that takes place in any geographic area.
Evaporation can occur on raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as
seas and lakes. It can even occur from water settled on vegetation, soil,
rocks and snow. There is also evaporation caused by human activities.
Heated buildings experience evaporation of water settled on its surfaces.
Evaporated moisture is lifted into the atmosphere from the ocean, land
surfaces, and water bodies as water vapor. Some vapor always exists in
the atmosphere.
Transport:
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen. Some of the earths moisture
transport is visible as clouds, which themselves consist
of ice crystals and/or tiny water droplets.Clouds are
propelled from one place to another by either the jet
stream, surface-based circulations like land and sea
breezes or other mechanisms. However, a typical
cloud 1 km thick contains only enough water for a
millimetre of rainfall, whereas the amount of moisture in
the atmosphere is usually 10-50 times greater than
this.
Most water is transported in the form of water vapour,
which is actually the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Water
vapour may be invisible to us, but not to satellites which are capable of
collecting data about moisture patterns in the atmosphere.
Condensation:
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets
in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Condensation is the process by which water vapor
changes it's physical state from a vapor, most
commonly, to a liquid. Water vapor condenses onto
small airborne particles to form dew, fog, or clouds.
The most active particles that form clouds are sea
salts, atmospheric ions caused by lightning, and
combustion products containing sulfurous and nitrous acids. Condensation
is brought about by cooling of the air or by increasing the amount of vapor
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in the air to its saturation point. When water vapor condenses back into a
liquid state, the same large amount of heat (600 calories of energy per
gram) that was needed to make it a vapor is released to the environment.
Precipitation:
The primary mechanism for transporting water from
the atmosphere to the surface of the earth is precipitation.
Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog
drip, graupel, and sleet. .Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of
water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000
km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. The rain on
land contains 107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water
per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi)

There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to

release precipitation, the coalescence process and
the ice-crystal process. As water drops reach a critical size, the drop is
exposed to gravity and frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a turbulent
wake behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken
to join and combine with the lead drop. The other sub-process that can
occur is the ice-crystal formation process. It occurs when ice develops in
cold clouds or in cloud formations high in the atmosphere where freezing
temperatures occur. When nearby water droplets approach the crystals
some droplets evaporate and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow
to a critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets. Sometimes, as the pellets
fall through lower elevation air, they melt and change into raindrops.
Precipitated water may fall into a waterbody or it may fall onto
land. It is then dispersed several ways. The water can adhere to objects
on or near the planet surface or it can be carried over and through the land
into stream channels, or it may penetrate into the soil, or it may be
intercepted by plants. When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high
percentage of precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation.
The portion of precipitation that appears in surface streams is called
runoff. Runoff may consist of component contributions from such sources
as surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or ground water runoff. Surface runoff
travels over the ground surface and through surface channels to leave a
catchment area called a drainage basin or watershed. The portion of the
surface runoff that flows over the land surface towards the stream
channels is called overland flow. The total runoff confined in the stream
channels is called the streamflow.
Infiltration:
The flow of water from the ground
surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water
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becomes soil moisture or groundwater. Infiltration is the physical process

involving movement of water through the boundary area where the
atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed
by soil surface conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the
soil and the permeability of the soil profile. Typically, the infiltration rate
depends on the puddling of the water at the soil surface by the impact of
raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial soil moisture
content, the decreasing water concentration as the water moves deeper
into the soil filling of the pores in the soil matrices, changes in the soil
composition, and to the swelling of the wetted soils that in turn close
cracks
in
the
soil.
Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can also become the water
that later is evapotranspired or becomes subsurface runoff.
Groundwater:
Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground and
this is the main source of the formation of the waters found on
land - rivers, lakes, groundwater and glaciers.
Some of the underground water is trapped between rock or clay
layers - this is called groundwater. Water that infiltrates the soil
flows downward until it encounters impermeable rock and then
travels laterally. The locations where water moves laterally are
called aquifers. Groundwater returns to the surface through
these aquifers, which empty into lakes, rivers and the oceans.
Under special circumstances, groundwater can even flow upward
in artesian wells. The flow of groundwater is much slower than
run-off with speeds usually measured in centimetres per day,
metres per year or even centimetres per year.
Run-off:
The variety of ways by which water moves
across the land. This includes both surface runoff
and channel runoff. Runoff is flow from a drainage
basin or watershed that appears in surface streams.
It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by
artificial diversions, storages or other works that society might have on or
in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls
directly on the stream , surface runoff that flows over the land surface and
through channels, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and
moves laterally towards the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep
percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow enters
the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period

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before joining the water in the stream. When each of the component flows
enter the stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff in the stream
channels is called streamflow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff
or base flow
A Water Balance
A considerable portion of river flow does not reach the ocean,
having evaporated those areas with no natural surface run-off channels.
On the other hand, some groundwater bypasses river systems altogether
and goes directly to the ocean or evaporates.
Every year, the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km3 of water.
This is water that evaporates from the ocean surface (502,800 km3) and
from land (74,200 km3). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric
precipitation, 458,000 km3 on the ocean and 119,000 km3 on land. The
difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface
(119,000 ? ?74,200 = 44,800 km3/year) represents the total run-off of the
Earths rivers (42,700 km3/year) and direct groundwater run-off.

World Water Supply by Location

Oceans Ice Sheets and Glaciers Ground Water Atmosphere Lakes (Fresh) Inland Seas and Salt Water Lakes Soil Moisture Rivers -

97.08%
1.99%
0.62%
0.29%
0.01%
0.005%
0.004%
0.001%
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Only during the ice ages are there noticeable differences in the location of
water storage on the earth. During these cold cycles, there is less water
stored in the oceans and more in ice sheets and glaciers.
It can take an individual molecule of water from a few days to thousands of
years to complete the hydrologic cycle from ocean to atmosphere to land
to ocean again as it can be trapped in ice for a long time.
26-03-2013
Groundwater Flow:
Water occurs and moves within the Hydrologic Cycle.
Water evaporates and then forms clouds though a process called
condensation. Precipitation returns this water to the ground surface in the
form of rain, snow, sleet, etc. After falling back to the Earths surface, liquid
water continues within the Hydrologic Cycle through one or more of these
pathways:
Direct evaporation back into the atmosphere :
This water again forms clouds and is eventually precipitated
again back to the Earths surface.
. Run off flow into surface water bodies:.
This water flows on the land surface into ponds,
lakes, streams, or oceans. Water from these bodies may again
be evaporated back into the atmosphere, or in the case of
streams, may continue flowing toward the ocean.
Soaking into the ground.:
This water may be taken up by vegetation and then
returned to the atmosphere as water vapor through plant transpiration.
However, water not used by plants seeps deeper into the ground and
saturates rock and soil, and is called groundwater.
27-03-2013
Factor affecting infiltration capecity:
Infiltration is the process whereby water enters
the surface strata of the soil and moves downward toward the
water tabe.This water first replenishes the soil moisture
deficiency then thereafter any excess moves on downward and
become ground water.
Infiltration Capecity:
The maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition
is capable of absorbing water is called infiltreation capecity..
There are some factors which affect the infiltration capecity of
water
Soil moisture
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Compaction due to rain

Inwash of fine material
Compaction due to man and animals
Macrostructure of soil
Vegetative cover
Temperature

These factors are describe below..

Soil moisture:
The effect of soil moisture is twofold.
1)If the soil is quite dry at the beginning of a rain, the wetting of the top
layer creates a strong capillary potential just under the surface which
supplements the gravitational force in causing infiltration.
2)When subjected to wetting , any colloids present in the soil swell and
reduce the infiltration capacity during the initial period of rainfall.Soil
moisture is usually high in winter and spring and low in summer.This factor
therefore, is responsible for much of the typical seasonal variations.
Compaction due to rain:
Mechanical compaction caused by raindrops greatly
reduces the infiltration capacity in soil of fine texture .The surface of
exposed clay soil can be worked into a virtually impermeable condition
in this manner, whereas the infiltration capacity of a clean sandy soil is
affected very little by rain compaction.
Inwash of fine material:
When a soil becomes very dry, the surface often contains many
fine particles. When infiltration begins, these fine particles are carried
into the soil, which act as filter, and the fine material is deposited in the
interstitial spaces, thus reducing the infiltration capacity.
Compaction due to man and animals:
Where heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic occurs on a soil, the
surface is rendered relatively impervious. This type of area has low
infiltration capacity.
Macrostructure of soil:
This effect may be caused by several natural phenomena such as
burrowing animals and insects, by the decay of vegetable matter,
particularly roots, by frost heaving. In this manner higher filtration
capacity produce which can often reduce very rapidly by compaction
due to rain.
Vegetative cover:
The presence of a dense cover of vegetation, such as grass or forest,
tend to promote rapid infiltration. The vegetative cover not only provides
protection from compaction due to rain, but also provides a layer of
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decaying organic matter which promotes the activity of burrowing

insects and animals.
Temperature:
Because flow in the interstitial spaces is nearly always laminar,
changes in viscosity influence the rate of infiltration. With increasing
temperature, viscosity decreases and infiltration increases and vice
versa.
(REF. Hydrology by CHESTER O. WISLER AND ERNEST F.
BRATTER)
02-04-2013
Vertical distribution of Ground water:
Conditions:
For vertical distribution of ground water, sediments must be
homogeneous and isotropic. Aquifer must be unconfined.
The subsurface occurrence of ground water may be divided into two
zones.
Aeration zone (vadoz zone)
Saturation zone
Here these two zones are describes..
Aeration zone: (vadoz zone)
The zone of aeration consists of
interstices occupied partially by water and
partially by air
Over most of the land masses of the earth a
single zone of aeration overlies a single
zone of saturation and expend upward to the
ground surface.
03-04-2013
This general zone may be further subdivided into..
Soil water zone
Intermediate zone
Capillary zone
Here is these sub-zones are describes
Soil water zone:
Water in the soil water zone exists at less than saturation
except temporarily when excessive water reaches the ground surface
as from rainfall or irrigation. The zone extends from the ground surface
down through the major root zone. Its thickness varies with soil type
and vegetation.
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10

Soil water was classified by Briggs into three categories dependent

upon its concentration in the soil zone..
Hygroscopic water adsorbed from the air, forms thin film of
moisture on soil particle surfaces. The adhesive forces are very
large, so that this water is unavailable to plants.
Capillary water exists as continuous films around the soil
particles. It is held by surface tension, is moved by capillary action
and available to plants.
09-04-2103
Gravitational water is excess soil water which drains through
the soil under the influence of gravity.
The hygroscopic coefficient is the maximum moisture which an initially
dry soil will absorb in contact with an atmosphere of 50% relative humidity
at 250 C. The wilting point a is that moisture content at which permanent
wilting of plants occurs. Experiments have proved that this is not a unique
value, but rather depends upon the plants, the climate, the root system,
and volume of soil tested.
Field capacity is defined as the amount of water held in the soil
after the excess gravitational water has drained away and after the rate of
downward movement of water has materially decreased. Moisture
equivalent is the amount of water which a saturated soil will retain after
being centrifuged at a centrifugal force 1000 times that of gravity. The field
capacity for sands is higher than the moisture equivalent, but about the
same for loams. Because field capacity and wilting point represent the
upper and lower limits, respectively, of moisture for plant growth, the
difference b/w these points is the available water for plant growth. The
water required to saturate all of the soil voids is the maximum possible
water content. This is as the maximum water capacity.
There are three methods for measuring soil moisture in place and its
variations with time.
1) Gravmetric 2) Tensiometer 3) Neutron scattering
10-04-2103
Intermediate zone:
The intermediate zone is extends from the lower edge of the
soil water to the upper limit of the capillary zone. This zone may vary in
thickness from zero, when the bounding zone merge with a high water
table approaching the ground surface, to several hundred ft under deep
water table conditions. The zone serves primarily as a region connecting
the zone near the ground surface to that near the water table through
which water moving vertically downward must pass. Non-moving, or
pellicular, water in the intermediate zone is held in place by hgroscopic
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11

and capillary forces, and is equivalent to field capacity in the soil water
zone. Excess water is gravitational water, which moves downward under
the influence of gravity.
Capillary zone:
The capillary zone extend from the
water table upto the limit of capillary rise of water.
Saturation zone:
Ground water fills all of the interstices in
the saturated zone, hence the porosity is a direct
measure of the water contained per unit volume.
Not all of this water may be removed from ground
by drainage or pumping from a well, however , as
molecular and surface tension forces will hold a
portion of the water in place.
Thus, retained water is that held in place
against gravity.
11-04-2013
The specific retention of a rock or soil is the ratio expressed as a
percentage of the volume of water it will retain after saturation against the
force of gravity to its own volume. If Sr is the specific retention then
Sr = 100r/V
Where r is the volume occupied by retained water, and V is the gross
volume of the rock or soil.
On the other hand, the water which can be drained is expressed as the
specific yield Sy. The term, effective porosity, has a synonymous
meaning. It may be defined as the ratio expressed as a percentage of the
volume of water which, after being saturated, can be drained by gravity to
its own volume.
Therefore,
SY = 100Y/V
Where y is the volume of water drained. Because
r + y =
so
= Sr + S y
Thus, specific yield is a fraction of the porosity of an aquifer. Values
depend on grain size, shape and distribution of pores, and
copmpaction of the stratum. For uniform sand, specific yield may equal
upto 30%, but most alluvial aquifers give values in the range of 10% to
20%.
Table: Specific yield of water-bearing Deposits in
Scramento Valley, California
Specific
Material
YIELD
parcentage

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Gravel
Sand, including sand and gravel, and gravel
and sand
Fine sand, hard sand, tight sand, sandstone,
and related deposits
Clay and gravel, gravel and clay, cemented
gravel, and related deposits
Clay, silt, sandy clay, lava rock, and related
fine-grained deposits
(REF. Hygrology by DAVID KEITH TODD)

25
20
10
5
3

16-04-2013

Aquifer:
Groundwater occurs in many types of geological formations but
aquifer is most important.
An aquifer may be define as a formation that contains
sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of
water to wells and springs.
Or
An aquifer is the underdround layer of water-bearing permeable
rock or unconsolidated material (sand,gravel,or clay) from which
groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well.
This implies an ability to store and to transmit water, unconsolidated
sands and gravels are a typical example.
Aquifer are generally areally
extensive and may be overlain or underlain by a confining bed, which may
be defined as a relatively impermeable material stratigraphically adjacent
to one or more aquifer. There are various types of confining beds, the
following types are well established.
1.
Aquiclude:
A saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not
yield appreciable quantities of water to wells, e.g clay .
2.
Aquifuge:
A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor
transmitting water . e.g solid granite
3.
Aquitard:
A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes
groundwater movement and does not yield water freely to wells, that may
transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers and, where
sufficiently thick, may constitute an important groundwater storge zone .
e.g sand clay.
Types of Aquifers

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General. An aquifer is a geologic unit that canstore and transmit water.

Aquifers are generallycategorized into four basic formation types
dependingon the geologic environment in which they occur:
Unconfined Aquifer
Confined Aquifer
Semi-confined Aquifer
Perched Aquifer
Here is the detail of types of aquifer.
Unconfined Aquifer:
Unconfined aquifers contain a phreatic surface (water
table) as an upper boundary that
fluctuates in response to recharge and
discharge (such as from a pumping well).
Unconfined aquifers are generally close
to the land surface, with continuous
layers of materials of high intrinsic
permeability extending from the land
surface to the base of the aquifer.
An unconfined aquifer possesses no overlying confining layer, but may sit
upon an impermeable or slightly permeable bed. Therefore, the top of the
unsaturated zone of an unconfined aquifer is most often the ground
surface, and the top of the saturated zone is usually under negative
pressure or tension. This latter property gives rise to the definition of the
water table which is simply the surface where the relative pressure is zero,
i.e., the absolute pressure is atmospheric. Immediately above the water
table, the medium is still saturated but the water is held by capillary forces,
thus creating a negative pressure head, or tension. This tension can exist
even though the pores may be saturated between the water table and the
top of the capillary fringe. Below the water table, the water pressure
increases with depth.
Confined Aquifer:
Confined, or artesian, aquifers are created when groundwater
is trapped between two layers of low permeability known as aquitards. In a
confined aquifer, the groundwater is
under pressure and the water level in a
well rises above the upper boundary of
the aquifer. Flowing artesian conditions
exist when the water level in a well rises
above land surface. Recharge to
confined aquifers is predomi nantly from
areas where the confining bed is
breached, either by erosional unconformity, fracturing, or depositional
absence.
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14

If the recharge area for the aquifer is located at a higher elevation than the
top of the aquifer, and a well is drilled into the aquifer, the water level will
rise above the top as shown. Such an aquifer is known as an artesian
aquifer; it is named after Artois, France, where such wells are common. It
should be noted, however, that the well does not have to be flowing to be
termed artesian, although that is the popular conception. A flowing well is
known as a flowing artesian well.
The water level above the top is known as the piezometri surface
(pressure surface), which is the locus of the piezometric head, and it is not
to be confused with the water table discussed below. The piezometric
surface occurs above the ground surface because the higher elevation of
the recharge area causes the pressure head to rise to such an elevation.
The water within the aquifer will be partly under elastic storage. Pumping a
well or allowing it to flow will release the water from storage.
Artesian or confined aquifers are common in glaciated regions of the
world where a body of outwash sand and gravel may have been covered
by clay-rich till or lacustrine sediments from a subsequent glaciation. They
may also occur in layered bedrock.
17-04-2013
Semi-confined Aquifer:
Semi-confined, or leaky, aquifers occur when water-bearing
strata are confined, either above or
below, by a semipermeable layer.
When water is pumped from a leaky
aquifer,water moves both horizontally
within the aquifer and vertically through
the semipermeable layer.
Perched Aquifer:
A perched aquifer is a
special type of unconfined aquifer
where a groundwater body is separated
above the water table by a layer of
unsaturated material. A perched aquifer
occurs when water moving down
through the unsaturated zone is
intercepted by an impermeable
formation. Clay lenses in sedimentary
deposits often have shallow perched
water bodies overlying them Wells tapping perched aquifers generally
yield temporary or small quantities of water.
(REF. Groundwater engineering by Jacques W Delleur, Groundwater
Hydrology by David K Todd, Engineering and Design GROUNDWATER
HYDROLOGY)
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18-04-2013

Ground water Recharge:

In flow of water system that are near the ground water
table is ground water recharge.
If rain or precipitation is gentle then chances of infiltration is high and if
there is sudden brust then chances of run-off is higher. Ground water
recharge depends upon nature of rain fall and topography.
Types of Recharge:
Recharge from surface precipitation
Irrigation
Inflow from surface water
Artificial racharge
Here is the detail of the following.
Recharge from surface precipitation:
It depends upon the depth of the ground water. if ground
table is deep then it will take more time to recharge and vice versa. If rock
is hard then it also take more time to recharge.
23-04-2013
Irrigation:
Water which is used for irrigation purpose is infiltrate and
there is no chance for run-off in such condition.
Inflow from surface water:
Streams and lakes which is on the surface also contributes
for aquifer in the form of infiltration.
For seasonal recharge, water is also contriute to the aquifer especially
shallow aquifer.
Artificial recharge:
We may contribute to the ground water recharge artificially by draining
water from streams into the aquifer. Holes or digs also used for infiltration
of water. This is can be done where aquifer is at shallow depth.
24-04-2013
Ground water discharge:
Groundwater discharge is the volumetric flow
rate of groundwater through an aquifer. Groundwater discharge is the
movement of water out of an area of saturated soil. While groundwater
discharge usually refers to the water leaving aquifers in the soil,
sometimes the term is also used to reference water moving through an
aquifer. In either case, the unit of measurement ofgroundwater flow that is
typically used is cubic meters per second (m3/s).When ground water meet
with aquifer then ultimately water in the form of spring mill be on the
surface.
Types of ground water discharge:
Spring discharge
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16

Roots discharge
Stream discharge
Groundwater abstraction
A spring is an easily visible point of groundwater discharge, and it is
usually happened in mountain areas where ground water intersect the
surface, but there are many other places that act as discharge points.
Groundwater discharge occurs when water seeps from aquifers into rivers,
streams, and lakes. Water may also seep out of the ground
into wetlands and marshes. In areas where the water table is close to the
top of the ground, groundwater may be mostly discharged through the
actions of growing plants as they draw water out of aquifers, and release it
into the air as moisture. Near the ocean, groundwater discharge may
occur directly into the sea, and in this case, it is called submarine
groundwater discharge.
25-04-2013
Geological formation as aquifer:
An aquifer is a geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a
formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield
significant quantities of water to springs and wells. Use of the term is often
restricted to those water-bearing formations capable of yielding water in
sufficient quantity to constitute a usable supply for people's uses.
Here is some points which is important for identify the aquifer.
By studying the geological history or environment (porosity and
permeability) of rock we hit the aquifer.
If we found coarse grained material during drilling then it will be the
favorable condition for aquifer.
Commonly aquifer have discharge 50-750 m3/day.
In sedimentary rocks we look for area where loose unconsolidated
material or sand are present which has probably 90% chance of
aquifer.
Flood plains where gravel or loose material present is the feasible
condition for the aquifer.
The valley which are not active these days or buried and active in
past, we may met there potential aquifer.
Valley are also potentially important where seasonal water aquifer
are common.
Clays, silt, loam and other fine material usually on floodplains, may
act as aquifer.
02-05-2013
Volcanic rocks as aquifer:
Volcanic rocks have a wide range of chemical, mineralogic, structural, and
hydraulic properties, due mostly to variations in rock type and the way the
rock was ejected and deposited. Unaltered pyroclastic rocks, for example,
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might have porosity and permeability similar to poorly sorted sediments.

Hot pyroclastic material, however, might become welded as it settles, and,
thus, be almost impermeable. Silicic lavas tend to be extruded as thick,
dense flows, and they have low permeability except where they are
fractured. Basaltic lavas tend to be fluid, and, they form thin flows that
have considerable pore space at the tops and bottoms of the flows.
Numerous basalt flows commonly overlap, and the flows are separated by
soil zones or alluvial material that form permeable zones. Columnar joints
that develop in the central parts of basalt flows create passages that allow
water to move vertically through the basalt. Basaltic rocks are the most
productive aquifers in volcanic rocks.
Some importants points .
1. Aquifer a geologic formation that is water bearing. A geological
formation or structure that stores and /or transmits water, such as to
wells and springs.
2. Aquifer (confined) soil or rock below the land surface that is
saturated with water. There are layers of impermeable material both
above and below it and it is under pressure so that when the aquifer
is penetrated by a well, the water will rise above the top of the
aquifer.
3. Aquifer (unconfined) an aquifer whose upper water surface
(water table) is at atmospheric pressure, and thus is able to rise and
fall.
4. Artificial recharge a process where water is put back into
ground-water storage from surface-water supplies such as irrigation,
or induced infiltration from streams or wells.
5. Water table the top of the water surface in the saturated part of
an aquifer
6. Confining Layer - a geologic material with little or no permeability
or hydraulic conductivity. Water does not pass through this layer or
the rate of movement is extremely slow.
7. Contaminant - (pollutant) any substance that makes water unfit for
a given use.
8. Discharge Area - an area where groundwater emerges at the
surface; an area where upward pressure or hydraulic head moves
groundwater towards the surface to escape as a spring, seep, or
base flow of a stream.
9. Groundwater - the water below the water table contained in void
spaces (pore spaces between rock and soil particles, or bedrock
fractures).
10. Infiltration - the process of water moving from the ground surface
vertically downward into the soil.

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11. Surface Water - water found in ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and
inland seas.

The End

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