Industrial Architecture Wiki

INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
Contents
1
Industry
1.1
Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
ISIC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Industrial development
1.3
Deindustrialisation
1.4
Society
1.5
Industrial labour
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
List of countries by industrial output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Industrial Revolution
2.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Important technological developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
Textile manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
Steam power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4
Machine tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.2.5
Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.2.6
Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2.7
Gas lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2.8
Glass making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2.9
Paper machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2.10 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.2.11 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.2.12 Other developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.2.13 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Social eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.3.1
Standards of living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.3.2
Population increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.3
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
CONTENTS
2.3.3
Labour conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.3.4
Other eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Industrialisation beyond Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.4.1
Continental Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.4.2
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.4.3
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.5
Second Industrial Revolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.6
Intellectual paradigms and criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.6.1
Capitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.6.2
Socialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.6.3
Romanticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.7.1
Causes in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.7.2
Causes in Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.7.3
Transfer of knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.9.1
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.9.2
Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.9.3
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Modern architecture
35
3.1
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.2
Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.3
Early modernism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.3.1
In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.3.2
In Italy: Futurism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.3.3
In Soviet Union: Constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.3.4
In Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.3.5
Style Moderne: tradition and modernism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.3.6
Wartime innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.4
International Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.5
Urban design and mass housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.6
Mid-Century reactions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Brutalism and monumentality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Late 20th-century reactions and movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.7.1
High-tech architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.7.2
Postmodern architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.7.3
Neomodern architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.7.4
Neofuturistic architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.7.5
New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.4
2.7
3.6.1
3.7
CONTENTS
iii
3.8
Examples of contemporary modern architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.9
Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
Brewery
49
4.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
4.1.1
Industrialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.1.2
Major technological advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.2
The modern brewery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4.3
Brewing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4.4
Brewing companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
4.4.1
Contract brewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.5
Head brewer/brewmaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
Distillation
55
5.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
5.2
Applications of distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
5.3
Idealized distillation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
5.3.1
Batch distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
5.3.2
Continuous distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
5.3.3
General improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
Laboratory scale distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
5.4.1
Simple distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
5.4.2
Fractional distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
5.4.3
Steam distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
5.4.4
Vacuum distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
5.4.5
Air-sensitive vacuum distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
5.4.6
Short path distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
5.4.7
Zone distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
5.4.8
Other types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
Azeotropic distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
5.5.1
Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
5.5.2
Pressure-swing distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Industrial distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
5.6.1
Multi-eect distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Distillation in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
iv
CONTENTS
5.7.1
Distilled beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
5.8
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
5.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
Drilling rig
68
6.1
Petroleum drilling industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.2
Water well drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.3
Mining drilling industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.4
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.5
Mobile drilling rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.6
Drilling rig classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.6.1
By power used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.6.2
By pipe used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.6.3
By height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.6.4
By method of rotation or drilling method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.6.5
By position of derrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
Drill types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.7.1
Auger drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.7.2
Percussion rotary air blast drilling (RAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.7.3
Air core drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.7.4
Cable tool drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.7.5
Reverse circulation (RC) drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.7.6
Diamond core drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.7.7
Direct push rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.7.8
Hydraulic rotary drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.7.9
Sonic (vibratory) drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.8
Automated Drill Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
6.9
Limits of the technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
6.10 New oileld technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
6.11 Causes of deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
6.12 Rig equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
6.13 Occupational safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Forge
78
7.1
Types of forges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
7.1.1
78
6.7
Coal/coke/charcoal forge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
7.2
7.3
7.1.2
Gas forge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
7.1.3
Finery forge
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
Forging equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
7.2.1
Anvil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
7.2.2
Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
7.2.3
Chisel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
7.2.4
Tongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.2.5
Fuller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.2.6
Hardy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.2.7
Slack tub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Types of forging
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Drop forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.4.1
Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.4.2
In art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
7.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
7.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
7.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
7.3.1
7.4
Gallery
Factory
83
8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
8.1.1
Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
8.1.2
Assembly line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
8.2
Historically signicant factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
8.3
Siting the factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
8.4
Governing the factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
8.5
Shadow factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
8.5.1
British shadow factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
8.6
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
8.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
8.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
8.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Foundry
89
9.1
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.1.1
Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.1.2
Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.1.3
Mold making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.1.4
Pouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.1.5
Shakeout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
vi
CONTENTS
9.1.6
Degating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.1.7
Heat treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.1.8
Surface cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.1.9
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
10 Gristmill
94
10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
10.1.1 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
10.1.2 Classical British and American mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
10.2 Modern mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
10.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
10.6 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
11 Mining
99
11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
11.1.1 Prehistoric mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
11.1.2 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

11.1.3 Ancient Greek and Roman Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.1.4 Medieval Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.1.5 Classical Philippine Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.1.6 The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.1.7 Modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.2 Mine development and lifecycle
11.3 Mining techniques
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.3.1 Surface mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

11.3.2 Underground mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.4 Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.5 Processing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.6 Environmental eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

11.6.1 Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.6.2 Renewable energy and mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.7 Mining industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.7.1 Corporate classications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.7.2 Regulation and governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.7.3 World Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.8 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
CONTENTS
vii
11.8.1 Abandoned mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

11.9 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.10Metal reserves and recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12 Power station
115
12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

12.2 Thermal power stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.2.1 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.2.2 Cooling towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.3 Power from renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.3.1 Hydroelectric power station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.3.2 Pumped storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.3.3 Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.3.4 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.3.5 Marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.3.6 Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.3.7 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.4 Typical power output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.5 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
13 Sawmill
123
13.1 Sawmill process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

13.2 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
13.3 Industrial revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
13.4 Current trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
13.5 Additional Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
13.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
13.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
13.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14 Renery
128
14.1 Types of reneries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

14.1.1 A typical oil renery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
14.1.2 A typical natural gas processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
viii
CONTENTS
14.1.3 Sugar rening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
14.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15 Warehouse
131
15.1 Warehouse function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

15.1.1 Display of goods for sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.1.2 Overseas warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.1.3 Packing warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.1.4 Railway warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.1.5 Canal warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.2 Storage and shipping systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.3 Automation and optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.4 Modern trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5 Cool warehouses and cold storage
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5.1 Cold storage and the law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

15.5.2 Refrigerated warehouse industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.6 Internet impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.7 Warehousing Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.12Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.12.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Chapter 1
Industry
This article is about industry in relation to economics. For 1.1 Classication
other uses, see Industry (disambiguation).
Industry is the production of goods or services within Main article: economic sector
Industries can be classied in a variety of ways. At
the top level, industry is often classied according to
the three-sector theory into sectors: primary or extractive, secondary or manufacturing, and tertiary or services. Some authors add quaternary (knowledge) or
even quinary (culture and research) sectors. Over time,
the fraction of a societys industry within each sector
changes.
Main article: industry classication
Below the economic sectors there are many other more
detailed industry classications. These classication systems commonly divide industries according to similar
functions and markets and identify businesses producing
related products.
Industries can also be identied by product, such as:
construction industry, chemical industry, petroleum
industry, automotive industry, electronic industry,
meatpacking industry, hospitality industry, food industry, sh industry, software industry, paper industry,
entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural
an economy.[1] The major source of revenue of a group or industry, and poverty industry.
company is the indicator of its relevant industry.[2] When
Market-based classication systems such as the Global
a large group has multiple sources of revenue generaIndustry Classication Standard and the Industry Clastion, it is considered to be working in dierent industries.
sication Benchmark are used in nance and market reManufacturing industry became a key sector of producsearch.
tion and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, upsetting previous
mercantile and feudal economies. This occurred through
1.1.1 ISIC
many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the
production of steel and coal.
Main article: International Standard Industrial ClassiFollowing the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third cation
of the worlds economic output is derived from
manufacturing industries. Many developed countries and
many developing/semi-developed countries (Peoples Re- The International Standard Industrial Classication
public of China, India etc.) depend signicantly on man- (ISIC) of all economic activities is the most complete and
made by the United
ufacturing industry. Industries, the countries they reside systematic industrial classication
[3]
Nations
Statistics
Division.
in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked
ISIC is a standard classication of economic activities arin a complex web of interdependence.
GDP composition of sector and labour force by occupation in the
form of any component to economy. The green, red, and blue
components of the colours of the countries represent the percentages for the agriculture, industry, and services sectors, respectively.
CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRY
ranged so that entities can be classied according to the

activity they carry out. The categories of ISIC at the most
detailed level (classes) are delineated according to what
is, in most countries, the customary combination of activities described in statistical units, considering the relative
importance of the activities included in these classes.
While ISIC Rev.4 continues to use criteria such as input,
output and use of the products produced, more emphasis
has been given to the character of the production process
in dening and delineating ISIC classes.
1.2 Industrial development
Colin Clark's sector model of an economy undergoing technological change. In later stages, the Quaternary sector of the economy
grows.
is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the

expense of manufacturing, and the development of an
information-based economy, the so-called informational
revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing
is relocated to economically more favourable locations
through a process of o-shoring.
The diculty for people looking to measure manufacturing industries outputs and economic eect is nding a
measurement which is stable historically. Traditionally,
success has been measured in the number of jobs created. The lowering of employee numbers in the manufacturing sector has been assumed to be caused by a decline in the competitiveness of the sector although much
has been caused by the introduction of the lean manuA factory, a traditional symbol of the industrial development (a
facturing process. Eventually, this will lead to competing
paper mill in Georgetown, the United States)
product lines being managed by one or two people, as is
The industrial revolution led to the development of already the case in the cigarette manufacturing industry.
factories for large-scale production, with consequent Related to this change is the upgrading of the quality of
changes in society.[4] Originally the factories were steam- the product being manufactured. While it is easy to propowered, but later transitioned to electricity once an duce a low tech, low skill product, the ability to manufacelectrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly ture high quality products is limited to companies with a
line was introduced to assemble parts in a repeatable fash- highly skilled sta.
ion, with individual workers performing specic steps
during the process. This led to signicant increases in
eciency, lowering the cost of the end process. Later
1.4 Society
automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development
Main article: Industrial society
of the computer and the robot.
An industrial society can be dened in many ways. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and
nations. A government must have some kind of industrial
policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial polluMain article: Deindustrialisation
nancing and industrial labor.
tion,
Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone
into a decline due to various economic factors, including
the development of replacement technology or the loss of
competitive advantage. An example of the former is the 1.5 Industrial labour
decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile
was mass-produced.
Main article: Industrial labour
1.3 Deindustrialisation
A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, in- Further information: industrial sociology, industrial
dustrialized nations toward a post-industrial society. This and organizational psychology, industrial district and
1.7. LIST OF COUNTRIES BY INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT
3
transportation, mobilization, the total war concept and
weapons of mass destruction.
Early instances of
industrial warfare were the Crimean War and the
American Civil War, but its full potential showed during the world wars. See also military-industrial complex,
arms industry, military industry and modern warfare.
1.7 List of countries by industrial

output
Main article: List of countries by GDP sector composition
A female industrial worker amidst heavy steel semi-products
(KINEX BEARINGS, Byta, Slovakia, c. 19952000)
1.8 See also

industrial park
North American Industry Classication System
In an industrial society, industry employs a major part of
the population. This occurs typically in the manufacturing sector. A labour union is an organization of workers
who have banded together to achieve common goals in
key areas such as wages, hours, and other working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains
with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and
le members) and negotiates labour contracts with employers. This movement rst rose among industrial workers.
North American Product Classication System

Standard Industrial Classication
Industry information
Industrial revolution
Outline of industry
1.9 References
1.6 War
[1] Industry | Dene Industry at Dictionary.com

[2] "'Denition of Industry' Investopedia.
[3] ISIC (Rev.4)
[4] More, Charles (2000). Understanding the Industrial
Revolution. London: Routledge.
1.10 Bibliography
Krahn, Harvey J., and Graham S. Lowe. Work, Industry, and Canadian Society. Second ed. Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Canada, 1993. xii, 430 p. ISBN
0-17-603540-0
The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation (Wheateld,

New York, United States, 1944) producing Aircobra P 39 aircraft
Main article: Industrial warfare

The industrial revolution changed warfare, with massproduced weaponry and supplies, machine-powered
1.11 External links

The dictionary denition of industry at Wiktionary
Media related to Industries at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to industry at Wikiquote
Chapter 2
cesses, improved eciency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine
tools. It also included the change from wood and other
bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant industry of
the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value
of output and capital invested; the textile industry was
also the rst to use modern production methods.[1]:40
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in
history; almost every aspect of daily life was inuenced
in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth.
Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the
general population began to increase consistently for the
rst time in history, although others have said that it did
not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and
20th centuries.[2][3][4]
A Watt steam engine. The steam engine, made of iron and fueled
primarily by coal, became widely used in Great Britain during the
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and

spread to Western Europe and North America within a
few decades.[1] The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the
pace of economic and social changes.[5][6][7][8] GDP per
capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution
and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy,[9]
while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita
economic growth in capitalist economies.[10] Economic
historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history
of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants[11]
and re.
The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second
Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840
and 1870, when technological and economic progress
continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the largescale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use
Iron and Coal, 185560, by William Bell Scott illustrates the rise
of machinery in steam-powered factories.[12][13][14]
of coal and iron working in the Industrial Revolution and the
heavy engineering projects they made possible.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new

2.1 Etymology
manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760
to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, The earliest recorded use of the term Industrial Revolunew chemical manufacturing and iron production pro- tion seems to have been in a letter of 6 July 1799 writ4
2.2. IMPORTANT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

ten by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing
that France had entered the race to industrialise.[15] In his
1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for Industry":
The idea of a new social order based on major industrial
change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811
and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early
1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the [19th] century.
The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological
change was becoming more common by the late 1830s,
as in Jrme-Adolphe Blanqui description in 1837 of la
rvolution industrielle.[16] Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an
industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time
changed the whole of civil society. However, although
Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated
into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did
not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose
1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.[17]
5
allowed larger blast furnaces,[1]:218[21] resulting in
economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was rst used in 1760. It was later improved by
making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced
a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the nery
forge[1]:91 The rolling mill was fteen times faster
than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828)
greatly increased fuel eciency in iron production
in the following decades.
2.2.1 Textile manufacture

Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial
Revolution
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries the British government passed a series of Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen industry from the increasing
[1]:82[22]
Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.
Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic inoccurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. dustry based around Lancashire that produced fustian, a
This is still a subject of debate among historians.
cloth with ax warp and cotton weft. Flax was used for
the warp because wheel spun cotton did not have sucient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as
2.2 Important technological devel- 100% cotton and was more dicult to sew.[22]
opments
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is
closely linked to a small number of innovations,[18] beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the
1830s the following gains had been made in important
technologies:
Textiles Mechanised cotton spinning powered by
steam or water greatly increased the output of a
worker. The power loom increased the output of a
worker by a factor of over 40.[19] The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton
by a factor of 50.[13] Large gains in productivity also
occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen,
but they were not as great as in cotton.[1]
Steam power The eciency of steam engines
increased so that they used between one-fth and
one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.[1]:82 The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation.[20] Steam power underwent
a rapid expansion after 1800.
On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and

weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of
a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, homebased workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the o season the women, typically farmers wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning
wheel it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver.[1][22][23]:823 The ying shuttle
patented in 1733 by John Kay, with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747,
doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance
between spinning and weaving. It became widely used
around Lancashire after 1760 when Johns son, Robert,
invented the drop box.[23]:82122
Watch video:
YouTube
Demonstration of y shuttle on
Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning machine and the

yer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even
thickness. The technology was developed with the help
of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened
a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory opened in
Iron making The substitution of coke for char- Northampton with fty spindles on each of ve of Paul
coal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and and Wyatts machines. This operated until about 1764.
wrought iron production.[1]:8993 Using coke also A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster,
6
but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn
patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets
of rollers that travelled at dierent speeds, it was later
used in the rst cotton spinning mill. Lewiss invention
was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright
in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning
mule.
CHAPTER 2. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Watch video: Demonstration of water frame on
YouTube
The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton
Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal. Invented

by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the
innovations that started the revolution.
In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in
1770. It was the rst practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.[24] The jenny worked in a similar manner to
the spinning wheel, by rst clamping down on the bres,
then by drawing them out, followed by twisting.[25] It was
a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about 6
for a 40 spindle model in 1792,[1]:63 and was used mainly
by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted
yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.[23]:82527
The spinning frame or water frame was developed
by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners,
patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a
spinning machine built for Thomas High by clock maker
John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.[23]:82730 For
each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs
of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating
speed, to draw out the bre, which was then twisted by the
spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the bre length. Too close a spacing caused the bres to break
while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The
top rollers were leather covered and loading on the rollers
was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from
backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were
wood and metal, with uting along the length. The water
frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread
suitable for warp, nally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be
made in Britain. A horse powered the rst factory to use
the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771,
giving the invention its name.
Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule, introduced in 1779,

was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during
which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away
from the drawing roller to nish drawing out the bres as
the spindles started rotating.[23]:832 Cromptons mule was
able to produce ner thread than hand spinning and at a
lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to
be used as warp, and nally allowed Britain to produce
good quality calico cloth.[23]:832
Watch video: Demonstration of spinning mule on
YouTube
Interior of Marshalls Temple Works
Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent

would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead
to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed
a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In
1776 he patented a two-man operated loom, that was
more conventional.[23]:834 Cartwright built two factories;

the rst burned down and the second was sabotaged by his
workers. Cartwrights loom design had several aws, the
most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks
patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horocks loom
was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were
produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.[26]
The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to
planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a protable crop if a better way
could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive
cotton gin. With a cotton gin a man could remove seed
from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at
one pound per day.[13]
The Reverberatory Furnace could produce wrought iron using

mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron
ore and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and ash. This opened the way to increased iron production.
Other inventors increased the eciency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and
rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. This
in turn fed a weaving industry that advanced with improvements to shuttles and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with
the eect that the new machines were seen as a threat to
employment, and early innovators were attacked and their
inventions destroyed.
To capitalise upon these advances, it took a class of
entrepreneurs, of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but
these were actually developed by such people as Thomas
Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors,
patented the ideas, nanced the initiatives, and protected The Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England
the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought
the production processes together in a factory, and he
developed the use of powerrst horse power and then
water powerwhich made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Before long steam power was applied to
drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing
to its sprawl of textile factories.[27]
2.2.2
Metallurgy
A major change in the metal industries during the era of

the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood
and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat,
coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood
and converting it to charcoal,[28] and coal was more abundant than wood.[1]
Use of coal in smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement
Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory
furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the
ames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture,
reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that
impurities (such as sulfur ash) in the coal do not migrate
into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from
Coalbrookdale by Night by Philip James de Loutherbourg,

painted 1801. This shows Madeley Wood (or Bedlam) Furnaces,
which belonged to the Coalbrookdale Company from 1776 to
1796.
1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron

foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry
cupola is a dierent (and later) innovation.
This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made
great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at
Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he
8
made was used mostly for the production of cast-iron
goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage
over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig
iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid-1750s, when his son Abraham Darby II built
Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal
pig iron. Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more
plentiful, it began being a structural material following
the building of the innovative Iron Bridge in 1778 by
Abraham Darby III.
Bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still
made in nery forges, as it long had been. However, new
processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The rst is
referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was
superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process.

could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable
or too expensive;[30] however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.
Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel, which
was an expensive commodity and used only where iron
would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for
springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel
technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was
blister steel, made by the cementation process.
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of
industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and
other hardware items. The development of machine tools
allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine
industries.
Henry Cort developed two signicant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784.[1]:91 2.2.3 Steam power
Rolling replaced hammering for consolidating wrought
iron and expelling some of the dross. Rolling was 15 Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolutimes faster than hammering with a trip hammer. Pud- tion
dling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low The development of the stationary steam engine was an
cost.
Puddling was a means of decarburizing pig iron by slow
oxidation, with iron ore as the oxygen source, as the iron
was manually stirred using a long rod. The decarburized
iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was
raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob was large
enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to
be 40. Puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, allowing coal or coke to be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when
iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never
successfully mechanised.
Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native
supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the
mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end
of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased
because of the new iron making technology, and Britain
became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured
wrought iron consumer goods.
Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828,
was the most important development of the 19th century
for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel
to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at rst by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke;[1]:92
however, the eciency gains continued as the technology
improved.[29] Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less
coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the
pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite
The 1698 Savery Engine (piston-less steam pump) the worlds

rst commercially useful steam powered device: built by Thomas
Savery
important element of the Industrial Revolution; however,

for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the
majority of industrial power was supplied by water and
wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower
was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had
grown to 210,000 hp.[1]:104 Small power requirements
continued to be provided by animal and human muscle by 1800.[32]

until the late 19th century.[31]
The rst real attempt at industrial use of steam power
was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and
patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower
(hp) and was used in numerous water works and tried
in a few mines (hence its brand name, The Miners
Friend). Saverys pump was economical in small horspower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger
sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the
late 18th century.
Scottish mechanical engineer and inventor James Watt
Newcomens steam powered atmospheric engine was the rst

practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were
to power the Industrial Revolution.
The rst successful piston steam engine was introduced

by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for
draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine
on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot
of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW).
They were extremely inecient by modern standards, but
when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened
up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to
go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to
be used in the coalelds until the early decades of the 19th
century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had
spread (rst) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and
Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by
1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were
abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built
some very large examples and introduced a number of
improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built
A fundamental change in working principles was brought

about by Scotsman James Watt. In close collaboration
with Englishman Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded
by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing o of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the
celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had
been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the
cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket
kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving eciency. These improvements increased engine efciency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 2025% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomens.
Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry, for the manufacture of such engines, in 1795.
By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that
it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery
of a factory or mill. Both of Watts basic engine types
were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the rm
Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164
driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces,
and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines
generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW).
The development of machine tools, such as the lathe,
planing and shaping machines powered by these engines,
enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and
accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger
10
and more powerful engines.

Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a
stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns
of self-contained portative engines (readily removable,
but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table enThe Middletown milling machine of circa 1818, associated with
gine. Around the start of the 19th century, the Cornish Robert Johnson and Simeon North
engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver
Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing
steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This
allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single
unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail
locomotives and steam boats.
In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watts
patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements
by a host of inventors and engineers.
2.2.4
Machine tools
Main article: Machine tool

See also: Interchangeable parts
The Industrial Revolution created a demand for metal
The milling machine built by James Nasmyth between 1829 and

1831 for milling the six sides of a hex nut using an indexing xture
nisms.
Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked
manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, les,
scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of
metal was kept to a minimum. Wooden components
had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to
rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames
became more common. Hand methods of production
were very laborious and costly and precision was dicult
to achieve. Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmenmillwrights built water and wind mills,
carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts.
The rst large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on
early steam engines. The planing machine, the milling
Maudslays famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and
machine and the shaping machine were developed in the
1800
early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling
machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as
parts used in machinery. This led to the development of
a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th
several machine tools for cutting metal parts. They have
century.
their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by
makers of clocks and watches and scientic instrument
Watch video: Demonstration of industrial lathe on
makers to enable them to batch-produce small mecha-
11
Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and
in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build
on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement
and Joseph Whitworth.
James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine
tools for the rst third of the century, as did Matthew
Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality
machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges
for precision workshop measurement.
The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than rearms,
threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were
few mass-produced metal parts.[33] In the half century
following the invention of the fundamental machine tools
the machine industry became the largest industrial sector
of the economy, by value added, in the U.S.[34]
2.2.5 Chemicals
Sir Joseph Whitworth, a leading machine tool maker and namesake of the British Standard Whitworth thread for machine
screws
YouTube
Watch video: Demonstration of milling machine on
YouTube
Watch video: Demonstration of metal planer on
YouTube
Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool
makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with
superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He was hired away by Joseph Bramah
for the production of high security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe
that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws
of dierent thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a
template.[13][23]:39295 The slide rest lathe was called one
of historys most important inventions, although not entirely Maudslays idea.[13]:31, 36
Maudslay left Bramahs employment and set up his own
shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making
ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth
Block Mills. These machines were all-metal and were
the rst machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons
The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843).

Cement was used in the worlds rst underwater tunnel
The large scale production of chemicals was an important

development during the Industrial Revolution. The rst
of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead
chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's rst partner) in 1746. He was able to
greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing
the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with
larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of
lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was
able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the
chambers, at least a tenfold increase.
The production of an alkali on a large scale became an
important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded
in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of
sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction
of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium
sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate
was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal
to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sul-
12
phide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced
a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was
initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash
proved economical compared to that from burning specic plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,[35] and also to potash
(potassium carbonate) derived from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they
enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions,
replacing many small-scale operations with more costeective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate
had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling
(removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution

was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was
the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton
and Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The
process consisted of the large-scale gasication of coal
in furnaces, the purication of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage
and distribution. The rst gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon
became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK.
Gas lighting had an impact on social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain
open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed night life to ourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than
before.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium

hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in
about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist 2.2.8 Glass making
Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching
processes in the textile industry by dramatically reduc- Main article: Glass production
ing the time required (from months to days) for the A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder
traditional process then in use, which required repeated
exposure to the sun in bleach elds after soaking the
textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennants factory at
St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical
plant in the world.
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in
dyestus, and Germany took world leadership, building
a strong chemical industry.[36] Aspiring chemists ocked
to German universities in the 18601914 era to learn the
latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked
research universities and did not train advanced students; instead the practice was to hire German-trained
chemists.[37]
The Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851
2.2.6
Cement
process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th

century. In 1832, this process was used by the Chance
Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading
producers of window and plate glass. This advancement
allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without
interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal
Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass
in a new and innovative structure..
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned

builder, patented a chemical process for making portland
cement which was an important advance in the building
trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay
and limestone to about 1,400 C (2,552 F), then grinding
it into a ne powder which is then mixed with water,
sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement
was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard
Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames
Tunnel.[38] Cement was used on a large scale in the con- 2.2.9 Paper machine
struction of the London sewerage system a generation
Main article: Paper machine
later.
2.2.7
Gas lighting
Main article: Gas lighting
A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on

a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas
Louis Robert who worked for Saint-Lger Didot family in
France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the nanciers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier,
13
who were stationers in London. Although greatly im- to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In
proved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream
is the predominant means of paper production today.
or ditch at a level where it could ow away by gravity.
The method of continuous production demonstrated by The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698
the paper machine inuenced the development of contin- and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly faciliuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous tated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made
deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were
production processes.[39]
developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton's improvements
to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watts more
2.2.10 Agriculture
ecient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel
costs of engines, making mines more protable.
Main article: British Agricultural Revolution
Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence
of redamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety
The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one
was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in
of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because im1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George
proved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work
Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn be[40]
in other sectors of the economy.
cause they became unsafe very quickly and provided a
Industrial technologies that aected farming included the weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting
seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, o coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the enand the threshing machine.
tire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor,
Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It with a high casualty rate from rock falls.
was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly
across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth.
This was important because the yield of seeds harvested
to seeds planted at that time was around four or ve.
Tulls seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable
and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good
quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th
century.[41]
2.2.12 Other developments
Other developments included more ecient water

wheels, based on experiments conducted by the British
engineer John Smeaton[48] the beginnings of a machine
industry[13][49] and the rediscovery of concrete (based on
hydraulic lime mortar) by John Smeaton, which had been
Joseph Foljambes Rotherham plough of 1730, was the
lost for 1300 years.[50]
rst commercially successful iron plough.[42][43][44][45]
The threshing machine, invented by Andrew Meikle
in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a ail, a la2.2.13 Transportation
borious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural
[46]:286
[47]
labour.
It took several decades to diuse
and
was the nal straw for many farm labourers, who faced Main article: Transport during the British Industrial
near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion Revolution
See also: Productivity improving technologies (economic
of the Swing Riots.
history) Infrastructures
Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed
during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in
precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th cen- At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland
tury for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal
vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon
reapers, binders and combine harvesters.[33]
ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further
shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed.
Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with
2.2.11 Mining
sails providing the motive power on the sea. The rst
Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th
started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the
shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the sur- early decades of the 19th century.
face, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In
other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was
mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the
side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but
the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It
could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or
The Industrial Revolution improved Britains transport

infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and
waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and nished products could be moved more quickly
and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also
allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
14
Canals
Main article: History of the British canal system
Canals were the rst technology to allow bulk materials to

notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the
Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and
1789 respectively.
By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal
construction served as a model for the organisation and
methods later used to construct the railways. They were
eventually largely superseded as protable commercial
enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s
on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world,[57] and
opened Manchester as a port. However it never achieved
the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and
signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age
dominated by railways, which were quicker and often
cheaper.
Britains canal network, together with its surviving mill
buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early
Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
Roads
The Bridgewater Canal, famous because of its commercial success, crossing the Manchester Ship Canal, one of the last canals
to be built.
be economically transported long distances inland. This

was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens
of times larger than the load that was pullable in a cart
cart.[23][51]
Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand
Canal in China, the worlds largest articial waterway and oldest canal still in existence, parts of which
were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is
1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links Hangzhou with
Beijing.[52]
In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th
century to link the major manufacturing centres across
the country. Known for its huge commercial success,
the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, which
opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke
of Bridgewater. From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost 168,000
(22,589,130 as of 2013),[53][54] but its advantages over
land and river transport meant that within a year of its
opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by
about half.[55] This success helped inspire a period of
intense canal building, known as Canal Mania.[56] New
canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the
commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most
Construction of the rst macadamized road in the United States

(1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones so as
not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring.[58]
Much of the original British road system was poorly

maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the
1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set
up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing
numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to
the extent that almost every main road in England and
Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New
engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas
Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the rst
'macadamised' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816.[59] The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal
Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy
goods transport on these roads was by means of slow,
broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter
goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack
2.3. SOCIAL EFFECTS
15
horse. Stage coaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, docould pay to ride on carriers carts.
ing away with the condenser and cooling water. They
were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a
given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines.
Railways
A few of these early locomotives were used in mines.
Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton
Main article: History of rail transport in Great Britain
and Darlington Railway in 1825.
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had
On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway was opened, the rst inter-city railway in the
world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke
of Wellington.[61] The railway was engineered by Joseph
Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town
of Liverpool. The opening was marred by problems, due
to the primitive nature of the technology being employed,
however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers
and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led
to Railway Mania.
Construction of major railways connecting the larger
cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the rst Industrial Revolution.
Painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester After many of the workers had completed the railways,
Railway in 1830, the rst inter-city railway in the world and they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead rewhich spawned Railway Mania due to its success.
mained in the cities, providing additional workers for the
factories.
started in the 17th century and were often associated with
canal or river systems for the further movement of coal.
These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a sta2.3 Social eects
tionary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of
the incline. The rst applications of the steam locomotive
were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often Main article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial
called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn pub- Revolution
lic railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th
century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy
Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the
success of railroads compared to wagons. This was
demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway
in 1805 at Croydon, U.K.
A good horse on an ordinary turnpike
road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton.
A party of gentlemen were invited to witness
the experiment, that the superiority of the new
road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones,
till each wagon weighed three tons, and the
wagons were fastened together. A horse was
then attached, which drew the wagons with
ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped
four times, in order to show he had the power of
starting, as well as drawing his great load.[60]
A Middleton miner in 1814
2.3.1 Standards of living
The eects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly deSteam locomotives began being built after the introduc- bated by economic and social historians from the 1950s
tion of high pressure steam engines around 1800. These to the 1980s.[62] A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps
16
Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the
bottom of the social ladder, suered severe reductions in
their living standards.[62] During 18131913, there was a
signicant increase in worker wages.[63][64][65]
Some economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr., say that
the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that
for the rst time in history, the living standards of the
masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior is mentioned by the classical economists, even as
a theoretical possibility.[2] Others, however, argue that
while growth of the economys overall productive powers
was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not
grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, Over London by Rail Gustave Dor c. 1870. Shows the densely
and that in many ways workers living standards declined populated and polluted environments created in the new indusunder early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown trial cities
that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the
1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did
not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.[3][4]
shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some
with dirt oors. These shantytowns had narrow walkways
between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There
Food and nutrition
were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. Eight to ten unrelated mill workers often
Main article: British Agricultural Revolution
shared a room, often with no furniture, and slept on a
pile of straw or sawdust.[69] Toilet facilities were shared
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the
if they existed. Disease spread through a contaminated
majority of the population of the world including Britain
water supply. Also, people were at risk of developing
and France, until the late 19th century. Until about
pathologies due to persistent dampness.
1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy
in France was about 35 years, and only slightly higher in The famines that troubled rural areas did not happen
Britain. The US population of the time was adequately in industrial areas. But urban peopleespecially small
fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of childrendied due to diseases spreading through the
cramped living conditions. Tuberculosis (spread in con4550 years.[66]
gested dwellings), lung diseases from the mines, cholera
In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply had been infrom polluted water and typhoid were also common.
creasing and prices falling before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, popu- Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Induslation grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus.[1][46][67][68] trial Revolution also created a middle class of professionBefore the Industrial Revolution, advances in agricul- als, such as lawyers and doctors, who lived in much better
ture or technology soon led to an increase in popula- conditions.
tion, which again strained food and other resources, lim- Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century
iting increases in per capita income. This condition is due to new public health acts regulating things such as
called the Malthusian trap, and it was nally overcome sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introducby industrialisation.[46]
tion of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the
Transportation improvements, such as canals and im- conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved roads, also lowered food costs. Railroads were proved.
introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.
Housing
Clothing and consumer goods
Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied
from splendour for factory owners to squalor for workers. Consumers beneted from falling prices for clothing and
In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and
Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manch- in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space
ester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude heating.
2.3. SOCIAL EFFECTS
2.3.2
Population increase
17
guably the rst highly mechanised was John Lombe's
water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721.
Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job
in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, since the
silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state
of the industry there is unknown. Because Lombes factory was not successful and there was no follow through,
the rise of the modern factory dates to somewhat later
when cotton spinning was mechanised.
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the

population of England and Wales, which had remained
steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more
than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million
in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5
million.[70] Improved conditions led to the population of
Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the The factory system contributed to the growth of urban
1800s.[71][72] Europes population increased from about areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the
100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.[73]
cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was
The Industrial Revolution was the rst period in history this better illustrated than the mills and associated indusduring which there was a simultaneous increase in popu- tries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and the
worlds rst industrial city.[77] Manchester experienced
lation and in per capita income.[74]
a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and
1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between
2.3.3 Labour conditions
1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population
of Bradford was actually born there.[78]
Social structure and working conditions
For much of the 19th century, production was done in
small mills, which were typically water-powered and built
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution
to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its
witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialown steam engine and a chimney to give an ecient draft
ists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and
through its boiler.
gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, The transition to industrialisation was not without dibut these were often under strict working conditions with culty. For example, a group of English workers known as
long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by ma- Luddites formed to protest against industrialisation and
chines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial work- sometimes sabotaged factories.
ers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 In other industries the transition to factory production
hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried
less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent to improve factory and living conditions for their worklife.[75] However, harsh working conditions were preva- ers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen,
lent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre- known for his pioneering eorts in improving conditions
industrial society was very static and often cruelchild for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded
labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.
were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.[76]
By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at
Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end,
was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins,
Factories and urbanisation
wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers
on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose
Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other
prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory
system.
Child labour
Manchester, England ("Cottonopolis"), pictured in 1840, showing

the mass of factory chimneys
Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. Ar-
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase

but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve
throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant
mortality rates were reduced markedly.[80][81] There was
still limited opportunity for education and children were
expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than
an adult even though their productivity was comparable;
there was no need for strength to operate an industrial
machine, and since the industrial system was completely
18

or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and
some were decapitated.[84] Young girls worked at match
factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to
develop phossy jaw.[84] Children employed at glassworks
were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at
potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.[84]
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines[85] and textile factories,[86] and
these helped to popularise the childrens plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes,
helped stir change in the young workers welfare.
A young drawer pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.[79] In

Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working
conditions.
Wheaton Glass Works, November 1909. Photographed by Lewis

Hine.
new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This

made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing
in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between
the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in
1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered
cotton mills were described as children.[82]
Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but
with the increase in population and education it became
more visible. Many children were forced to work in
relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their
elders,[83] 10%20% of an adult males wage.[84] Children as young as four were employed.[84] Beatings and
long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4am until 5pm.[84] Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when
they dozed o and fell into the path of the carts, while
others died from gas explosions.[84] Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25.[84] Workhouses would sell orphans
and abandoned children as pauper apprentices, working without wages for board and lodging.[84] Those who
ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters,
with some masters shackling them to prevent escape.[84]
Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills
would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour

by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they
were aiding the poor by giving their children money to
buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed
the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the rst general
laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in
Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to
work, children were not permitted to work at night, and
the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited
to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement dicult.[84] About ten years later, the employment
of children and women in mining was forbidden. These
laws decreased the number of child labourers, however
child labour remained in Europe and the United States
up to the 20th century.[87]
Luddites
Main article: Luddite
The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost
Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812
many craft workers their jobs. The movement started

rst with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and
spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early
industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves
2.3. SOCIAL EFFECTS
19
of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this,
unions were still severely restricted.
The Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common, 1848
In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain

but did not grant universal surage. That year six men
from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society
of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual
lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for
less than 10 shillings a week, although by this time wages
had been reduced to 7 shillings a week and were due to
be further reduced to 6. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure
law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to
each other, which the members of the Friendly Society
had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, Georges brother James Loveless, Georges brother
in-law Thomas Standeld, and Thomass son John Standeld were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs.
In the 1830s and 1840s the Chartist movement was the
rst large-scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social
justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million
signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.
suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited
(and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single
weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and
others, turned their animosity towards the machines that
had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and
machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites,
supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore gure. The
rst attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The
Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British govWorking people also formed friendly societies and coernment took drastic measures, using the militia or army
operative societies as mutual support groups against times
to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were
of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as
tried and hanged, or transported for life.
Robert Owen also supported these organisations to imUnrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, prove the conditions of the working class.
such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when
Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right
large parts of southern Britain were aected by the
to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workCaptain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a
ers and colliers was organised through the Chartist moveparticular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activment which stopped production across Great Britain.[88]
ity. However, the riots led to the rst formation of trade
Eventually, eective political organisation for working
unions, and further pressure for reform.
people was achieved through the trades unions who, after
the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began
Organisation of labour
to support socialist political parties that later merged to
became the British Labour Party.
See also: Trade union History
The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills,
factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of
combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had
to decide between giving in to the union demands at a
cost to themselves or suering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these
were the rst groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.
The main method the unions used to eect change was
strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both
sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the
Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind
2.3.4 Other eects

The application of steam power to the industrial processes
of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper
and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of
children increased dramatically. The percentage of the
children born in London who died before the age of ve
decreased from 74.5% in 17301749 to 31.8% in 1810
1829.[80]
The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great
cities, rst in Europe and then in other regions, as new
opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from
20
rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3%

of the worlds population lived in cities,[89] compared to
nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century).[90]
Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by
1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.[91]
2.4 Industrialisation beyond Great

Britain
2.4.1
Continental Europe
Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until
the 1830s or 1840s,[5] while T. S. Ashton held that it
occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[6] The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later
than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved
the application of technology developed in Britain in new
places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain
or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in
search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr
Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England.
The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases
(such as iron), the dierent availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.
was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill. His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from
engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as
1825.[92]
Wallonia exemplied the radical evolution of industrial
expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word houille was
coined in Wallonia),[93] the region geared up to become
the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But
it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon
industriel, 'Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse
valleys, between the Borinage and Lige, (...) there was
a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and
iron-making...'.[94] Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: It was not propaganda but a reality
the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain.[95] The sole
industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces
of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent.[96]
Michel De Coster, Professor at the Universit de Lige
wrote also: The historians and the economists say that
Belgium was the second industrial power of the world,
in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But
this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines,
the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool
industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were
concentrated [97]
Belgium
Wallonia's Sillon industriel (the blue area in the north is not in

Wallonia)
Workers housing at Bois-du-Luc (18381853) in La Louvire
Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which

the industrial revolution took place and the rst in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the rst region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in
1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as
well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal
mining areas around Lige and Charleroi. The leader
Demographic eects Wallonia was also the birthplace

of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a
particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon
industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers
in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the
eect of the industrial revolution there was very dierent. In 'Breaking stereotypes, Muriel Neven and Isabelle
Devious say:
The industrial revolution changed a mainly
rural society into an urban one, but with a
2.4. INDUSTRIALISATION BEYOND GREAT BRITAIN
21
ties with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased
from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense
that it did not lead to the growth of modern and
large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a
coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes
between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban
morphology than, for instance, the area around
Lige where the old town was there to direct
migratory ows.[98]
Gallow frame of the Crachet in Frameries IN Wallonias French

Chssis molettes or Beleur (French Chevalement)
France
The industrial revolution in France followed a particular
course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take-o.[99]
Instead, Frances economic growth and industrialisation
process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th
centuries. However, some stages were identied by Maurice Lvy-Leboyer:
French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789
1815),
industrialisation, along with Britain (18151860),
Ocial Poster of the Liges World fair in 1905
strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and
the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth
century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world.
By comparison, this proportion reached only
17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent
in most West European countries, 16 per cent
in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not aect
the traditional urban infrastructure, except in
Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional
urban network was largely unaected by the
industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per
cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the
Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the
Borinage and Lige, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and
iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During
these eighty years the number of municipali-
economic slowdown (18601905),

renewal of the growth after 1905.
Germany
Main article: Economic history of Germany
Based on its leadership in chemical research in the uni-
The BASF-chemical factories in Ludwigshafen, Germany, 1881
versities and industrial laboratories, Germany became

dominant in the worlds chemical industry in the late 19th
century. At rst the production of dyes based on aniline
was critical.[100]
22
Germanys political disunitywith three dozen states
and a pervasive conservatism made it dicult to build
railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk
lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at rst, the Germans imported
their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly
learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the
centres of technological awareness and training, so that
by 1850, Germany was self-sucient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a
major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry.
Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britains. However, German unication in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into
state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr
and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By
1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000
passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead
of France[101]
Sweden
Main article: Economic history of Sweden
2.4.2 United States

Main articles: Economic history of the United States and
Technological and industrial history of the United States
See also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts
Slaters Mill
The United States originally used horse-powered machinery to power its earliest factories, but eventually
switched to water power. As a result, industrialisation
was essentially limited to New England and the rest of
Northeastern United States, which has fast-moving rivers.
The newer water-powered production lines proved more
economical than horse-drawn production. However, raw
materials (especially cotton) came from the Southern
United States. It was not until after the Civil War in
the 1860s that steam-powered manufacturing overtook
water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to
fully spread across the nation.
During the period 17901815 Sweden experienced two

parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth beneting Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the
large sections of the population and leading up to a con- Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the rst cotton mill
in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,[102] and
sumption revolution starting in the 1820s.
a signicant milestone in the research and development
During 18151850 the protoindustries developed into
of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to
more specialized and larger industries. This period wit- use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that
nessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in
the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and
Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuhradsbygden and forestry had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the
in Norrland. Several important institutional changes took Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both
place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developintroduced 1842 (as rst country in the world), the abo- ing the water-powered milling structure used in Slaters
lition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in Mill.[103]
1846, and a stock company law in 1848.
In 1793, Samuel Slater (17681835) founded the Slater
During 18501890, Sweden experienced a veritable ex- Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had learned of
plosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in
Sweden abolished most taris and other barriers to free Derbyshire, England, and deed laws against the emitrade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. gration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in
During 18901930, Sweden experienced the second in- 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. Afdustrial revolution. New industries developed with their ter founding Slaters Mill, he went on to own 13 texfocus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, tile mills.[104] Daniel Day established a wool carding
mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts
power utilities, papermaking and textile.
2.5. SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS
23
(9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by
the Merrimack River, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial
Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like Waltham-Lowell
system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially
following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been
replaced by poor immigrant labour.
Bethlehem Steel, founded in 1857, was once the second-largest

manufacturer of steel in the United States; its Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, location has been transformed into a casino.
The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854

also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch
Company, with the development of machine tools, gauges
and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision
required for watches.
2.4.3 Japan
in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US
(The rst was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee
Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of Americas Hardest-Working River',
the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from
Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island,
was the birthplace of Americas Industrial Revolution. At
its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including
Slaters mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of Americas Industrial and Technological Development.
Main articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history

of Japan
The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated
a land reform program to prepare the country for further
development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more
than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Oyatoi gaikokujin).
In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the
Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the USA to learn
western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up.
The Bank of Japan, founded in 1882,[105] used taxes to
fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the
west.
Men working their own coal mines. Early 1900s, USA
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on
his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the
War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that
a demand for domestic nished cloth was emerging in
America, on his return to the United States, he set up the
Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built Americas second cotton-to-cloth textile mill
at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. After his death in 1817, his associates
built Americas rst planned factory town, which they
named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a
public stock oering, one of the rst uses of it in the
United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, using 5.6 miles
Modern industry rst appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.[106]
2.5 Second Industrial Revolutions

Main articles: Second Industrial Revolution and Suez
Canal
Steel is often cited as the rst of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a
Second Industrial Revolution, beginning around 1850,
although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not
invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron
into steel in large quantities. However, it only became
widely available in the 1870s after the process was modied to produce more uniform quality.[23][107] Bessemer
24
2.6 Intellectual
criticism
paradigms
and
2.6.1 Capitalism
Main article: Capitalism
Schsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany, 1868
The advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientic knowledge
a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the
steam engine, guided by scientic analysis, and the development of the political and sociological analyses, culminating in Scottish economist Adam Smith's The Wealth
of Nations. One of the main arguments for capitalism,
presented for example in the book The Improving State
of the World, is that industrialisation increases wealth for
all, as evidenced by raised life expectancy, reduced working hours, and no work for children and the elderly.
2.6.2 Socialism
Main article: Socialism
Socialism emerged as a critique of capitalism. Marxism began essentially as a reaction to the Industrial
Revolution.[108] According to Karl Marx, industrialisation polarised society into the bourgeoisie (those who own
the means of production, the factories and the land) and
Bessemer converter
the much larger proletariat (the working class who actually perform the labour necessary to extract something
valuable from the means of production). He saw the industrialisation process as the logical dialectical progressteel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near sion of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full dethe end of the 19th century.
velopment of capitalism, which he saw as in itself a necesThis second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to sary precursor to the development of socialism and eveninclude chemicals, mainly the chemical industries, tually communism.
petroleum (rening and distribution), and, in the 20th
century, the automotive industries, and was marked by a
transition of technological leadership from Britain to the 2.6.3 Romanticism
United States and Germany.
Main article: Romanticism
The increasing availability of economical petroleum
products also reduced the importance of coal and further
During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artiswidened the potential for industrialisation.
tic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed,
A new revolution began with electricity and electrication associated with the Romantic movement. Its major exin the electrical industries.
The introduction of ponents in English included the artist and poet William
hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Corapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, be- leridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelginning in the 1890s.
ley. The movement stressed the importance of nature
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had cre- in art and language, in contrast to monstrous machines
ated the rst giant industrial corporations with burgeon- and factories; the Dark satanic mills of Blakes poem
ing global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General "And did those feet in ancient time". Mary Shelley's novel
Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad Frankenstein reected concerns that scientic progress
and ship companies on the worlds stock markets.
might be two-edged.
2.7. CAUSES
2.7 Causes
25
sation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations
such as the steam engine.
The presence of a large domestic market should also be
considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain.
In other nations, such as France, markets were split up
by local regions, which often imposed tolls and taris on
goods traded among them.[115] Internal taris were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia
till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.
Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human
history before the Industrial Revolution.
Governments grant of limited monopolies to inventors

under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an inuential factor. The
eects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology.
In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as
James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the rst steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own
ineciencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the benecial eects of publicising ingenuity
and rewarding inventors.[116] Watts monopoly may have
prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick,
William Murdoch or Jonathan Hornblower, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the industrial revolution by about 16 years.[117][118]
The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated

and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and
institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in
Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century.
As national border controls became more eective, the
spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing the
epidemics common in previous times.[109] The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose signicantly,
leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosure movement
and the British Agricultural Revolution made food pro- 2.7.1 Causes in Europe
duction more ecient and less labour-intensive, forcing
the surplus population who could no longer nd employ- Main article: Great Divergence
ment in agriculture into cottage industry, for example One question of active interest to historians is why
weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the
newly developed factories.[110] The colonial expansion of
the 17th century with the accompanying development of
international trade, creation of nancial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the
scientic revolution of the 17th century.[111]
Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic
historians that technological innovation was the heart of
the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam
engine.[112] However, recent research into the Marketing
Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.[113]
Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier
than most estimates.[114] He explains that the model for
standardised mass production was the printing press and
that the archetypal model for the industrial era was the
clock. He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and
time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had
at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchroni-
A 1623 Dutch East India Company bond.

European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade,
and creation of nancial markets produced a new legal and nancial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth.
the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in
26
other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times
like in Classical Antiquity[119] or the Middle Ages.[120]
Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes[121] (see Scientic Revolution
in Europe), modern government, modern work attitudes, ecology, and culture.[122] However, most historians
contest the assertion that Europe and China were roughly
equal because modern estimates of per capita income on
Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly
1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had
a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars[123] ) whereas
China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars.
trial revolution.[127] Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which
followed the unication of England and Scotland; (2)
no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the
rule of law (respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a
straightforward legal system which allowed the formation
of joint-stock companies (corporations); and (5) a free
market (capitalism).[128][1]
Some historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the dierent belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred.[1]:2032
The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products
of Judaeo-Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely,
Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius,
Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism),
and Buddha (Buddhism), resulting in very dierent
worldviews.[124] Other factors include the considerable
distance of Chinas coal deposits, though large, from its
cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that
connects these deposits to the sea.[125]
There were two main values that really drove the industrial revolution in Britain. These values were selfinterest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these
interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth. These advancements also greatly benetted the British society as
a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise
the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as
an example to begin their own industrial revolutions.[129]
Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great

Britain were the fact that it had extensive coast lines and
many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality
coal in Europe.[1]
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution

also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over
other countries. Some have stressed the importance of
natural or nancial resources that Britain received from
its many overseas colonies or that prots from the British
slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel
industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out
that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only
5% of the British national income during the years of the
Industrial Revolution.[130] Even though slavery accounted
for so little, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12%
of Britains industrial output.[131]
Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt

said: The capital to nance the Industrial Revolution
in India instead went into nancing the Industrial Revolution in Britain.[126] In contrast to China, India was
split up into many competing kingdoms, with the three
major ones being the Marathas, Sikhs and the Mughals.
In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two
sectorsagriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there
appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored
away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large
merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and
to the British take over.
use emerging scientic and technological developments
more eectively than countries with stronger monarchies,
2.7.2 Causes in Britain
particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the
Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by nancial plunder and economic collapse, and
having the only merchant eet of any useful size (European merchant eets were destroyed during the war by
the Royal Navy[132] ). Britains extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The
conict resulted in most British warfare being conducted
overseas, reducing the devastating eects of territorial
conquest that aected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britains geographical positionan island
separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies. After the Industrial Revolution, it was overtaken later by the United States.
Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the

Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its
small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and
Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundathe related agricultural revolution made a supply of this
tions that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the indus-
2.7. CAUSES
27
labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the
English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions
for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the
damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton,
providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.
The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688,
and British societys greater receptiveness to change
(compared with other European countries) can also be
said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.
Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made
them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of
capitalism.[133] (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's The Servile State.)
Britains population grew 280% 15501820, while the
rest of Western Europe grew 50-80%. 70% of European
urbanisation happened in Britain 17501800. By 1800,
only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain.
This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, ax,
peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to
feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land
would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure
and horses work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3
to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha) for fodder while even early
steam engines produced 4 times more mechanical energy.
In 1700, 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain,
while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europes best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise.
In the 18th century, it was the only European country
whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain
would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the
1830s.[134]
2.7.3
Transfer of knowledge
Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means.

Workers who were trained in the technique might move
to another employer or might be poached. A common
method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the
Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring;
some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil
servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state
policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America,
this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours
were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel
A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766). Informal

philosophical societies spread scientic advances
diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians

of the period are an incomparable source of information
about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by
the network of informal philosophical societies, like the
Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to
discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its
application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society ourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them,
They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of
that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution.[135] Other such societies
published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For
example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as
papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology.
Encyclopaedias such as Harris's Lexicon Technicum
(1704) and Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (18021819)
contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and
technology of the rst half of the Industrial Revolution,
very well illustrated by ne engravings. Foreign printed
sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Mtiers and
Diderots Encyclopdie explained foreign methods with
ne engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century,
and many regularly included notice of the latest patents.
Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who
observed British methods on study tours.
Protestant work ethic

Main article: Protestant work ethic
Another theory is that the British advance was due to
the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in
28
progress, technology and hard work.[136] The existence of

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see
Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and Other
the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and
Presbyterians that had ourished with the English Civil
Chinese industrialization
War. Reinforcement of condence in the rule of law,
which followed establishment of the prototype of consti Petroleum Revolution
tutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution
of 1688, and the emergence of a stable nancial market
Science and invention in Birmingham
there based on the management of the national debt by
the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and
interest in, private nancial investment in industrial ven2.9 References
tures.
Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from
almost all public oces, as well as education at Englands 2.9.1 Bibliography
only two universities at the time (although dissenters were
Ashton, Thomas S. (1948). The Industrial Revolustill free to study at Scotlands four universities). When
tion (17601830)". Oxford University Press.
the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the ocial Anglican Church became manda Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). The Industrial
tory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in
Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe.
banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians,
London and New York: Routledge.
in particular, were very involved in education, by running
Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the univer Clapham, J. H. (1926). An Economic History of
sities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton
Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820
and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics
1850. Cambridge University Press.
and the sciencesareas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Clapham, J. H. The Economic Development of
France and Germany 18151914 (1936)
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national
Clark, Gregory (2007). A Farewell to Alms: A Brief
economies involved. While members of these sects were
Economic History of the World. Princeton Univerexcluded from certain circles of the government, they
sity Press. ISBN 0-691-12135-4.
were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent,
by many in the middle class, such as traditional nanciers
Daunton, M. J. (1995). Progress and Poverty:
or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and
An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700
the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more en1850. Oxford University Press.
terprising members of these sects would be to seek new
opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of
Dodd, William (1847). The Laboring Classes of
the scientic revolution of the 17th century.
England : especially those engaged in agriculture and
2.8 See also

General
Capitalism in the nineteenth century
Capitalist mode of production
Deindustrialization
Division of labour
Law of the handicap of a head start - Dialectics of
progress
Dual revolution
Economic history of the United Kingdom
Information revolution
manufactures; in a series of letters. Boston: John

Putnam.
Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). The Industrial
Revolution in France, 18151848. New York: Exposition Press.
Gatrell, Peter (2004).
Farm to factory: a
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doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x.
Grin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British
Industrial Revolution. Palgrave.
Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). The Chemical Industry
During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and
North America.
2.9. REFERENCES
Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). The Chemical Industry: 19001930: International Growth and Technological Change.
Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). Scientic Culture and
the Making of the Industrial West. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). A Financial
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Kisch, Herbert (1989). From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the
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Press.
Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997)
Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus:
Technological Change and Industrial Development
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of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-09418-6.
29
Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the
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Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale
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Smelser, Neil J. (1959). Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to
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Staley, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the History of
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Stearns, Peter N. (1998). The Industrial Revolution
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Usher, Abbott Payson (1920). An Introduction to
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2.9.2 Historiography
Chambliss, William J. (editor), Problems of Industrial Society, Reading, Massachusetts: AddisonWesley Publishing Co, December 1973. ISBN 9780-201-00958-3
Hawke, Gary. Reinterpretations of the Industrial
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30
2.9.3
Notes
[1] Landes 1969

[2] Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). Lectures on Economic
Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 109
10. ISBN 978-0-674-01601-9.
[3] Feinstein, Charles (September 1998).
Pessimism
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2014.
[4] Szreter & Mooney; Mooney (February 1998).
Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of
Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities. The
Economic History Review 51 (1): 104. doi:10.1111/14680289.00084. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
[5] Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789
1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 ISBN 0-34910484-0
[6] Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution
in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52101079-9 Read it
[7] Berg, Maxine; Hudson, Pat (1992). Rehabilitating the
Industrial Revolution. The Economic History Review
(The Economic History Review, Vol. 45, No. 1) 45 (1):
2450. doi:10.2307/2598327. JSTOR 2598327.
[8] Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November
2006.
[9] Robert Lucas, Jr. (2003). The Industrial Revolution.
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved 14
November 2007. it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe
1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per
capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth
also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per
capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around
$400 to $800 per year.
[10] Lucas, Robert (2003). The Industrial Revolution Past
and Future". [consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the rst 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent
for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for
the 18th century
[11] McCloskey, Deidre (2004). Review of The Cambridge
Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick
Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004.
[12] Taylor, George Rogers. The Transportation Revolution,
18151860. ISBN 978-0-87332-101-3. No name is given
to the transition years. The Transportation Revolution began with improved roads in the late 18th century.
[13] Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American

Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill,
New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by
Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 9780-917914-73-7).
[14] Hunter 1985
[15] Crouzet, Franois (1996). France. In Teich, Mikul;
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[20] Hunter year-1985
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[76] R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic

Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, page 339341 ISBN 0416-19500-8
[90] "Human Population: Population Growth: Question and

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[77] Kidd, Alan (2006). Manchester: A History. Lancaster:

Carnegie Publishing. ISBN 1-85936-128-5.
Frangopulo, Nicholas (1977). Tradition in Action. The
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[78] Life in Industrial Towns.
[79] Dunn, James (1905). From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life. ISBN 1-4344-6870-4.
[80] Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early
Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, page 30 ISBN 0-415-38218-1
[81] Bar, Michael; Leukhina, Oksana (2007). Demographic
Transition and Industrial Revolution: A Macroeconomic
Investigation (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF)
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decrease [in mortality] beginning in the second half of the
18th century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the mortality rates for the age
groups 5-10, 10-15, and 15-25 began in the mid-19th century, while that for the age group 0-5 began three decades
later. Although the survival rates for infants and children
were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life
expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the
average Briton was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see
gures 5 & 6, page 28). Population size statistics from
mortality.org put the mean age at about 26.
[91] Manchester (England, United Kingdom). Encyclopdia

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[92] Chris Evans, Gran Rydn, The Industrial Revolution
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[93] a word from Walloon origin
[94] Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes, in M. Neven and I. Devos (editors), 'Recent
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359 FLWI.ugent.be
[95] Philippe Raxhon, Le sicle des forges ou la Wallonie dans
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[97] Michel De Coster, Les enjeux des conits linguistiques,
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[98] Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, Breaking stereotypes,
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[99] Jean Marczewski, Y a-t-il eu un "take-o" en France ?
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[83] The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century [102] Bagnall, William R. The Textile Industries of the United
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[84] Venning, Annabel (17 September 2010). Britains child
slaves: They started at 4am, lived o acorns and had nails
[103] Made In Beverly-A History of Beverly Industry, by
put through their ears for shoddy work. Yet, says a new
Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Hisbook, their misery helped forge Britain. dailymail.co.uk
toric District Commission. 1989.
(London). Retrieved 19 September 2010.
[104] Encyclopdia Britannica (1998): Samuel Slater
[85] Testimony Gathered by Ashleys Mines Commission.
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[105] History. Bank of Japan. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
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[87] "Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child [107] Morison, Elting E. (1966). Men, Machines and ModLabor". The U.S. National Archives and Records Adminern Times. Cambridga, Ma and London, UK: The M.I.T
istration.
Press.
2.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
33
[108] Karl Marx: Communist as Religious Eschatologist PDF [126] South Asian History -Pages from the history of the Indian
(3.68 MB)
subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation.
Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published
[109] BBC Plague in Tudor and Stuart Britain. bbc.co.uk.
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[127] Julian Hoppit, The Nation, the State, and the First Indus[110] Steven Kreis (11 October 2006). The Origins of the Intrial Revolution, Journal of British Studies (April 2011)
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trieved 30 January 2011.
[128] Industrial Revolution, New World Encyclope[111] "Scientic Revolution". Microsoft Encarta Online Encydia,
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Industrial_Revolution>
[112] Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University
[129] Kiely, Ray (November 2011). Industrialization and DePress US. ISBN 0-7131-6531-6
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[113] Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). How Modern Is
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January 2009.
Retrieved 30 January 2011.
[115] Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cam[132] The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britains
bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29609-9 Read it
industrial growth. Among the rst complex industrial
[116] Eric Schi, Industrialisation without national patents:
manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that
the Netherlands, 18691912; Switzerland, 18501907,
produced material for British warships. For instance, the
Princeton University Press, 1971.
average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley
ttings. With a eet as large as the Royal Navy, and with
[117] Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, Against Intellecthese ttings needing to be replaced ever 4 to 5 years, this
tual Monopoly, Chapter 1, nal online version January
created a great demand which encouraged industrial ex2, 2008 PDF (55 KB), page 15. Cambridge University
pansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be
Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-87928-6
see as a similar factor.
[118] Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book rst published by D. Appleton-Century [133] Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and
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Energy]. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New
York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 1314. ISBN 0-486- [134] E A Wrigley, Continuity chance and change.
21071-5.
[135] The Lunar Society at the Wayback Machine (archived 7
[119] Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece? J.
February 2008) at Moreabout, the website of the BirmingBradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of
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California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved
January 2007.
[136] Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How
[120] The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England |The
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[121] Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). "Western Civilization: Since
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[122] Eric Bond, Sheena Gingerich, Oliver Archer-Antonsen,
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Britain Became the First Industrial Nation. Northwich:

Arley Hall Press. ISBN 0-9518382-4-5. Argues that
capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution
made the industrial revolution possible, for example.
2.10 External links

Industrial Revolution at DMOZ
[123] Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 Simulating early

modern growth PDF (254 KB) Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of
Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007.
Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial

Revolution
[124] Merson 1990, pp. 345
National Museum of Science and Industry website:

machines and personalities
[125] How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor Iain Stewart
BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution
34
Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution
Revolutionary Players website
The Industrial RevolutionArticles, Video, Pictures, and Facts
Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by
Clark Nardinelli the debate over whether standards
of living rose or fell.
The History of the Count House of Ding Dong
Mine, Cornwall where Richard Trevithick carried
out his rst experiments with high pressure steam
The Day the World Took O Six part video series
from the University of Cambridge tracing the question Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when
and where it did.
Chapter 3
Modern architecture
This article is about modern movement architecture. For
architecture in the present day, see contemporary architecture.
Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City (1959), interior, by Frank Lloyd Wright.
term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact denition and scope varying widely.[1] The term is
often applied to modernist movements at the turn of the
20th century, with eorts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would
take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in tension with one
another, and often equally defying such classication.[1]
The term Modern architecture may be used to dierentiate from Classical architecture following Vitruvian ideals,
while it is also applied to various contemporary architecture styles such as Postmodern, High-tech or even New
Classical, depending on the context. In art history, the
revolutionary and neoclassical styles that evolved around
1800 are also called modern.
The concept of modernism is a central theme in the
eorts of 20th century modern architecture. Gaining
global popularity especially after the Second World War,
architectural modernism was adopted by many architects and architectural educators, and continued as a
dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21st century. Modernism even-
Contrasts in modern architecture, as shown by adjacent highrises in Chicago, Illinois. IBM Plaza (right), by Ludwig Mies van
der Rohe, is a later example of the clean rectilinear lines and glass
of the International Style, whereas Marina City, (left), by his student Bertrand Goldberg, reects a more sculptural Mid-Century
Modern aesthetic.
tually generated reactions, most notably Postmodernism

which sought to preserve pre-modern elements, while
Neo-modernism has emerged as a reaction to Postmodernism.
Notable architects important to the history and devel-
35
36
CHAPTER 3. MODERN ARCHITECTURE
opment of the modernist movement include Ludwig

Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius,
Erich Mendelsohn, Frank Lloyd Wright, Joseph Eichler,
Richard Neutra, Louis Sullivan, Gerrit Rietveld, Bruno
Taut, Arne Jacobsen, Oscar Niemeyer and Alvar Aalto.
3.1 Characteristics
The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the rst buildings to have
vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in Modernist architecture.
The Salk Institute complex in La Jolla, California, by architect

Louis Kahn.
Common themes of modern architecture include:

the notion that "Form follows function", a dictum
originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early
mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose
simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of
unnecessary detail
materials at 90 degrees to each other
visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements)
the related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a
material ought to be seen rather than concealed or
altered to represent something else
use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of
the machine aesthetic
particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines
Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result of social
and political revolutions.[2] Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering
developments. Still other historians regard Modernism
as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the
lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture.
With the Industrial Revolution, the availability of newlyavailable building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet
glass drove the invention of new building techniques. In
1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage rst used his
'reproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with
ag stone oors. Such construction greatly strengthened
the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of
irons properties as a construction material, a number of
early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that
Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading
to widespread use of iron construction. This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description of
places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as
Dark satanic mills. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example
of iron and glass construction, followed in 1864 by the
rst glass and metal curtain wall. A further development
was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago around
1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
3.3 Early modernism
Around 1900 a number of architects and designers

around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic, for
There are multiple lenses through which the evolution instance) with new technological possibilities. The work
of modern architecture may be viewed. Some histori- of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago,
ans see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona,
3.2 Context
3.3. EARLY MODERNISM

Otto Wagner and the Vienna Secession in Austria, and
Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many
others, can be seen as a common struggle between old
and new. The work of some of these were a part of
what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau (New Art).
Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "",
and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, Modernismo are
cognates of the English word Modern though they carry
dierent meanings. An early use of the term in print
around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in
the title of a book by Otto Wagner.[3][4] The fallout of
the First World War resulted in additional experimentation and ideas. Following out of the experiments in Art
Nouveau and its related movements around the world,
modernism in architecture and design grew out of stylistic threads originating throughout the world.
3.3.1
In the United States
37
(i.e. US-onian) take on modernism. It would be several
decades before European architects would in turn bring
their version of modern architecture to the United States.
3.3.2 In Italy: Futurism

Main article: Futurist architecture
Futurist architecture began in the early 20th century,
characterized by anti-historicism and long horizontal
lines suggesting speed, motion and urgency. Technology
and even violence were among the themes of the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet Filippo
Tommaso Marinetti, who produced its rst manifesto,
the Manifesto of Futurism in 1909. The movement attracted not only poets, musicians artist (such as Umberto
Boccioni, Giacomo Balla, Fortunato Depero, and Enrico
Prampolini) but also a number of architects. Among the
latter there was Antonio Sant'Elia, who, though he built
little (being killed in WWI), translated the Futurist vision
into bold urban form. The unbuilt designs and theories
of Futurists went on to inuence both the Constructivists
and a branch of Italian Fascist architecture.
3.3.3 In Soviet Union: Constructivism

Main article: Constructivist architecture
Following the 1917 revolutions in Russia, the societal
The Robie House, 1910, in Chicago, Illinois.
See also: Frank Lloyd Wright, Joseph Eichler and

Richard Neutra
Wrights Larkin Building (1904) in Bualo, New York,
Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois, and the Robie
House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the rst
examples of modern architecture in the United States.
Frank Lloyd Wright was a major inuence on European
architects, including both Walter Gropius (founder of the
Bauhaus) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, as well as on
the whole of organic architecture. Gropius claimed that
his bible for forming the Bauhaus was 100 Frank Lloyd
Wright drawings that the architect shared with Germany
over a decade prior to this point, the Wasmuth Portfolio.
While Wrights career would parallel that of European architects, he refused to be categorized with them, claiming that they copied his ideas. Many architects in Germany believed that Wrights life would be wasted in the
United States, since the US was not ready for his newer
architecture.[5] During the 1930s, Wright would experiment with his Usonian ideas for a uniquely U.S. American
Rusakov Workers Club, Moscow, by Konstantin Melnikov (1928)
upheaval and change was coupled with a desire for a new

aesthetic, one more in keeping with the Communist philosophy and societal goals of the new state, in contrast to
the ornate Neoclassicism that had prevailed prior. This
resulted in a new style, Constructivism, with a new set
of buildings in the spotlight - namely, workers clubs,
commune-houses and communal 'factory-kitchens. Constructivist architecture was proclaimed to be the architectural style aimed at promulgating a new, socialist society. Konstantin Melnikov, a Russian Constructivist architect, designed the number of working clubs - includ-
38
ing Rusakov Workers Club (1928) - and his own living house, Melnikov House (1929) near Arbat Street in
Moscow. The leading group of constructivist architects,
led by Vesnin brothers and Moisei Ginzburg, was publishing the 'Contemporary Architecture' journal. This group
created several major constructivist projects in the wake
of the First Five Year Plan - including colossal Dnieper
Hydroelectric Station (1932) - and made an attempt to
start the 'typization' of living blocks with Ginzburgs
Narkomn building. A number of architects who already
were recognized professional before 1917, like Alexey
Shchusev[6] or Ivan Fomin, were successfully working under new conditions, providing several important examples of constructivist style, including Lenins Mausoleum
The AEG Turbinenfabrik (turbine factory), 1909, designed by
in Moscow (1930).
Peter Behrens, illustrating the combination of industry and design.
Arts and Crafts movement
Derzhprom (the House of Industry), Kharkiv, by Sergey Seramovich, Samul Kravets and Marc Felger (1928)
Spanning the gap between the ideals of the Arts and

Crafts movement, and the Modernism of the 1920s, was
the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a
German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of a three-volume The English House of 1905,
a survey of the practical lessons of the English Arts
and Crafts movement and a leading political and cultural
commentator.[8] The purpose of the Werkbund was to
sponsor the attempt to integrate traditional crafts with the
techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally included twelve architects and twelve business rms, but quickly expanded. The architects include
Peter Behrens, Theodor Fischer (who served as its rst
president), Josef Homann and Richard Riemerschmid.
Joseph August Lux, an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its agenda.[9]
The main centers of constructivist architecture were

Moscow and Sain-Petersburg; however, during the industrialization lots of constructivist buildings were erected
in provincial cities. The regional industrial centers, like
Ekaterinburg, Kharkiv or Ivanovo, were rebuilt in the
constructivist manner; some cities, like Magnitogorsk or As a result of isolation during World War I, an art and
Zaporizhia, were constructed anew (the so-called soc- design movement developed unique to the Netherlands,
gorod, or 'socialist city').
known as De Stijl (literally the style), characterized by
The style prospered, but fell markedly out of favor during its use of line and primary colors. While producing little
the design competition for the Palace of the Soviets from architectural design overall (with notable exception of the
1931 to 1933, losing to a more traditional revivalism of Rietveld Schrder House of 1924), its ideas went on to
Russian architecture with nationalistic overtones, after- inuence the architects and designers of the 1920s.
wards termed Postconstructivism. However, the whole
process was rather complicated, and the inuence of constructivism was still present in projects like Soviet pavil- Expressionism
lion at Paris World Exhibition (1937) designed by Boris
Iofan.[7] This resulted in the ultimate demise of the Rus- Main article: Expressionist architecture
sian branch of early architectural modernism, though not
before it had a chance to inuence architects elsewhere,
Expressionism was an architectural movement that develsuch as Le Corbusier.
oped in Northern Europe during the rst decades of the
20th century in parallel with the expressionist visual and
performing arts. Making notable use of sculptural forms
and the novel use of concrete as artistic elements, exam3.3.4 In Western Europe
ples include Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built
3.3. EARLY MODERNISM
The Second Goetheanum, 19241928, in Basel, Switzerland, is

an example of architectural Expressionism.
39
The Bauhaus building at Dessau, Germany, designed by Walter

Gropius
from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland and the Einsteinturm

in Potsdam, Germany.
from 1928 to 1931. As in Russia, political pressures
The style was characterised by an early-modernist adop- turned against the modernists. With the rise of Nazism
tion of novel materials, formal innovation, and very un- in 1933, the German experiments in modernism were reusual massing, sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic placed by more traditionalist architectural forms.
forms, sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel and especially
glass. Many expressionist architects fought in World War 3.3.5 Style Moderne: tradition and modernism
I and their experiences, combined with the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the German Revolution of 1919, resulted in a utopian outlook and a roman- Main articles: Art Deco and Streamline Moderne
tic socialist agenda.[10] Economic conditions severely lim- Following World War I, a stylistic movement developed
ited the number of built commissions between 1914 and
the mid-1920s,[11] resulting in many of the most important expressionist works remaining as projects on paper,
such as Bruno Taut's Alpine Architecture and Hermann
Finsterlin's Formspiels. Ephemeral exhibition buildings
were numerous and highly signicant during this period.
Scenography for theatre and lms provided another outlet
for the expressionist imagination,[12] and provided supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge
conventions in a harsh economic climate. A particular
type, using bricks to create its forms (rather than concrete) is known as Brick Expressionism.
Greyhound Bus Station in Cleveland, Ohio, showing the
Streamline Moderne aesthetic.
Modernism reaches critical mass
that embraced ideas of both modernism (or at least modernization) and traditionalism. It is characterized by the
adoption of the machine aesthetic, glorication of technological advancement and new materials, while at the
same time adopting or loosely retaining revivalist forms
and motifs, and the continued use of ornament.
See also: New Objectivity (architecture) and Bauhaus

It was at this time, during the 1920s, that the most important gures in Modern architecture established their
reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as
Le Corbusier in France, and Walter Gropius and Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe in Germany, all of whom trained un- In the case of the Art deco, decorative motifs included
der Peter Behrens.
both those evocative of technology (such as the lightGropius and Mies van der Rohe both served as directors ning bolt (electricity) or the tire (the automobile)), and
of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and those of the exotic (such as drawing elements from
associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition Mesoamerican, African, and Ancient Egyptian designs).
and industrial technology. Mies van der Rohe designed Frank Lloyd Wright himself experimented with Mayan
the German pavilion (known afterward as the Barcelona Revival, culminating in the concrete cube-based Ennis
Pavilion) at the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. House of 1924 in Los Angeles.
Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier and his cousin, was built A later variant, Streamline Moderne, simultaneously both
40
played a role in industrial design and borrowed forms war enameled-steel Lustron house (19471950), and
from machines themselves.
Buckminster Fullers experimental aluminum Dymaxion
[16]
More restrained forms with national imagery were House.
adopted. In the United States, it took the form of
"Stripped Classicism" (alternatively, "PWA Moderne" or
WPA Moderne) a stark version of the Neoclassicism of 3.4 International Style
Federal buildings earlier in the century.[13] It application
ranged in scale from local post-oces to the Pentagon. Main article: International Style (architecture)
At the same time (as noted above), the rise in national- In 1932 (prior to World War II), the International Exhibiism was reected in the Stalinist architecture of the Soviet
Union, Fascist architecture of Italy, and Nazi architecture
of Germany, what historian Kenneth Frampton termed
the New Tradition.[14] To a less political extent, such
an idea of modernized tradition could also be seen in contemporaneous Mycenaean Revival architecture.
During and following World War II, this broad branch of
modern architecture declined, with the rise of the International Style and other mid-century architecture.
3.3.6
Wartime innovation
Quonset hut en route to Japan
World War II (19391945) and its aftermath was a major

factor in driving innovation in building technology, and
in turn, architectural possibilities.[13][15] The wartime industrial demands resulting in a supply shortage (of such
things as steel and other metals), in turn leading to the
adoption of new materials, and advancement or novel use
of old ones. Similarly, surplus postwar industrial capacity
accelerated the use of new materials and techniques, particular architectural aluminium (as a result of advances
made in its use in aircraft, etc., during the war).[15] At the
same time, there was a rapid demand for structures during the war (such as military and governmental facilities)
as well as for housing after the war.
These factors encouraged experiments with prefabricated
building. Though examples of prefabrication have existed since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,
with notable examples during the Interwar period such
as the diner, the semi-circular metal Nissen hut of
World War I revived as the Quonset hut, the post-
The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958, by Ludwig Mies

van der Rohe, is regarded as one of the nest examples of
the functionalist aesthetic and a masterpiece of corporate modernism.
tion of Modern Architecture was held at the Museum of

Modern Art in New York City. Philip Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many
distinct threads and trends in architecture, identied them
as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and
consolidated them into the International style. This was a
turning point. However, for the remainder of the Interwar
period, the Moderne styles overshadowed this movement.
With the labeling of modernist art and architecture in
Germany as degenerate, followed by World War II, important gures of the Bauhaus and New Objectivity ed
to the United States: Marcel Breuer and Walter Gropius
went to the Harvard Graduate School of Design (the former becoming part of a group known as the "Harvard
Five"), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe to Chicago, with oth-
3.5. URBAN DESIGN AND MASS HOUSING

ers going to Black Mountain College. Still others ed to
British Palestine, contributing to the design of the White
City of Tel Aviv.
41
3.5 Urban design and mass housing
While high-style modernist architectural design never became dominant in single-dwelling residential buildings in
the United States, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the
schools (for leaders of the architectural profession) the
only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about
1984.
Architects who worked in the International style wanted
to break with architectural tradition and design simple,
unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade (usually a curtain wall),
steel for exterior support, and concrete for the oors and
interior supports; oor plans were functional and logical.
The style became most evident in the design of skyscrap- "Horseshoe Estate", Berlin (19251933)
ers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include
the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar
Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building
and the Toronto-Dominion Centre (Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill).
In the United States, a prominent early residential example was the Lovell House in Los Angeles, designed by
Austrian expatriate Richard Neutra in the 1920s. Other
examples include the Case Study Houses. Commissioned
between 1945 and 1966, the twenty or so homes that
were built primarily in and around Los Angeles, designed
by architects such as Neutra and Americans Charles and
Ray Eames (the Eames House) have attracted hundreds
of thousands of visitors since their completion, and have
inuenced many architects over the years, notably the
British architect, Michael Manser, whose domestic work
is best exemplied by Capel Manor House in Kent. These
and other Modern residences tend to focus on humanizing
the otherwise harsh ideal, making them more livable and
ultimately more appealing to real people. Many of these
designs use a similar tactic: blurring the line between indoor and outdoor spaces.[17] This is achieved by embracing the box while at the same time dissolving it into the
background with minimal structure and large glass walls,
as was particularly the case with the Farnsworth House by
Mies van der Rohe and the Glass House by Philip Johnson, the later part of a set of residences by the Harvard
Five in New Canaan, Connecticut. Some critics claim
that these spaces remain too cold and static for the average person to function, however. The materials utilized in
a large number of Modern homes are not hidden behind
a softening facade. While this may make them somewhat
less desirable for the general public, most modernist architects see this as a necessary and pivotal tenet of Modernism: uncluttered and purely Minimal design.
National Congress of Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer, in the

modernist-designed city of Braslia.
Main articles: Congrs International d'Architecture

Moderne and Athens Charter
See also: Urban renewal
During the interwar period high-quality architecture was
built on a large scale in some growing European cities
including Berlin, Frankfurt, Vienna, and Rotterdam for
broad sections of the population, including poorer people. In particular the Berlin housing estates built before
the beginning of National Socialism set standards worldwide. They are seen right up to today as a major political
and organisational achievement and therefore have been
added to the UNESCO World heritage list in 2008.[18]
As a result of the economically dicult situation during
the Weimar Republic, housing construction, which up to
that time had been mainly privately nanced and protoriented, had found itself at a dead end. Ination was on
the up and for citizens on low incomes decent housing was
becoming increasingly unaordable.
Consequently, the search was on to nd new models for
state-initiated housing construction, which could then be
implemented with a passion from 1920 on following the
creation of Greater Berlin and the accompanying reform
of local and regional government. The requirements for
42
the type of ats to be built and the facilities they were to
have were clearly dened, and the city was divided into
dierent building zones. Following some basic ideas of
the Garden city movement two- to three-storey housing
estates that were well integrated into the landscape of the
suburbs of the city were planned. The rst large estate of
this type with more than 2,000 residential units was the
so-called Hufeisensiedlung (Horseshoe Estate) designed
by Bruno Taut in Berlin.

while at the same time retaining highly modernist characteristics. Eero Saarinen, Alvar Aalto and Oscar Niemeyer
were three of the most prolic architects and designers in
this movement, which has inuenced contemporary modernism.
After World War II the Congrs Internationaux

d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) was a force in shaping
modernist urban planning, and consequently the design
of cities and the structures within, from 1928 to 1959.
Its 1933 meeting resulted in the basis of what became
the Athens Charter, which would drive urban planning
practice for much of the mid-20th century. Following
its principles, in the late 1950s the entirely-new city of
Braslia was built as a new capital for Brazil, designed
by Lucio Costa, with prominent works for it designed
by Oscar Niemeyer. Le Corbusier applied CIAMs
TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy Airport, New York, 1962, by
principles in his design for the city of Chandigarh in
Eero Saarinen
India.
The devastation that WWII wrought in Europe, Asia, and
the Pacic and subsequent post-war housing shortages resulted in a vast building and rebuilding of cities, with a
variety of techniques employed for the creation of masshousing. One attempt to solve this was by using the Tower
block. In the Eastern Bloc, mass housing took the form
of prefabricated panel buildings, such as the Plattenbau of
East Germany, Khrushchyovka of Russia and the Panelk
of Czechoslovakia.
3.6 Mid-Century reactions

New Formalism
Saint Johns Abbey Church, Collegeville, Minnesota, United

States, by Marcel Breuer, 1958-1961
Further information: Mid-Century modern
Central Library of UNAM, in Mexico City, 1950-1956, showing

the detailed artwork of plastic integration.
Le Corbusier once described buildings as machines for

As the International Style took hold, others architects re- living, but people are not machines and it was suggested
acted to or strayed from its purely functionalist forms, that they do not want to live in machines. During the
3.7. LATE 20TH-CENTURY REACTIONS AND MOVEMENTS

middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and
accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Expressionist exploration of form was revived,
such as in the Sydney Opera House in Australia by Jrn
Utzon. Eero Saarinen invoked suggestions of ight in
his designs for the terminal at Dulles International Airport outside of Washington, D.C, or the TWA Terminal
in New York, both nished in 1962.[19] The Mission 66
project of the United States National Park Service was
also built during this time.
43
patterns and ying saucers, respectively, such as in the

Space Needle in Seattle. Though the style was unique to
the United States, similar iconography can be seen in the
Atomium in Brussels.
A distinctly Mexican take on modernism, plastic integration, was a syncretization of Mexican artistic
traditions (such as muralism) with International Style
forms,[22] and can be seen in the later works of Luis Barragn and Juan O'Gorman, epitomized by the Ciudad
Universitaria of UNAM in Mexico City.[23]
Contributing to these expressions were structural ad- 3.6.1 Brutalism and monumentality
vances that enabled new forms to be possible or desirable. Flix Candela, a Spanish expatriate living in Mex- Main article: Brutalist architecture
ico, and Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi, made particu- Architects such as Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Marcel
lar strides in the use of reinforced concrete and concrete
shell construction. In 1954, Buckminster Fuller patented
the geodesic dome.
Another stylistic reaction was "New Formalism"
(or Neo-Formalism, sometimes shortened to
Formalism).[19][20] Like the pre-war Stripped
Classicism, New Formalism blended elements of
classicism (at their most abstracted levels) with modernist
designs.[21] Characteristics drawing on classicism include
rigid symmetry, use of columns and colonnades or
arcades, and use of high-end materials (such as marble or
granite), yet works in this vein also characteristically use
the at roofs common with the International Style.[19][21]
Architects working in this mode included Edward
Durrell Stone, Minoru Yamasaki, and some of the
middle-period work of Philip Johnson, with examples in
the United States including the Kennedy Center (1971)
and the National Museum of American History (1964)
in Washington, D.C., and the Lincoln Center for the
Performing Arts (mid-1960s) in New York.[19][21]
The National Assembly Building of Bangladesh by Louis Kahn;

compare its weightiness with works above.
Breuer, I.M. Pei and others responded to the light glass

curtain walls advocated by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
by creating architecture with an emphasis on more substantial materials, such as concrete and brick, and creating works with a monumental quality. Brutalism is
a term derived from the use of "Bton brut" (raw concrete), unadorned, often with the mold marks remaining,
though as a stylistic tendency, Brutalism would ultimately
be applied more broadly to include the use of other materials such as brickwork in a similar fashion. The term
was rst used in architecture by Le Corbusier.
3.7 Late 20th-century reactions

and movements
The Theme Building and control tower in Los Angeles International Airport.
3.7.1 High-tech architecture
Arising shortly after the end of World War II, a particular

set of stylistic tendencies in the United States during this Further information: High-tech architecture
time is known as Googie (or populuxe), derived from
futuristic visions inspired by the imagery of the Atomic High-tech architecture, also known as Late Modernism
Age and Space Age, with motifs such as atomic orbital or Structural Expressionism, is an architectural style that
44
emerged in the 1970s, incorporating elements of hightech industry and technology into building design. Hightech architecture appeared as a revamped modernism, an
extension of those previous ideas helped by even more
technological advances. This category serves as a bridge
between modernism and post-modernism, however there
remain gray areas as to where one category ends and the
other begins. In the 1980s, high-tech architecture became more dicult to distinguish from post-modern architecture. Some of its themes and ideas were later absorbed into the style of neo-futurism art and architectural
movement.
3.7.2
certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as

in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion.
At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium
discussed the question Modern Architecture: Death or
Metamorphosis?"
Postmodern architecture
Main article: Postmodern architecture

Modern architecture met with some criticism, which be-
The Kaleida Health Gates Vascular Institute in Bualo, New

York, illustrates a cube like design wrapped with modern accents.
The loss of traditionalist structures to make way for

new modernist construction, especially via the Urban Renewal movement, led to further criticism, particularly the
demolition of New York Penn Station in 1963. That
same year, controversy materialized around the Pan Am
Building that loomed over Grand Central Terminal, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of
"air rights",[24] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and
Douglass Haskell it was seen to sever the Park Avenue
streetscape and tarnish the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and
the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The proposal for a
tower over the terminal itself resulted in the landmark
U.S. Supreme Court case Penn Central Transportation
Co. v. New York City, upholding the citys landmark
laws. Alongside these preservation eorts came the increasing respectability and fashionability of more traditional styles.
Architects explored Postmodern architecture which offered a blend of some pre-modern elements, and deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. Even Philip Johnson came to
admit that he was bored with the box. By the 1980s,
postmodern architecture appeared to trend over modernism.
High Postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the
The Sony Tower (formerly AT&T building) in New York City, mid-1990s, a new surge of modern architecture once
1984, by Philip Johnson, illustrating a Postmodern spin on the again established international pre-eminence. As part of
boxy oce towers that preceded it with the inclusion of a classical this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists was
broken pediment on the top.
re-evaluated; and a modernistic style once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary pracgan in the 1960s on the grounds that it seemed universal, tice. Although modern and postmodern design compete
elitist, and lacked meaning. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 with a revival of traditional architectural design in comintroduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Archi- mercial and institutional architecture; residential design
tecture (rst written in 1941), began At the moment a continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
3.8. EXAMPLES OF CONTEMPORARY MODERN ARCHITECTURE
3.7.3
Neomodern architecture
Further information: Neomodern

Neomodernism is a reaction to Postmodernism and its
embrace of pre-modern elements of design. Examples of modern architecture in the 21st century include
One World Trade Center (2013) in New York City and
Tour First (2011), the tallest oce building in the Paris
metropolitan area. Emporis named Chicagos Modern
Aqua Tower (2009) its skyscraper of the year.[25]
3.7.4
Neofuturistic architecture
Further information: Neo-Futurism

Neo-futurism is a departure from post-modernism connected with an idealistic belief in a better future. Neofuturist urbanists, architects, designers and artists believe
in cities releasing emotions, driven by eco-sustainability
and ethical values and implementing new materials and
new technologies[26] to provide a better quality of life for
residents.[27] Pioneered from early 60s and late 70s by
Finnish architect Eero Saarinen;[28][29] American architect Adrian Wilson[30] and Charles Luckman;[31][32] Danish architects Henning Larsen[33] and Jrn Utzon;[34] the
architectural movement was later named Neo-Futurism
by French architect Denis Laming. He designed all
of the buildings in Futuroscope, whose Kinemax is the
agship building.[35] In the early 21st century, NeoFuturism has been relaunched in December 2006 by innovation designer Vito Di Bari with the futuristic vision for the city of Milan[36] at the time of the Universal Expo 2015 included in the candidature presented to
BIE (Bureau of International Expositions)[37] and envisioning the convergence of art, cutting edge technologies and ethical values, later dened by Spanish architect
Santiago Calatrava as a fusion of architecture, art and
engineering[38] and by Danish architect Bjarke Ingels as
a pragmatic utopian architecture that takes on the creation of socially and environmentally perfect places.[39]
Architects working in this mode include Pritzker Architecture Prize Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid[40][41][42]
and Japanese Ryue Nishizawa;[43] Lubetkin Prize Winner British Thomas Heatherwick,[44][45] Spanish architects Santiago Calatrava,[46][47][48] Fermn Vzquez,[49]
and Enric Massip-Bosch[50] and artists such as Indian
sculptor Anish Kapoor,[51][52] Italian large-scale buildings artist Mario Arlati and Dutch kinetic sculptor Theo
Jansen.[53]
3.7.5
New Urbanism and New Classical

Architecture
45
approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical
design.[54][55] This in contrast to modernist and globally
uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[56] Both trends
started in the 1980s. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is
an award that recognizes eorts in New Urbanism and
New Classical Architecture, and is endowed with a prize
money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker
Prize.[57]
3.8 Examples of contemporary

modern architecture
Warszawa Centralna railway station (1975) in
Warsaw
Crystal Cathedral (1980) in Garden Grove, California
Tour Total (1985) in the Paris suburb Courbevoie,
La Dfense district
Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz de Tenerife
(2003)
Borgata (2003) in Atlantic City
Eureka Tower (2006) in Melbourne
Trump International Hotel and Tower (2009) in
Chicago
Reina Sofa Museum in Madrid (2013)
Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias in Valencia (1998)
3.9 Preservation
In 2007, the Sydney Opera House by Jrn Utzon was listed as a

World Heritage Site.
Several works or collections of modern architecture have

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism been designated by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.
and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable In addition to the early experiments associated with Art
46
Nouveau, these include a number of the structures mentioned above in this article: the Rietveld Schrder House
in Utrecht, the Bauhaus structures in Weimar and Dessau,
the Berlin Modernism Housing Estates, the White City of
Tel Aviv, the city of Brasilia, the Ciudad Universitaria of
UNAM in Mexico City and the University City of Caracas in Venezuela, and the Sydney Opera House.
Private organizations such as Docomomo International,
the World Monuments Fund, and the Recent Past Preservation Network are working to safeguard and document
imperiled Modern architecture. In 2006, the World Monuments Fund launched Modernism at Risk, an advocacy
and conservation program.
Following the destruction caused by Hurricane Katrina,
Modern structures in New Orleans have been increasingly
slated for demolition. Plans are underway to demolish
many of the citys Modern public schools, as well as large
portions of the citys Civic Plaza. Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) funds will contribute to
razing the State Oce Building and State Supreme Court
Building, both designed by the collaborating architectural
rms of August Perez and Associates; Goldstein, Parham
and Labouisse; and Favrot, Reed, Mathes and Bergman.
The New Orleans Recovery School District has proposed
demolitions of schools designed by Charles R. Colbert,
Curtis and Davis, and Ricciuti Associates. The 1959
Lawrence and Saunders building for the New Orleans
International Longshoremens Association Local 1419 is
currently threatened with demolition although the union
supports its conservation.
3.10 See also

Modern furniture
Modern art
International style (architecture)
Organic architecture
Critical regionalism
Congrs International d'Architecture Moderne
3.11 References
[1] Growth, Eciency, and Modernism (PDF). U.S. General Services Administration. 2006 [2003]. pp. 1415.
Retrieved March 2011.
[2] Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art Design
and Architecture, New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN
0-312-21830-3 (cloth) ISBN 0-312-21832-X (pbk)
[3] Otto Wagner. Moderne Architektur: Seinen Schlern ein
Fhrer auf diesem Kunstgebiete. Anton Schroll. 1902.
[4] Otto Wagner. Translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave.

Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This
Field of Art. Getty Center for the History of Art and the
Humanities. 1988. ISBN 0-226-86938-5
[5] December 2014 Frank Lloyd Wright Dies; Famed Architect Was 89. 2010.
[6] Alexey Shchusev (1873-1949)". Retrieved 2015-08-16.
[7] Udoviki-Selb, Danilo (2012-01-01). Facing Hitlers
Pavilion: The Uses of Modernity in the Soviet
Pavilion at the 1937 Paris International Exhibition.
Journal of Contemporary History 47 (1): 1347.
doi:10.1177/0022009411422369. ISSN 0022-0094.
[8] Lucius Burckhardt (1987) . The Werkbund. ? : Hyperion Press. ISBN. Frederic J. Schwartz (1996). The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture Before the First
World War. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press.
ISBN.
[9] Mark Jarzombek. Joseph August Lux: Werkbund Promoter, Historian of a Lost Modernity, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 63/1 (June 2004): 202
219.
[10] Jencks, p. 59
[11] Sharp, p. 68
[12] Pehnt, p. 163
[13] Growth, Eciency, and Modernism (PDF). U.S. General Services Administration. 2006 [2003]. p. 27. Retrieved March 2011.
[14] Frampton, Kenneth (1980 (1992)). Modern Architecture:
A Critical History (3rd ed.). Thames and Hudson. pp.
210218. ISBN 0-500-20257-5. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[15] Thomas C. Jester, ed. (1995). Twentieth-Century Building
Materials. McGraw-Hill. pp. 4142, 4849. ISBN 0-07032573-1.
[16] Thomas C. Jester, ed. (1995). Twentieth-Century Building
Materials. McGraw-Hill. p. 259. ISBN 0-07-032573-1.
[17] Paul Adamson, AIA. "California Modernism: Models for
Contemporary Housing" arcCa Archive accessed September 3, 2009.
[18] Berlin Modernism Housing Estates. Inscription on the
UNESCO World Heritage List; German/English; Editor:
Berlin Monument Authority - ISBN 978-3-03768-000-1
[19] Growth, Eciency, and Modernism (PDF). U.S. General Services Administration. 2006 [2003]. pp. 16, 34.
Retrieved March 2011.
[20] Handlin, David P. (2004) [1985]. American Architecture.
Thames & Hudson. pp. 247248. ISBN 0-500-20373-3.
[21] New Formalism. Performing Arts Center of Los Angeles County. Retrieved March 2011.; excerpting from
HABS documentation: Los Angeles Music Center. Historic American Building Survey.
3.11. REFERENCES
[22] Plastic Integration. Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad (Website). UNAM. Retrieved March 2011.
[23] Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (UNAM)". World Heritage
List. UNESCO. Retrieved March 2011.
[24] Meredith L. Clausen, 2005. The Pan Am building and
the shattering of the Modernist Dream (Cambridge: MIT
Press) (On-line analytical review)
[25] http://www.nbcchicago.com/around-town/real-estate/
aqua-chicago-skyscraper-award-84988917.html
[26] Hal Foster, Neo-Futurism: Architecture and Technology,
AA Files No. 14 (Spring 1987). Published by: Architectural Association School of Architecture http://www.
jstor.org/stable/29543561
[27] Neofuturism Architecture And Technology, SCI-Arc
Media Archive. Sma.sciarc.edu. 1987-10-05. Retrieved
2014-01-25.
[28] http://www.archdaily.com/tag/eero-saarinen/
[29] http://www.fastcodesign.com/3017042/
eero-saarinens-twa-terminal-will-become-a-luxury-hotel
[30] http://www.architecturaldigest.com/contributors/
adrian-wilson
[31] Hugh Pearman,
Airports:
A Century of
Architecture,
http://www.amazon.com/
Airports-Century-Architecture-Hugh-Pearman/dp/
081095012X
[32] http://www.preservationdallas.org/wp-content/uploads/
2013/02/December-2012-Member-Newsletter.pdf
[33] http://opera-cake.blogspot.com/2010/10/
neo-futurism-at-danish-royal-opera.html
[34] http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=3758
[35] http://laming.fr
[36] Expo 2015: Innovation Design by Vito Di Bari.
YouTube. Retrieved 2014-01-25
[37] http://host-66165.isiline.net/archivio/imgup/File/
Chapter%2020.pdf
[38] Philip Jodidio,
Santiago Calatrava,
Taschen,
http://www.taschen.com/pages/en/catalogue/
2010
architecture/all/44908/facts.santiago_calatrava_
complete_works_1979_2009.htm retrieved 2014-01-25
[39] Yes is More. An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution
http://www.taschen.com/pages/en/catalogue/
architecture/all/18509/facts.yes_is_more_an_
archicomic_on_architectural_evolution.htm Retrieved
2014-01-25
[40] Dubais Futuristic Floating Building by Zaha Hadid
http://www.mymodernmet.com/profiles/blogs/
zaha-hadid-architects-opus-office-tower 2013-11-13
Retrieved 2014-01-25
47
[41] 15 Most Futuristic Architecture Projects of

Zaha
Hadid
http://www.decoist.com/2013-03-14/
futuristic-architecture-zaha-hadid/ Retrieved 2013-0125
[42] Futuristic Design of Miamis One Thousand Museum Tower by Zaha Hadid http://blog.archpaper.com/
wordpress/archives/76062 2013-11-27 Retrieved 201401-25
[43] The experimental Rolex Learning Centre at Lausannes Federal Institute of Technology, designed
by Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa http:
//www.swissinfo.ch/eng/science_technology/Futuristic_
student_centre_opens_doors.html?cid=8323180 201002-22. Retrieved 2014-01- 25
[44] http://designmuseum.org/design/thomas-heatherwick
[45] Radhika Sawhney, 07/23/13 http://inhabitat.com/

thomas-heatherwick-designs-a-futuristic-learning-hub-for-nanyang-universi
nanyanguniversitylearning-hub_thomas-heatherwick2/
2013-07-25
[46] http://indulgy.com/post/lYCCF7fTw1/
futuristic-architecture-santiago-calatrava-futur
[47] http://clashot.com/report-1214583-Auditorio-de-Tenerife-futuristic-building
html
[48] http://prezi.com/zfqnerlq-kvd/
futurism-and-santiago-calatrava/
[49] Agbar Tower, a futurist skyscraper in Barcelona
http://www.apartmentdistrict.com/blog/en/
apartmentdistrict/barcelona-agbar-tour/
[50] Torre Diagonal ZeroZero:
a futurist landmark
in
Barcelona
www.cultureforfriends.eu/article/
torre-diagonal
[51] http://yvonnekturner.blogspot.com/2012/03/
anish-kapoor-ultimate-city-futurist.html
12 Retrieved 2014-01-25
2012-03-
[52] http://blog.olenska.com/2011/06/28/
three-futuristic-views-inside-anish-kapoor-at-the-grand-palais/
[53] http://www.bozux.com/
theo-jansen-art-in-the-form-of-science/
in Art, Futurism 2013-11-13
by
Bozzou
[54] Charter of the New Urbanism

[55] Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future. Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23
March 2014.
[56] Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on
2014-03-23.
[57] Driehaus Prize. Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize
and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most signicant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built
environment.. Notre Dame School of Architecture. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
48
3.12 External links

Six Building Designers Who Are Redening Modern Architecture, an April 2011 radio and Internet
report by the Special English service of the Voice of
America.
Famous architects Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement.
Architecture and Modernism
Preservation of Modern Buildings edition of AIA
Architect
Brussels50s60s.be, Overview of the architecture of
the 1950s and 1960s in Brussels
Chapter 4
Brewery
beer produced in breweries. A brewery is typically divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved
for one part of the brewing process.
4.1 History
See also: History of beer
Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe [6] and
Kettles in a modern Trappist brewery
A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes

and sells beer. The place at which beer is commercially
made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse, where
distinct sets of brewing equipment are called plant.[1]
The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since
at least 2500 BC;[2] in ancient Mesopotamia, brewers derived social sanction and divine protection from the goddess Ninkasi.[3][4] Brewing was initially a cottage industry, with production taking place at home; by the ninth
century monasteries and farms would produce beer on a
larger scale, selling the excess; and by the eleventh and
twelfth centuries larger, dedicated breweries with eight
to ten workers were being built.[5]
The Alulu beer receipt records a purchase of best beer from an

ancient Sumerian brewery, c. 2050 BC[2]
was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.[7] In some form,

it can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian
writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to
workers. Before the rise of production breweries, the production of beer took place at home and was the domain
The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the di- of women, as baking and brewing were seen as womens
versity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of work.
49
50
4.1.1
CHAPTER 4. BREWERY
Industrialization
19th century brewery installations
Breweries, as production facilities reserved for making beer, did not emerge until monasteries and other
Christian institutions started producing beer not only for
their own consumption but also to use as payment. This
industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of
making beer to men. The oldest, still functional, brewery in the world is believed to be the German stateowned Weihenstephan brewery in the city of Freising,
Bavaria. It can trace its history back to 1040 AD.[8]
The nearby Weltenburg Abbey brewery, can trace back
its beer-brewing tradition to at least 1050 AD. The atec
brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove that
it paid a beer tax in 1004 AD. Early breweries were almost always built on multiple stories, with equipment on
higher oors used earlier in the production process, so
that gravity could assist with the transfer of product from
one stage to the next. This layout often is preserved
in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more
exibility in brewery design. Early breweries typically
used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation
and packaging took place in lined wooden containers.
Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution, when better materials became available, and scientic advances led to a better understanding of the brewing process. Today, almost all brewery equipment is
made of stainless steel. During the Industrial Revolution,
the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture
ceased to be signicant by the end of the 19th century.[9]
4.1.2
Major technological advances
A handful of major breakthroughs have led to the modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine, vastly improved in 1775 by
James Watt, brought automatic stirring mechanisms and
pumps into the brewery. It gave brewers the ability to
mix liquids more reliably while heating, particularly the
mash, to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer
A 16th-century brewery
liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and
pumps. The steam engine also allowed the brewer to
make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no
longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring.
Carl von Linde, along with others, is credited with developing the refrigeration machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and always
at the same temperature. Yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and, if a beer were produced during summer,
the yeast would impart unpleasant avours onto the beer.
Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter
to last through the summer, and store it in underground
cellars, or even caves, to protect it from summers heat.
The discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast
was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce beer
led to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen. Pure yeast cultures allow brewers to pick
out yeasts for their fermentation characteristics, including avor proles and fermentation ability. Some breweries in Belgium, however, still rely on spontaneous
fermentation for their beers (see lambic). The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing
by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and
greater knowledge of the results.
4.3. BREWING PROCESS
51
peratures to allow enzymes in the malt to break down
the starches in the grain into sugars, especially maltose.
Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during
mashing from the spent grain to create wort. It is achieved
in either a lauter tun, a wide vessel with a false bottom,
or a mash lter, a plate-and-frame lter designed for this
kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: rst wort
run-o, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which
extract that remains with the grains is rinsed o with hot
water.
Brewery in Hurbanovo, Slovakia
4.2 The modern brewery
Boiling the wort ensures its sterility, helping to prevent

contamination with undesirable microbes. During the
boil, hops are added, which contribute aroma and avour
compounds to the beer, especially their characteristic bitterness. Along with the heat of the boil, they cause proteins in the wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to
fall, and they inhibit the later growth of certain bacteria.
Finally, the vapours produced during the boil volatilize
o-avours, including dimethyl sulde precursors. The
boil must be conducted so that it is even and intense. The
boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its
intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort
the brewer expects to evaporate.
Breweries today are made predominantly of stainless

steel, although vessels often have a decorative copper
cladding for a nostalgic look. Stainless steel has many
favourable characteristics that make it a well-suited material for brewing equipment. It imparts no avour in beer,
it reacts with very few chemicals, which means almost any
cleaning solution can be used on it (concentrated chlorine
[bleach] being a notable exception) and it is very sturdy.
Sturdiness is important, as most tanks in the brewery have Fermenting
positive pressure applied to them as a matter of course,
and it is not unusual that a vacuum will be formed incidentally during cleaning.
Heating in the brewhouse usually is achieved through
pressurized steam, although direct-re systems are not
unusual in small breweries. Likewise, cooling in other
areas of the brewery is typically done by cooling jackets
on tanks, which allow the brewer to control precisely the
temperature on each tank individually, although wholeroom cooling is also common.
Today, modern brewing plants perform myriad analyses
on their beers for quality control purposes. Shipments of
ingredients are analyzed to correct for variations. Samples are pulled at almost every step and tested for [oxygen] content, unwanted microbial infections, and other
beer-aging compounds. A representative sample of the
nished product often is stored for months for comparison, when complaints are received.
4.3 Brewing process

Main article: Brewing
Royal Brewery in Manchester, UK, with steel fermentation vessels
Fermentation begins as soon as yeast is added to the

Brewing is typically divided into 9 steps: milling, malt- cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product
ing, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, condition- is rst called beer. It is during this stage that fermentable
ing, ltering, and lling.
sugars won from the malt (maltose, maltotriose, glucose,
Mashing is the process of mixing milled, usually malted, fructose and sucrose) are metabolized into alcohol and
grain with water, and heating it with rests at certain tem- carbon dioxide. Fermentation tanks come in many shapes
52
and sizes, from enormous cylindroconical vessels that can
look like storage silos, to ve-gallon glass carboys used
by homebrewers. Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels (CCVs), which have a conical bottom and a
cylindrical top. The cones aperture is typically around
70, an angle that will allow the yeast to ow smoothly
out through the cones apex at the end of fermentation,
but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space.
CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the
same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other
solids have fallen to the cones apex can be simply ushed
out through a port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels
are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe
in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops,
making it easy to harvest top-fermenting yeasts. The open
tops of the vessels increase the risk of contamination, but
proper cleaning procedures help to control the risk.
CHAPTER 4. BREWERY
vessel for measurement just after any cold conditioning
and prior to nal packaging where the beer is put into the
containers for shipment or sale. The container may be a
bottle, can, of keg, cask or bulk tank.
Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made ltration media such as sheets or candles. Kieselguhr, a ne
powder of diatomaceous earth, can be introduced into the
beer and circulated through screens to form a ltration
bed. Filtration ratings are divided into rough, ne, and
sterile. Rough lters remove yeasts and other solids, leaving some cloudiness, while ner lters can remove body
and color. Sterile lters remove almost all microorganisms.
4.4 Brewing companies
Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel.

Simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends are arranged
vertically, and conditioning tanks are usually laid out
horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden
vats for fermentation but wood is dicult to keep clean
and infection-free and must be repitched often, perhaps
yearly. After high krusen, the point at which fermentation is most active and copious foam is produced, a valve
known in German as the spundapparat may be put on
the tanks to allow the carbon dioxide produced by the
yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device
can regulate the pressure to produce dierent types of
beer; greater pressure produces a more carbonated beer.
Conditioning
When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost
completely digested, the fermentation process slows and
the yeast cells begin to die and settle at the bottom of
the tank. At this stage, especially if the beer is cooled to
around freezing, most of the remaining live yeast cells will
quickly become dormant and settle, along with the heavier protein chains, due simply to gravity and molecular dehydration. Conditioning can occur in fermentation tanks
with cooling jackets. If the whole fermentation cellar is
cooled, conditioning must be done in separate tanks in a
separate cellar. Some beers are conditioned only lightly,
or not at all. An active yeast culture from an ongoing
batch may be added to the next boil after a slight chilling in order to produce fresh and highly palatable beer in
mass quantity.
Filtering
Filtering the beer stabilizes avour and gives it a polished,
shiny look. It is an optional process. Many craft brewers
simply remove the coagulated and settled solids and forgo
active ltration. In localities where a tax assessment is
collected by government pursuant to local laws, any additional ltration may be done using an active ltering system, the ltered product nally passing into a calibrated
Yuengling Brewery, a regional brewery in Pottsville, Pennsylvania
Brewing companies range widely in the volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from small breweries, such
as Ringwood Brewery, to massive multinational conglomerates, like SABMiller in London or Anheuser-Busch InBev, that produce hundreds of millions of barrels annually. There are organizations that assist the development of brewing, such as the Siebel Institute of Technology in the USA and the Institute of Brewing and Distilling in the UK. In 2012 the four largest brewing companies (Anheuser-Busch InBev, SABMiller, Heineken
International, and Carlsberg Group) controlled 50% of
the market[10] The biggest brewery in the world is the
Belgian-Brazilian company Anheuser-Busch InBev.
Some commonly used descriptions of breweries are:
Microbrewery A late-20th-century name for a
small brewery. The term started to be supplanted
with craft brewer at the start of the 21st century.
Brewpub A brewery whose beer is brewed primarily on the same site from which it is sold to the public, such as a pub or restaurant. If the amount of beer
that a brewpub distributes o-site exceeds 75%, it
may also be described as a craft or microbrewery.
4.6. SEE ALSO
53
Farm brewery A farm brewery, or farmhouse

brewery, is a brewery that primarily brews its beer
on a farm. Crops and other ingredients grown on the
farm, such as barley, wheat, rye, hops, herbs, spices,
and fruits are used in the beers brewed. A farmhouse
brewery is similar in concept to a vineyard growing
grapes to make wine at the vineyard.[11]
Technology, VLB Berlin, American Brewers Guild,[19]

University of California at Davis, University of Wisconsin,[19] Olds College[20] or Niagara College.[21] They may
hold membership in professional organisations such as
the Brewers Association, Master Brewers Association,
American Society of Brewing Chemists, the Institute of
Brewing and Distilling,[22] and the Society of Independent Brewers. Depending on a brewerys size, a brewer
Regional brewery An established term for a brew- may need anywhere from ve to fteen years of profesery that supplies beer in a xed geographical loca- sional experience before becoming a brewmaster;[19]
tion.
Macrobrewery or Megabrewery Terms for a brewery, too large or economically diversied to be a microbrewery, which sometimes carry a negative connotation.
4.4.1
Contract brewing
Contract brewing When one brewery hires another

brewery to produce its beer. The contracting brewer
generally handles all of the beers marketing, sales, and
distribution, while leaving the brewing and packaging to
the producer-brewery (which confusingly may also be referred to as a contract brewer). Often the contract brewing is performed when a small brewery can not supply
enough beer to meet demands and contracts with a larger
brewery to help alleviate their supply issues. Some breweries do not own a brewing facility, these contract brewers
have been criticized by traditional brewing companies for
avoiding the costs associated with a physical brewery.[12]
Gypsy brewing usually falls under the category of contract brewing. Gypsy breweries generally do not have
their own equipment or premises. They operate on a
temporary or itinerant basis out of the facilities of another brewery, generally making one-o special occasion beers.[13] The trend of gypsy brewing spread early
in Scandinavia.[14] Their beers, and collaborations later
spread to America and Australia.[15] Gypsy brewers typically use facilities of larger makers with excess capacity.[15][15]
Prominent examples include Pretty Things, Stillwater Artisanal Ales, Gunbarrel Brewing Company, Mikkeller
and Evil Twin.[16] For example, the legendary[17] One
of Mikellers founders, Mikkel Borg Bjergs, has travelled around the world between 2006 and 2010, brewing
more than 200 dierent beers at other breweries.[18]
4.6 See also

Beer and breweries by region
Brewerianathe hobby of brewery advertising collecting
List of breweries in the United States
List of microbreweries
4.7 References
[1] Jens Gammelgaard (2013). The Global Brewery Industry.
Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 52.
[2] Worlds oldest beer receipt? Free Online Library. thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
[3] Susan Pollock, Ancient Mesopotamia,1999:102-103.
[4] Hartman, L. F. and Oppenheim, A. L., (1950) On Beer
and Brewing Techniques in Ancient Mesopotamia, Supplement to the Journal of the American Oriental Society,
10. Retrieved 2013-09-20.
[5] Thomas F. Glick et al. (27 Jan 2014). Medieval Science,
Technology, and Medicine. Routledge. p. 102.
[6] Prehistoric brewing: the true story, 22 October 2001, Archaeo News. Retrieved 13 September 2008
[7] Dreher Breweries, Beer-history
[8] Indulge in the Bavarian Weiss, BeerHunter.com,
Michael Jackson, September 2, 1998.
[9] Cornell, Martyn (2003). Beer: The Story of the Pint.
Headline. ISBN 0-7553-1165-5.
[10] Modelo may not quench thirst for beer deals | Reuters.
In.reuters.com. 2012-06-29. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
4.5 Head brewer/brewmaster
[11] Class 8M Farm Brewery.
The head brewer (UK) or brewmaster (USA) is in charge

of the production of beer. The major breweries employ
engineers with a chemistry/Biotechnology background.
[12] Acitelli, Tom (2013). The Audacity of Hops: The History

of Americas Craft Beer Revolution. Chicago: Chicago
Review Press. p. 240. ISBN 9781613743881. OCLC
828193572.
Brewmasters may have had a formal education in the [13] Noel, Josh (March 14, 2012). A long road to realizing
subject from institutions such as the Siebel Institute of
their pipe dream. Chicago Tribune.
54
CHAPTER 4. BREWERY
[14] Smith, James (May 15, 2012). Refreshing taste of diplomacy. The Age.
[15] O'Neill, Claire (August 14, 2010). "'Gypsy Brewer'
Spreads Craft Beer Gospel. National Public Radio.
[16] Risen, Clay (October 20, 2010).
The Atlantic
http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2010/10/
the-innovative-gypsy-brewers-shaking-up-the-beer-world/
64828/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[17] Nichols, Lee (March 16, 2013). Handicapping Local
Craft Brews. Austin Chronicle.
[18] Miller, Norman (March 28, 2012).
Mikkeller brews beer on the run.
The Beer Nut:
[19] How to Become a Brewmaster - Professional Brewer.

tree.com. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
[20] Brewmaster & Brewery Operations Management. Oldscollege.ca. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
[21] Canada. Brewers Guardian. 25 July 2011. Retrieved
2012-02-19.
[22] Brewmaster. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
4.8 Further reading

ISBN 3-921690-49-8: Technology Brewing and
Malting, Wolfgang Kunze, 2004, 3rd revised edition, VLB Berlin. Available at their website
BrewersAssociation.org Craft brewer denition
from the Brewers association.
Straub Brewery By John Schlimm, Arcadia Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0-7385-3843-4
4.9 External links
Chapter 5
Distillation
Distiller and Distillery redirect here. For other uses, physical separation process and not a chemical reaction.
see Distiller (disambiguation) and Distillery (disambigua- Commercially, distillation has many applications. For extion).
ample:
For other uses, see Distillation (disambiguation).
Distillation is a process of separating the component
In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a major class
of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil
for fuels and for chemical feedstocks.
Distillation permits separation of air into its components notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for
industrial use.
In the eld of industrial chemistry, large ranges of

crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products,
or from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials.
7
6
3
5
Distillation of fermented products produces distilled

beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial
value.
10
9
An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a

distillery. The distillation equipment is a still.
15
14
16
11
12
5.1 History
13
Laboratory display of distillation: 1: A source of heat 2: Still

pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5:
Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving ask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11:
Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate 14:
Heating (Oil/sand) bath 15: Stirring means e.g. (shown), boiling
chips or mechanical stirrer 16: Cooling bath.[1]
substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation

and condensation. Distillation may result in essentially
complete separation (nearly pure components), or it may
be a partial separation that increases the concentration of
selected components of the mixture. In either case the
process exploits dierences in the volatility of mixtures
components. In industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit
operation of practically universal importance, but it is a
See also: Distilled beverage

Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica
and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, and that is why it gives out a ame.[5] Later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD.[6] Distilled water
has been known since at least c. 200, when Alexander
of Aphrodisias described the process.[7] Distillation in
China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty (1st2nd centuries), but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the
Jin and Southern Song dynasties.[8] A still was found in
an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more
common during the Yuan dynasty.[8] Arabs learned the
process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in
their chemical experiments.
55
56
CHAPTER 5. DISTILLATION
Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century Greek alchemist

Zosimos of Panopolis,[2][3] from the Byzantine Greek manuscript
Parisinus graces.[4]
Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from

the School of Salerno in the 12th century.[6][9] Fractional
distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th
century.[10]
In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig
published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art
of Distillation)[11] the rst book solely dedicated to the
subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much exHieronymus Brunschwigs Liber de arte Distillandi de Composipanded version. In 1651, John French published The
tis (Strassburg, 1512) Chemical Heritage Foundation
Art of Distillation the rst major English compendium
of practice, though it has been claimed[12] that much of
it derives from Braunschweigs work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather
than bench scale of the operation.
As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both
alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long
necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which
acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate
and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper
alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept
tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made A retort
of rye our.[13] These alembics often featured a cooling
system around the beak, using cold water for instance,
which made the condensation of alcohol more ecient.
These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot
stills have been largely supplanted by more ecient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However,
the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some
ne alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and
some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood,
clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production[14] of ower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one
vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved Distillation
by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation.
5.3. IDEALIZED DISTILLATION MODEL
Old Ukrainian vodka still
57
The main dierence between laboratory scale distillation
and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial
distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors
of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged
(supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then
separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with
the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the
process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors,
and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.
5.3 Idealized distillation model

Simple liqueur distillation in East Timor
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which

the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure
Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to around the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without be600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.[15] ing crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point,
In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient
including pre-heating and reux were developed, partic- atmospheric pressure.
ularly by the French,[15] then in 1830 a British Patent It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a
was issued to Aeneas Coey for a whiskey distillation given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point
column,[16] which worked continuously and may be re- corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of
garded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. each component will collect separately and purely. This,
In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idetray column for ammonia distillation[17] and the same and alized models of distillation are essentially governed by
subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil Raoults law and Daltons law, and assume that vapor
and spirits.
liquid equilibria are attained.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientic rather
than empirical methods could be applied. The developing
petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the
impetus for the development of accurate design methods
such as the McCabeThiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.
5.2 Applications of distillation
Raoults law states that the vapor pressure of a solution

is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical
component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution
each component makes up a.k.a. the mole fraction. This
law applies to ideal solutions, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are
the same as or very similar to pure solutions.
Daltons law states that the total pressure is the sum of
the partial pressures of each individual component in the
mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the
vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid,
boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk
of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the
components are mutually soluble.
The application of distillation can roughly be divided in

four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal
distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively dierent from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true An implication of one boiling point is that lighter compurication method but more to transfer all volatiles from ponents never cleanly boil rst. At boiling point, all
the source materials to the distillate.
volatile components boil, but for a component, its per-
58
centage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the

total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher
partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor,
but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being
less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation
and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of
the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates,
which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid
higher in the fractionation column contains more lights
and boils at lower temperatures.
The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In
other cases, severe deviations from Raoults law and Daltons law are observed, most famously in the mixture of
ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with
a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of
each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed
and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although
there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components,
the only way to obtain accurate vaporliquid equilibrium
data is by measurement.
It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If
ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical
separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is
evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero
partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering.
the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor
will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due
to Raoults Law, see above). The vapor goes through the
condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn
means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid
is now dierent from the initial ratio (i.e., more enriched
in B than the starting liquid).
The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the
boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results
in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in
a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation
continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the
gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B
in the distillate.
If the dierence in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning
of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and
when component A has distilled o, the boiling liquid is
enriched in component B.
5.3.2 Continuous distillation

Main article: Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which

a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed
into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the
operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum
of two output fractions, including at least one volatile dis5.3.1 Batch distillation
tillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor, and then condensed to a liquid. There is
Main article: Batch distillation
always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least
Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A
volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a
condensed vapor.
A+B
Cooling
Water
A+B
Steam
Puried A
Still
Bottoms
A batch still showing the separation of A and B.
and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening gure) until the mixture
is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B
in the vapor will be dierent from the ratio in the liquid:
Continuous distillation diers from batch distillation in

the respect that concentrations should not change over
time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state
for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material
of specic composition, the main variables that aect the
purity of products in continuous distillation are the reux
ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages, in
practice determined by the number of trays or the height
of packing. Reux is a ow from the condenser back to
the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium
stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor
liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and
allowing better separation given a reux ratio. A column
with a high reux ratio may have fewer stages, but it reuxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with
a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a
5.4. LABORATORY SCALE DISTILLATION

taller column.
59
5.4.1 Simple distillation
In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not
pure but rather its composition is identical to the compoBoth batch and continuous distillations can be improved sition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure.
by making use of a fractionating column on top of the dis- That concentration follows Raoults law.
tillation ask. The column improves separation by pro- As a result, simple distillation is eective only when the
viding a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate liquid boiling points dier greatly (rule of thumb is 25
to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium C)[18] or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids
for as long as possible. The column can even consist of or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the composmall subsystems ('trays or 'dishes) which all contain an nents are usually dierent enough that the distillate may
enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor be suciently pure for its intended purpose.
liquid equilibrium.
5.3.3
General improvements
There are dierences between laboratory-scale and

industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles 5.4.2 Fractional distillation
are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating
Main article: Fractional distillation
columns (in increasing eciency) include
For many cases, the boiling points of the components
in the mixture will be suciently close that Raoults
law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, frac Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
tional distillation must be used in order to separate the
Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This sepapieces, or other chemically inert material)
ration, by successive distillations, is also referred to as
rectication.[19]
Spinning band distillation system.
As the solution to be puried is heated, its vapors rise to
the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing
on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing
5.4 Laboratory scale distillation
material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by
the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However,
the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once
again by Raoults law. Each vaporization-condensation
cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution
of the more volatile component.[20] In reality, each cycle
at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same
position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is
thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
Air condenser
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A

spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of
Teon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.[21]
Typical laboratory distillation unit
Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as

batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a
reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a
condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to
the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated
or puried liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see
also distillation types).
5.4.3 Steam distillation

Main article: Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method
for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[22] The
temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a heating element, and allows a high rate of heat
transfer without heating at a very high temperature. This
process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture
of the raw material. By Raoults law, some of the target
60
compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial

pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed,
usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and owers
can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in
perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates
have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing
and skin care.
8
7
4
10
11
12
1
Perkin triangle distillation setup

1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teon
tap 1 6: Cold nger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in
9: Teon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teon tap 3 12: Still
receiver
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 C. Under a vacuum, it

distills o into the receiver at only 70 C.
5.4.4
Vacuum distillation
Main article: Vacuum distillation
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the

pressure of 0.01 torr.[23] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where uids are in the free
molecular ow regime, i.e. the mean free path of
molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment.
The gaseous phase no longer exerts signicant pressure
on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate
of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is,
because the continuum assumptions of uid dynamics no
longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than uid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary,
typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a lm of
feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between.
Molecular distillation is used industrially for purication
of oils.
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil

such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure
at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the
vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can
commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in
the form of the rotary evaporator.
5.4.5 Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
This technique is also very useful for compounds which
boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmo- Some compounds have high boiling points as well as bespheric pressure and which would therefore be decom- ing air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as
posed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric exemplied above can be used, whereby the vacuum is repressure.
placed with an inert gas after the distillation is complete.
5.4. LABORATORY SCALE DISTILLATION
61
However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires pound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr
to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often
a cow or pig adaptor can be added to the end of the contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive
compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or
Teon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest
of the still, without the main body of the distillation being
removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus
can remain in a state of reux. To do this, the sample is
rst isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the
vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas
(such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and
removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to
the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation
system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on,
until all fractions have been collected.
5.4.6
Short path distillation
4
3
5.4.7 Zone distillation
Zone distillation is a distillation process in long container

with partial melting of rened matter in moving liquid
zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in
theory. When zone heater is moving from the top to the
bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure
part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The
process may be iterated many times by moving (without
turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of
the container on the place of rened matter. The irregular
impurity distribution in the condensate (that is eciency
of purication) increases with number of repetitions of
the process. Zone distillation is a distillation analog of
zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization with various numbers of iteration of process
with replacement distribution ecient k of crystallization
on separation factor of distillation.[25][26][27]
5
5.4.8 Other types
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser

(cold nger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with
stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold nger bent to direct
condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate ask/distillate.
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that

involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often
only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced
pressure.[24] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two
chambers. This technique is often used for compounds
which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small
amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating
temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance
before condensing. A short path ensures that little com-
The process of reactive distillation involves using the

reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually signicantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction
mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less
downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting
material, and less workup. Distillation over a reactant could be classied as a reactive distillation.
It is typically used to remove volatile impurity from
the distallation feed. For example a little lime may
be added to remove carbon dioxide from water followed by a second distillation with a little sulphuric
acid added to remove traces of ammonia.
Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously separate the products from the reactants.
This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions
reach completion.
Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a
non-porous membrane.
Extractive distillation is dened as distillation in
the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively
non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no
azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
62
Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the par- 5.5 Azeotropic distillation
tial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid
stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing Main article: Azeotropic distillation
through a throttling valve or other throttling device.
This process is one of the simplest unit operations,
being equivalent to a distillation with only one equi- Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes
librium stage.
entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoults law does not
Codistillation is distillation which is performed on hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling
mixtures in which the two compounds are not mis- azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound
(i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At
cible.
an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component
in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation
The unit process of evaporation may also be called dis- does not change the purity, and distillation does not eect
tillation":
separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an
azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 C.
In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation appara- If the azeotrope is not considered suciently pure for
tus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sam- use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope
ple. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known
aspirator or a membrane pump.
as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this
In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus
is typically used (generally in combination with a
(high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 C)
compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in
which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a
means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
by jumping over the azeotropic composition (by adding

another component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a
(desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to
convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose
as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form
azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to
as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of
the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either
pure component. The temperature and composition of
the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure
of the pure components, without use of Raoults law. The
azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using
a liquidliquid separator (a decanter) to separate the two
liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of
the two liquid layers is reuxed to the distillation set-up.
Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the

name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical
reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing highboiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give
methanol is the root of its common name wood
alcohol.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied
Freeze distillation is an analogous method of puriby the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater
cation using freezing instead of evaporation. It is
than the boiling point of either pure component.
not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where
the product is the mother liquor, and does not pro- To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation
duce products equivalent to distillation. This pro- boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is neccess is used in the production of ice beer and ice essary to increase the composition of the light key in the
wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respec- distillate.
tively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a 5.5.1 Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
result, many countries prohibit such applejack as a
health measure. However, reducing methanol with
the absorption of 4A molecular sieve is a practical The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overmethod for production.[28] Also, distillation by evap- lap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacoration can separate these since they have dierent uum or positive pressure, its possible to bias the boilboiling points.
ing point of one component away from the other by ex-
5.6. INDUSTRIAL DISTILLATION
63
ploiting the diering vapour pressure curves of each; the

curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure
axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias
is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap
and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals
to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is
needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates
requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased
cooling demands will often require additional energy and
possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard
glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions
occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due
to the higher temperatures required to eect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change
in one direction, either positive or negative.
5.5.2
Pressure-swing distillation
Typical industrial distillation towers
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (seclished. This test method extends to the atmospheric distiltion on the main Azeotrope page)
lation of petroleum products using a laboratory batch distillation unit to quantitatively determine the boiling range
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the characteristics of petroleum products.
unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may
be employed.
This improves the selectivity of the distillation and allows
a chemist to optimize distillation by avoiding extremes
of pressure and temperature that waste energy. This is
particularly important in commercial applications.
One example of the application of pressure-swing distillation is during the industrial purication of ethyl acetate
after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
5.6 Industrial distillation

Main article: Continuous distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum,
azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most
widely used industrial applications of continuous, steadystate fractional distillation are in petroleum reneries,
petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
To control and optimize such industrial distillation, a Automatic Distillation Unit for the determination of the boiling
standardized laboratory method, ASTM D86, is estab- range of petroleum products at atmospheric pressure
64
Industrial distillation[19][29] is typically performed in
large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation
towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging
from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the
process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling
crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow
for the withdrawal of dierent fractions or products having dierent boiling points or boiling ranges. The lightest products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit
from the top of the columns and the heaviest products
(those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom
of the column and are often called the bottoms.
sible for the products puried in the distillation column.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in
cryogenic air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid
nitrogen, and high purity argon.
Distillation of
chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity
silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays

with bubble caps
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Industrial towers use reux to achieve a more complete

separation of products. Reux refers to the portion of
the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation
or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of
the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical,
large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower,
the downowing reux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upowing vapors thereby increasing the
eciency of the distillation tower. The more reux that is
provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the towers separation of lower boiling materials from
higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reux
that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer
the number of theoretical plates required. Chemical engineers must choose what combination of reux rate and
number of plates is both economically and physically fea-
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends

on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the
McCabeThiele method[19][30] or the Fenske equation[19]
can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation
models are used both for design and operation. Moreover,
the eciencies of the vaporliquid contact devices (referred to as plates or trays) used in distillation towers
are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% ecient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs
more trays than the number of theoretical vaporliquid
equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray eciencies.
In modern industrial uses, a packing material is used
in the column instead of trays when low pressure drops
across the column are required. Other factors that favor
packing are: vacuum systems, smaller diameter columns,
corrosive systems, systems prone to foaming, systems requiring low liquid holdup, and batch distillation. Conversely, factors that favor plate columns are: presence
of solids in feed, high liquid rates, large column diameters, complex columns, columns with wide feed composition variation, columns with a chemical reaction, absorption columns, columns limited by foundation weight
tolerance, low liquid rate, large turn-down ratio and those
processes subject to process surges.
This packing material can either be random dumped
packing (13 wide) such as Raschig rings or structured
sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where
5.7. DISTILLATION IN FOOD PROCESSING
65
uids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution
is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design
of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and
reux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing
perform to it maximum eciency. Methods of evaluating the eectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in
references.[32][33] Considerable work as been done on this
topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known
as FRI).[34]
5.6.1 Multi-eect distillation

The goal of multi-eect distillation is to increase the energy eciency of the process, for use in desalination, or
in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure
water. The number of eects is inversely proportional to
the kWh/m3 of water recovered gure, and refers to the
volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared
with single-eect distillation. One eect is roughly 636
kWh/m3 .
Multi-stage ash distillation Can achieve more than
20 eects with thermal energy input, as mentioned
in the article.
Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column[31]
mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of
vaporliquid equilibrium, the vaporliquid equilibrium
curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when
modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of theoretical stages to denote the separation eciency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Dierently shaped packings have dierent
surface areas and void space between packings. Both of
these factors aect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that aects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a
specic vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are
not evenly distributed across the supercial tower area as
it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not
be correct in the packed bed and the required separation
will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be
working properly. The height equivalent to a theoretical
plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem
is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the
Vapor compression evaporation Commercial largescale units can achieve around 72 eects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers.
There are many other types of multi-eect distillation

processes, including one referred to as simply multi-eect
distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed.
5.7 Distillation in food processing

5.7.1 Distilled beverages
Main article: Distilled beverage
Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to
ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by
distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components
other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for
the avor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are
then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more
avor compounds and characteristic avors.
66
5.8 Gallery
[16] A. Coey British Patent 5974, 5 August 1830
5.9 See also
[17] U.S. Patent 198,699 Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda

Manufacture
Sublimation
[18] ST07 Separation of liquidliquid mixtures (solutions), DIDAC by IUPAC
Microdistillery
5.10 References
[1] Harwood, Laurence M.; Moody, Christopher J. (1989).
Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice
(Illustrated ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Scientic Publications. pp. 141143. ISBN 978-0-632-02017-1.
[19] Perry, Robert H. and Green, Don W. (1984). Perrys

Chemical Engineers Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-049479-7.
[20] Fractional Distillation. fandm.edu
[21] Spinning Band Distillation. B/R Instrument Corporation
(accessed 8 September 2006)
[2] E. Gildemeister and Fr. Homan, translated by Edward

Kremers (1913). The Volatile Oils 1. New York: Wiley.
p. 203.
[22] Harwood & Moody 1989, pp. 151153
[3] Bryan H. Bunch and Alexander Hellemans (2004). The

History of Science and Technology. Houghton Miin
Harcourt. p. 88. ISBN 0-618-22123-9.
[24] Harwood & Moody 1989, p. 150
[23] Vogels 5th ed.
[4] Marcelin Berthelot Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs

(3 vol., Paris, 18871888, p.161)
[25] Kravchenko, A. I. (2011). Zone distillation: a new

method of rening. Problems of atomic science and technology (in Russian) 6 (19): 2426.
[5] Berthelot, M. P. E. M. (1893). The Discovery of Alcohol

and Distillation. The Popular Science Monthly. XLIII:
8594.
[26] Kravchenko, A. I. (2014). Zone distillation: justication. Problems of atomic science and technology 1 (20):
6465.
[6] Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art

of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. ISBN 978-90-0400617-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
[27] Kravchenko, A. I. (2014). Design of advanced processes

of zone distillation. Perspectivnye materialy (in Russian)
(7): 6872.
[7] Taylor, F. (1945). The evolution of the still. Annals of

Science 5 (3): 185. doi:10.1080/00033794500201451.
[28] Study on Method of Decreasing Methanol in Apple Pomace Spirit.
[8] Haw, Stephen G. (2012). Wine, women and poison.

Marco Polo in China. Routledge. pp. 147148. ISBN
978-1-134-27542-7. The earliest possible period seems
to be the Eastern Han dynasty ... the most likely period
for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking
in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties
[29] Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.).

McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034909-6.
[9] Sarton, George (1975). Introduction to the history of science. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co. p. 145. ISBN 0-88275172-7.
[10] Holmyard, Eric John (1990). Alchemy. Courier Dover
Publications. p. 53. ISBN 0-486-26298-7.
[11] Magnum Opus Hermetic Sourceworks Series. Alchemywebsite.com. Retrieved on 2014-04-20.
[12] Industrial Engineering Chemistry (1936) p. 677
[13] Sealing Technique, accessed 16 November 2006.
[14] Traditional Alembic Pot Still, accessed 16 November
2006.
[15] D. F. Othmer (1982) Distillation Some Steps in its Development, in W. F. Furter (ed) A Century of Chemical
Engineering ISBN 0-306-40895-3
[30] Seader, J. D. and Henley, Ernest J. (1998). Separation

Process Principles. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-47158626-9.
[31] Energy
Institute
website
page.
Resources.schoolscience.co.uk. Retrieved on 2014-04-20.
[32] Moore, F., Rukovena, F. (August 1987) Random Packing,
Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution
in commercial packed towers, Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, pp. 1115
[33] Spiegel, L (2006). A new method to assess liquid distributor quality. Chemical Engineering and Processing 45
(11): 1011. doi:10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003.
[34] Kunesh, John G.; Lahm, Lawrence; Yanagi, Takashi
(1987).
Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 26 (9): 1845.
doi:10.1021/ie00069a021.
5.11 Further reading

Allchin, F. R. (1979). India: The Ancient
Home of Distillation?". Man 14 (1): 5563.
doi:10.2307/2801640. JSTOR 2801640.
Forbes, R. J. (1970). A Short History of the Art of
Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-00617-6.
Needham, Joseph (1980). Science and Civilisation
in China. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-08573-X.
Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles (4th ed.).
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-101367-X.
5.12 External links

Alcohol distillation
Case Study: Petroleum Distillation
Binary Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Data (searchable database). Chemical Engineering Research Information Center. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
67
Chapter 6
Drilling rig
The term rig therefore generally refers to the complex
of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the
Earths crust.
Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as
those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs
are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of
the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate
drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the
casing annulus, for cooling and removing the cuttings
while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds
of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand
into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent
living accommodation and catering for crews (which may
be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.
6.1 Petroleum drilling industry

Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs but also to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and gas elds once a well
has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved o of the
well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built
for completions will be moved on to the well to get the
Drilling the Bakken formation in the Williston Basin
well on line.[1] This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowA drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth ing for specialization of certain services, i.e., completions
sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures hous- vs. drilling.
ing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to
be moved manually by one person and are called augers.
Drilling rigs can sample sub-surface mineral deposits, test 6.2 Water well drilling
rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also
can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as New portable drillcat technology uses smaller portable
underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. trailer mounted rigs with shorter 3-metre (10 ft) drill pipe.
Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, The shorter drill pipe also allows a much smaller mast.
tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine- Portable trailer mounted drilling rigs have drill ratings
based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called from 90 to 200 metres (300 to 800 ft) depending on mud
'oshore oil rigs even if they don't contain a drilling rig). pump ow and pressure ratings and drill pipe sizes.
68
6.5. MOBILE DRILLING RIGS
69
Other, heavier, truck rigs are more complicated, thus requiring more skill to run. They're also more dicult to
handle safely due to the longer 6-to-9-metre (20 to 30 ft)
drill pipe. Large truck rigs also require a much higher
overhead clearance to operate. Large truck drills can use
over 570 litres (150 US gal) of fuel per day, while the
smaller Deeprock Style portable drills use a mere 20 to
75 litres (5 to 20 US gal) of fuel per day. This makes
smaller, more portable rigs preferable in remote or hardto-reach places, and they are more cost eective when
fuel prices are high.
6.3 Mining drilling industry

Mining drilling rigs are used for two main purposes, exploration drilling which aims to identify the location and
quality of a mineral, and production drilling, used in
the production-cycle for mining. Drilling rigs used for
rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent
on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classied into smaller pre-split and larger production holes.
Underground mining (hard rock) uses a variety of drill
rigs dependent on the desired purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling, and tunnelling.
6.4 History
Antique drilling Rigs in Zigong, China
cable up to 3 mm
In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller
bits using mud circulation were replaced by the rst
pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC)
drills, and became essentially obsolete for most shallow
drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where
rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved much
faster and more ecient, and continues to improve with
better metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and
compressors delivering higher air pressures at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond
drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception.
6.5 Mobile drilling rigs

In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent
in nature and the derricks were often built on site and left
Antique drilling rig now on display at Western History Museum in place after the completion of the well. In more recent
in Lingle, Wyoming. It was used to drill many water wells in that times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines
areamany of those wells are still in use.
that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty
drilling rigs are like a mobile crane and are more usually
Until internal combustion engines were developed in the used to drill water wells. Larger land rigs must be broken
late 19th century, the main method for drilling rock was apart into sections and loads to move to a new place, a
muscle power of man or animal. The drilling of wells process which can often take weeks.
for the manufacture of salt began by the Song Dynasty in
China. The well had a particularly small mouth, as small Small mobile drilling rigs are also used to drill or bore
as a small bowl. Archaeological evidence of the drilling piles. Rigs can range from 100 ton continuous ight auger
tools used in deep-well dwelling are kept and displayed in (CFA) rigs to small air powered rigs used to drill holes
the Zigong Salt Industry Museum.[2] According to Salt: in quarries, etc. These rigs use the same technology and
A World History, a Qing Dynasty well, also located in equipment as the oil drilling rigs, just on a smaller scale.
Zigong, continued down to 3,300 feet making it at the The drilling mechanisms outlined below dier mechanitime the deepest drilled well in the world.[3] Mechanised cally in terms of the machinery used, but also in terms of
versions of this system persisted until about 1970, using the method by which drill cuttings are removed from the
a cam to rapidly raise and drop what, by then, was a steel cutting face of the drill and returned to surface.
70
CHAPTER 6. DRILLING RIG

Conventional uses metal or plastic drill pipe of
varying types
Coil tubing uses a giant coil of tube and a downhole drilling motor
6.6.3 By height
(Rigs are dierentiated by height based on how many connected pipe they are able to stand in the derrick when
needing to temporarily remove the drill pipe from the hole.
Typically this is done when changing a drill bit or when
logging the well.)
Single can pull only single drill pipes. The presence or absence of vertical pipe racking ngers
varies from rig to rig.
Double can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of two connected drill pipes, called a
double stand.
Mobile drilling rig mounted on a truck
6.6 Drilling rig classication
Triple can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of three connected drill pipes, called a triple
stand.
Quadri can store stand of pipe in the derrick composed of four connected drill pipes, called a quadri
stand.
There are many types and designs of drilling rigs, with

many drilling rigs capable of switching or combining dif6.6.4
ferent drilling technologies as needed. Drilling rigs can
be described using any of the following attributes:
6.6.1
By power used
By method of rotation or drilling

method
No-rotation includes direct push rigs and most service rigs
Mechanical the rig uses torque converters,

clutches, and transmissions powered by its own engines, often diesel
Rotary table rotation is achieved by turning a

square or hexagonal pipe (the Kelly) at drill oor
level.
Electric the major items of machinery are driven

by electric motors, usually with power generated onsite using internal combustion engines
Top drive rotation and circulation is done at the

top of the drill string, on a motor that moves in a
track along the derrick.
Hydraulic the rig primarily uses hydraulic power
Sonic uses primarily vibratory energy to advance

the drill string
Pneumatic the rig is primarily powered by pressurized air
Hammer uses rotation and percussive force (see

Down-the-hole drill)
Steam the rig uses steam-powered engines and

pumps (obsolete after middle of 20th Century.)
6.6.5 By position of derrick

6.6.2
By pipe used
Cable a cable is used to raise and drop the drill

bit
Conventional derrick is vertical

Slant derrick is slanted at a 45 degree angle to
facilitate horizontal drilling
6.7. DRILL TYPES
71
6.7 Drill types
usually with tungsten buttons, that constantly break down

cuttings being pushed upwards.
There are a variety of drill mechanisms which can be used

to sink a borehole into the ground. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to which it
can drill, the type of sample returned, the costs involved
and penetration rates achieved. There are two basic types
of drills: drills which produce rock chips, and drills which
produce core samples.
The use of high-powered air compressors, which push

900-1150 cfm of air at 300-350 psi down the hole also
ensures drilling of a deeper hole up to ~1250 m due to
higher air pressure which pushes all rock cuttings and any
water to the surface. This, of course, is all dependent on
the density and weight of the rock being drilled, and on
how worn the drill bit is.
6.7.1
6.7.3 Air core drilling
Auger drilling
Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is

driven into the ground with rotation; the earth is lifted
up the borehole by the blade of the screw. Hollow stem
auger drilling is used for softer ground such as swamps
where the hole will not stay open by itself for environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil engineering
and geochemistry reconnaissance work in exploration for
mineral deposits. Solid ight augers/bucket augers are
used in harder ground construction drilling. In some
cases, mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small augers
can be mounted on the back of a utility truck, with large
augers used for sinking piles for bridge foundations.
Air core drilling and related methods use hardened steel

or tungsten blades to bore a hole into unconsolidated
ground. The drill bit has three blades arranged around
the bit head, which cut the unconsolidated ground. The
rods are hollow and contain an inner tube which sits inside the hollow outer rod barrel. The drill cuttings are
removed by injection of compressed air into the hole via
the annular area between the innertube and the drill rod.
The cuttings are then blown back to surface up the inner
tube where they pass through the sample separating system and are collected if needed. Drilling continues with
the addition of rods to the top of the drill string. Air core
Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsoli- drilling can occasionally produce small chunks of cored
dated material or weak weathered rock. It is cheap and rock.
fast.
This method of drilling is used to drill the weathered
6.7.2
Percussion rotary air blast drilling

(RAB)
regolith, as the drill rig and steel or tungsten blades cannot penetrate fresh rock. Where possible, air core drilling
is preferred over RAB drilling as it provides a more representative sample. Air core drilling can achieve depths
approaching 300 metres in good conditions. As the cuttings are removed inside the rods and are less prone to
contamination compared to conventional drilling where
the cuttings pass to the surface via outside return between
the outside of the drill rod and the walls of the hole. This
method is more costly and slower than RAB.
RAB drilling is used most frequently in the mineral exploration industry. (This tool is also known as a Downthe-hole drill.) The drill uses a pneumatic reciprocating piston-driven hammer to energetically drive a heavy
drill bit into the rock. The drill bit is hollow, solid steel
and has ~20 mm thick tungsten rods protruding from the
steel matrix as buttons. The tungsten buttons are the
cutting face of the bit.
6.7.4 Cable tool drilling
The cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and collected at surface. Air or a combination of air and foam Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water
lift the cuttings.
wells. The majority of large diameter water supply wells,
RAB drilling is used primarily for mineral exploration, especially deep wells completed in bedrock aquifers, were
water bore drilling and blast-hole drilling in mines, as well completed using this drilling method. Although this
as for other applications such as engineering, etc. RAB drilling method has largely been supplanted in recent
produces lower quality samples because the cuttings are years by other, faster drilling techniques, it is still the
blown up the outside of the rods and can be contaminated most practicable drilling method for large diameter, deep
from contact with other rocks. RAB drilling at extreme bedrock wells, and in widespread use for small rural wadepth, if it encounters water, may rapidly clog the out- ter supply wells. The impact of the drill bit fractures the
side of the hole with debris, precluding removal of drill rock and in many shale rock situations increases the water
cuttings from the hole. This can be counteracted, how- ow into a well over rotary.
ever, with the use of stabilizers also known as reamers, which are large cylindrical pieces of steel attached
to the drill string, and made to perfectly t the size of the
hole being drilled. These have sets of rollers on the side,
Also known as ballistic well drilling and sometimes called

spudders, these rigs raise and drop a drill string with
a heavy carbide tipped drilling bit that chisels through
the rock by nely pulverizing the subsurface materials.
72

tries with depressed wages. A cable tool rig can drill 25
feet (7.6 m) to 60 feet (18 m) of hard rock a day. A newer
rotary drillcat top head rig equipped with down-the-hole
(DTH) hammer can drill 500 feet (150 m) or more per
day, depending on size and formation hardness.
6.7.5 Reverse circulation (RC) drilling
Track mounted Reverse Circulation rig (side view).

Cable tool water well drilling rig in West Virginia. These slow
rigs have mostly been replaced by rotary drilling rigs in the U.S.
The drill string is composed of the upper drill rods, a set

of jars (inter-locking sliders that help transmit additional energy to the drill bit and assist in removing the bit
if it is stuck) and the drill bit. During the drilling process,
the drill string is periodically removed from the borehole
and a bailer is lowered to collect the drill cuttings (rock
fragments, soil, etc.). The bailer is a bucket-like tool with
a trapdoor in the base. If the borehole is dry, water is
added so that the drill cuttings will ow into the bailer.
When lifted, the trapdoor closes and the cuttings are then
raised and removed. Since the drill string must be raised
and lowered to advance the boring, the casing (larger diameter outer piping) is typically used to hold back upper
soil materials and stabilize the borehole.
RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the

drill cuttings are returned to surface inside the rods.
The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic reciprocating piston known as a hammer driving a tungsten-steel drill
bit. RC drilling utilises much larger rigs and machinery
and depths of up to 500 metres are routinely achieved.
RC drilling ideally produces dry rock chips, as large air
compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing
drill bit. RC drilling is slower and costlier but achieves
better penetration than RAB or air core drilling; it is
cheaper than diamond coring and is thus preferred for
most mineral exploration work.
Reverse circulation is achieved by blowing air down the

rods, the dierential pressure creating air lift of the water and cuttings up the inner tube, which is inside each
rod. It reaches the divertor at the top of the hole, then
moves through a sample hose which is attached to the top
Cable tool rigs are simpler and cheaper than similarly of the cyclone. The drill cuttings travel around the insized rotary rigs, although loud and very slow to operate. side of the cyclone until they fall through an opening at
The world record cable tool well was drilled in New York the bottom and are collected in a sample bag.
to a depth of almost 12,000 feet (3,700 m). The common The most commonly used RC drill bits are 5-8 inches
Bucyrus Erie 22 can drill down to about 1,100 feet (340 (1320 cm) in diameter and have round tungsten 'butm). Since cable tool drilling does not use air to eject the tons that protrude from the bit, which are required to
drilling chips like a rotary, instead using a cable strung drill through shale and abrasive rock. As the buttons wear
bailer, technically there is no limitation on depth.
down, drilling becomes slower and the rod string can poCable tool rigs now are nearly obsolete in the United
States. They are mostly used in Africa or Third-World
countries. Being slow, cable tool rig drilling means increased wages for drillers. In the United States drilling
wages would average around US$200 per day per man,
while in Africa it is only US$6 per day per man, so a slow
drilling machine can still be used in undeveloped coun-
tentially become bogged in the hole. This is a problem

as trying to recover the rods may take hours and in some
cases weeks. The rods and drill bits themselves are very
expensive, often resulting in great cost to drilling companies when equipment is lost down the bore hole. Most
companies will regularly re-grind the buttons on their drill
bits in order to prevent this, and to speed up progress.
6.7. DRILL TYPES
73
Usually, when something is lost (breaks o) in the hole,

it is not the drill string, but rather from the bit, hammer,
or stabilizer to the bottom of the drill string (bit). This
is usually caused operator error, over-stressed metal, or
adverse drilling conditions causing downhole equipment
to get stuck in a part of the hole.
Although RC drilling is air-powered, water is also used
to reduce dust, keep the drill bit cool, and assist in pushing cutting back upwards, but also when collaring a
new hole. A mud called Liqui-Pol is mixed with water and pumped into the rod string, down the hole. This
helps to bring up the sample to the surface by making the
sand stick together. Occasionally, Super-Foam (a.k.a.
Quik-Foam) is also used, to bring all the very ne cuttings to the surface, and to clean the hole. When the drill
reaches hard rock, a collar is put down the hole around
the rods, which is normally PVC piping. Occasionally the
collar may be made from metal casing. Collaring a hole
is needed to stop the walls from caving in and bogging
the rod string at the top of the hole. Collars may be up
to 60 metres deep, depending on the ground, although if
drilling through hard rock a collar may not be necessary.
Reverse circulation rig setups usually consist of a support
vehicle, an auxiliary vehicle, as well as the rig itself. The
support vehicle, normally a truck, holds diesel and water tanks for resupplying the rig. It also holds other supplies needed for maintenance on the rig. The auxiliary is
a vehicle, carrying an auxiliary engine and a booster engine. These engines are connected to the rig by high pressure air hoses. Although RC rigs have their own booster
and compressor to generate air pressure, extra power is
needed which usually isn't supplied by the rig due to lack
of space for these large engines. Instead, the engines are
mounted on the auxiliary vehicle. Compressors on an RC
rig have an output of around 1000 cfm at 500 psi (500
Ls1 at 3.4 MPa). Alternatively, stand-alone air compressors which have an output of 900-1150cfm at 300350 psi each are used in sets of 2, 3, or 4, which are all
routed to the rig through a multi-valve manifold.
6.7.6
Diamond core drilling
Multi-combination drilling rig (capable of both diamond and reverse circulation drilling). Rig is currently set up for diamond
drilling.
bit allow water to be delivered to the cutting face. This

provides three essential functions lubrication, cooling,
and removal of drill cuttings from the hole.
Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse circulation
(RC) drilling due to the hardness of the ground being
drilled. Drilling of 1200 to 1800 metres is common and
at these depths, ground is mainly hard rock. Techniques
vary among drill operators and what the rig they are using
is capable of, some diamond rigs need to drill slowly to
lengthen the life of drill bits and rods, which are very expensive and time consuming to replace at extremely deep
depths. As a diamond drill rig cores deeper and deeper
the time consuming part of the process is not cutting 5
to 10 more feet of rock core but the retrieval of the core
with the wire line & overshot tool. Core samples are retrieved via the use of a core tube, a hollow tube placed
inside the rod string and pumped with water until it locks
into the core barrel. As the core is drilled, the core barrel
slides over the core as it is cut. An overshot attached to
the end of the winch cable is lowered inside the rod string
and locks on to the backend (aka head assembly), located
on the top end of the core barrel. The winch is retracted,
pulling the core tube to the surface. The core does not
drop out of the inside of the core tube when lifted because
either a split ring core lifter or basket retainer allow the
core to move into, but not back out of the tube.
Diamond core drilling (exploration diamond drilling) utilizes an annular diamond-impregnated drill bit attached
to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core of
solid rock. The diamonds used to make diamond core bits
are a variety of sizes, ne to microne industrial grade
diamonds, and the ratio of diamonds to metal used in the
matrix aects the performance of the bits cutting ability in dierent types of rock formations . The diamonds
are set within a matrix of varying hardness, from brass
to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness, diamond size and
dosing can be varied according to the rock which must
be cut. The bits made with hard steel with a low diamond count and are ideal for softer highly fractured rock
while others made of softer steels and high diamond ratio Once the core tube is removed from the hole, the core
are good for coring in hard solid rock. Holes within the sample is then removed from the core tube and cata-
74
Diamond core drill bits
logued. The Drillers assistant unscrews the backend o

the core tube using tube wrenches, then each part of the
tube is taken and the core is shaken out into core trays.
The core is washed, measured and broken into smaller
pieces using a hammer or sawn through to make it t into
the sample trays. Once catalogued, the core trays are retrieved by geologists who then analyse the core and determine if the drill site is a good location to expand future
mining operations.
Diamond rigs can also be part of a multi-combination
rig. Multi-combination rigs are a dual setup rig capable
of operating in either a reverse circulation (RC) and diamond drilling role (though not at the same time). This
is a common scenario where exploration drilling is being
performed in a very isolated location. The rig is rst set
up to drill as an RC rig and once the desired metres are
drilled, the rig is set up for diamond drilling. This way the
deeper metres of the hole can be drilled without moving
the rig and waiting for a diamond rig to set up on the pad.
6.7.7
Direct push rigs
Direct push technology includes several types of drilling

rigs and drilling equipment which advances a drill string
by pushing or hammering without rotating the drill string.
While this does not meet the proper denition of drilling,
it does achieve the same result a borehole. Direct
push rigs include both cone penetration testing (CPT)
rigs and direct push sampling rigs such as a PowerProbe
or Geoprobe. Direct push rigs typically are limited to
drilling in unconsolidated soil materials and very soft
rock.
CPT rigs advance specialized testing equipment (such as
electronic cones), and soil samplers using large hydraulic
rams. Most CPT rigs are heavily ballasted (20 metric tons
is typical) as a counter force against the pushing force of
the hydraulic rams which are often rated up to 20 kN. Alternatively, small, light CPT rigs and oshore CPT rigs
will use anchors such as screwed-in ground anchors to
create the reactive force. In ideal conditions, CPT rigs
can achieve production rates of up to 250300 meters per
day.
to gather soil and groundwater samples. The speed and

depth of penetration is largely dependent on the soil type,
the size of the sampler, and the weight and power of the
rig. Direct push techniques are generally limited to shallow soil sample recovery in unconsolidated soil materials. The advantage of direct push technology is that in
the right soil type it can produce a large number of high
quality samples quickly and cheaply, generally from 50 to
75 meters per day. Rather than hammering, direct push
can also be combined with sonic (vibratory) methods to
increase drill eciency.
6.7.8 Hydraulic rotary drilling

Oil well drilling utilises tri-cone roller, carbide embedded, xed-cutter diamond, or diamond-impregnated drill
bits to wear away at the cutting face. This is preferred
because there is no need to return intact samples to surface for assay as the objective is to reach a formation containing oil or natural gas. Sizable machinery is used, enabling depths of several kilometres to be penetrated. Rotating hollow drill pipes carry down bentonite and barite
infused drilling muds to lubricate, cool, and clean the
drilling bit, control downhole pressures, stabilize the wall
of the borehole and remove drill cuttings. The mud travels back to the surface around the outside of the drill pipe,
called the annulus. Examining rock chips extracted from
the mud is known as mud logging. Another form of well
logging is electronic and is frequently employed to evaluate the existence of possible oil and gas deposits in the
borehole. This can take place while the well is being
drilled, using Measurement While Drilling tools, or after drilling, by lowering measurement tools into the newly
drilled hole.
The rotary system of drilling was in general use in Texas
in the early 1900s. It is a modication of one invented
by Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the
oil industry in some of the oil-producing countries in Europe. Originally pressurized water was used instead of
mud, and was almost useless in hard rock before the diamond cutting bit.[4] The main breakthrough for rotary
drilling came in 1901, when Anthony Francis Lucas combined the use of a steam-driven rig and of mud instead of
water in the Spindletop discovery well.[5]
The drilling and production of oil and gas can pose a
safety risk and a hazard to the environment from the ignition of the entrained gas causing dangerous res and
also from the risk of oil leakage polluting water, land and
groundwater. For these reasons, redundant safety systems
and highly trained personnel are required by law in all
countries with signicant production.
6.7.9 Sonic (vibratory) drilling
Direct push drilling rigs use hydraulic cylinders and a A sonic drill head works by sending high frequency resohydraulic hammer in advancing a hollow core sampler nant vibrations down the drill string to the drill bit, while
6.10. NEW OILFIELD TECHNOLOGIES

the operator controls these frequencies to suit the specic
conditions of the soil/rock geology. Vibrations may also
be generated within the drill head. The frequency is generally between 50 and 150 hertz (cycles per second) and
can be varied by the operator.
Resonance magnies the amplitude of the drill bit, which
uidizes the soil particles at the bit face, allowing for fast
and easy penetration through most geological formations.
An internal spring system isolates these vibrational forces
from the rest of the drill rig.
6.8 Automated Drill Rig

Automated Drill Rig (ADR) is a state-of-the-art automated full-sized walking land-based drill rig that drills
long lateral sections in horizontal wells for the oil and
gas industry.[6] ADRs are agile rigs that can move from
pad to pad to new well sites faster than other full-sized
drilling rigs. Each rig costs about $25 million. ADR is
used extensively in the Athabasca oil sands. According
to the Oil Patch Daily News, Each rig will generate
50,000 man-hours of work during the construction phase
and upon completion, each operating rig will directly and
indirectly employ more than 100 workers. Compared to
conventional drilling rigs, Ensign, an international oileld services contractor based in Calgary, Alberta, that
makes ADRs claims that they are safer to operate, have
enhanced controls intelligence, reduced environmental footprint, quick mobility and advanced communications between eld and oce.[6] In June 2005 the rst
specically designed slant automated drilling rig (ADR),
Ensign Rig No. 118, for steam assisted gravity drainage
(SAGD) applications was mobilized by Deer Creek Energy Limited, a Calgary-based oilsands company.[7]
6.9 Limits of the technology

Drill technology has advanced steadily since the 19th century. However, there are several basic limiting factors
which will determine the depth to which a bore hole can
be sunk.
All holes must maintain outer diameter; the diameter of
the hole must remain wider than the diameter of the rods
or the rods cannot turn in the hole and progress cannot
continue. Friction caused by the drilling operation will
tend to reduce the outside diameter of the drill bit. This
applies to all drilling methods, except that in diamond
core drilling the use of thinner rods and casing may permit the hole to continue. Casing is simply a hollow sheath
which protects the hole against collapse during drilling,
and is made of metal or PVC. Often diamond holes will
start o at a large diameter and when outside diameter
is lost, thinner rods put down inside casing to continue,
until nally the hole becomes too narrow. Alternatively,
75
the hole can be reamed; this is the usual practice in oil
well drilling where the hole size is maintained down to
the next casing point.
For percussion techniques, the main limitation is air pressure. Air must be delivered to the piston at sucient pressure to activate the reciprocating action, and in turn drive
the head into the rock with sucient strength to fracture
and pulverise it. With depth, volume is added to the inrod string, requiring larger compressors to achieve operational pressures. Secondly, groundwater is ubiquitous,
and increases in pressure with depth in the ground. The
air inside the rod string must be pressurised enough to
overcome this water pressure at the bit face. Then, the
air must be able to carry the rock fragments to surface.
This is why depths in excess of 500 m for reverse circulation drilling are rarely achieved, because the cost is prohibitive and approaches the threshold at which diamond
core drilling is more economic.
Diamond drilling can routinely achieve depths in excess
of 1200 m. In cases where money is no issue, extreme
depths have been achieved, because there is no requirement to overcome water pressure. However, water circulation must be maintained to return the drill cuttings
to surface, and more importantly to maintain cooling and
lubrication of the cutting surface of the bit; while at the
same time reduce friction on the steel walls of the rods
turning against the rock walls of the hole. When water
return is lost the rods will vibrate, this is called rod chatter, and that will damage the drill rods, and crack the
joints.
Without sucient lubrication and cooling, the matrix of
the drill bit will soften. While diamond is the hardest substance known, at 10 on the Mohs hardness scale, it must
remain rmly in the matrix to achieve cutting. Weight on
bit, the force exerted on the cutting face of the bit by the
drill rods in the hole above the bit, must also be monitored.
A unique drilling operation in deep ocean water was
named Project Mohole.
6.10 New oileld technologies

Research includes technologies based on the utilization
of water jet, chemical plasma, hydrothermal spallation or
laser.
6.11 Causes of deviation

Most drill holes deviate slightly from their planned trajectory. This is because of the torque of the turning bit
working against the cutting face, because of the exibility
of the steel rods and especially the screw joints, because
of reaction to foliation and structure within the rock, and
because of refraction as the bit moves into dierent rock
76
layers of varying resistance. Additionally, inclined holes Normally VBRs are used when utilizing a tapered drill
will tend to deviate upwards because the drill rods will lie string (when dierent size drill pipe is used in the comagainst the bottom of the bore, causing the drill bit to be plete drill string).
slightly inclined from true. It is because of deviation that
drill holes must be surveyed if deviation will impact the
Centrifuge: an industrial version of the device that
usefulness of the information returned. Sometimes the
separates ne silt and sand from the drilling uid.
surface location can be oset laterally to take advantage
of the expected deviation tendency, so the bottom of the
Solids control: solids control equipments for preparhole will end up near the desired location. Oil well drilling
ing drilling mud for the drilling rig.
commonly uses a process of controlled deviation called
directional drilling (e.g., when several wells are drilled
Chain tongs: wrench with a section of chain, that
from one surface location).
wraps around whatever is being tightened or loosened. Similar to a pipe wrench.
6.12 Rig equipment
Degasser: a device that separates air and/or gas from

the drilling uid.
13
Desander / desilter: contains a set of hydrocyclones

that separate sand and silt from the drilling uid.
14
Drawworks: (#7) is the mechanical section that contains the spool, whose main function is to reel in/out
the drill line to raise/lower the traveling block (#11).
12
15
11
Drill bit: (#26) is a device attached to the end of the

drill string that breaks apart the rock being drilled.
It contains jets through which the drilling uid exits.
10
16
18
9
17
19
20
22
23
24
25
8
21
5
4
28
27
Drill pipe: (#16) joints of hollow tubing used to connect the surface equipment to the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and acts as a conduit for the drilling
uid. In the diagram, these are stands of drill pipe
which are 2 or 3 joints of drill pipe connected together and stood in the derrick vertically, usually
to save time while tripping pipe.
Simple diagram of a drilling rig and its basic operation
Elevators: a gripping device that is used to latch to

the drill pipe or casing to facilitate the lowering or
lifting (of pipe or casing) into or out of the borehole.
Drilling rigs typically include at least some of the following items: See Drilling rig (petroleum) for a more detailed
description.
Mud motor: a hydraulically powered device positioned just above the drill bit used to spin the bit
independently from the rest of the drill string.
26
Blowout preventers: (BOPs)

The equipment associated with a rig is to some extent dependent on the type of rig but (#23 & #24) are devices
installed at the wellhead to prevent uids and gases from
unintentionally escaping from the borehole. #23 is the
annular (often referred to as the Hydril, which is one
manufacturer) and #24 is the pipe rams and blind rams.
In the place of #24 Variable bore rams or VBRs can be
used. These oer the same pressure and sealing capacity
found in standard pipe rams, while oering the versatility of sealing on various sizes of drill pipe, production
tubing and casing without changing standard pipe rams.
Mud pump: (#4) reciprocal type of pump used to

circulate drilling uid through the system.
Mud tanks: (#1) often called mud pits, provides a
reserve store of drilling uid until it is required down
the wellbore.
Rotary table: (#20) rotates the drill string along with
the attached tools and bit.
Shale shaker: (#2) separates drill cuttings from the
drilling uid before it is pumped back down the
borehole.
77
6.13 Occupational safety
[7] Deer Creek And Ensign Spud First SAGD Wells Using
Slant Automated Drilling Rig. newtechmagazine.com.
Drilling rigs create some safety challenges for those who

work on them. One safety concern is the use of seatbelts
for workers driving between two locations. Motor vehicle
fatalities on the job for these workers is 8.5 times the rate
of the rest of the US working population, which can be
attributed to the low rate of seatbelt use.[8]
[8] Krah, Jaclyn; Unger, Richard L. (7 August 2013). The

Importance of Occupational Safety and Health: Making
for a Super Workplace. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
6.16 External links

6.14 See also
Boring
Flame jet drill
Mineral exploration
Oil platform
Oil well
Pumpjack
Subsea
6.15 References
[1] Baars, D.L.; Watney, W.L.; Steeples, D.W.; Brostuen,
E.A (1989). Petroleum; a primer for Kansas (Educational
Series, no. 7 ed.). Kansas Geological Survey. p. 40.
Retrieved 18 April 2011. After the cementing of the casing has been completed, the drilling rig, equipment, and
materials are removed from the drill site. A smaller rig,
known as a workover rig or completion rig, is moved over
the well bore. The smaller rig is used for the remaining
completion operations.
[2] Xianyao Li; Zhewen Luo (3 March 2011). Chinas Museums. Cambridge University Press. pp. 210211. ISBN
978-0-521-18690-2. By the time of the Song Dynasty,
Chinese craftsmen had invented special tools for digging
small-mouth-diameter wells
[3] Mark Kurlansky (18 March 2011). Salt: A World History.
Random House. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-307-36979-6.
[4] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text
from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm,
Hugh, ed. (1911). Petroleum. Encyclopdia Britannica
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[5] Roughnecks, Rock Bits And Rigs: The Evolution Of
Oil Well Drilling Technology In Alberta, 1883-1970 By
Sandy Gow, Bonar Alexander Gow Published by University of Calgary Press, 2005 ISBN 1-55238-067-X
[6] Ensign Launches Newest And Most Powerful Automated
ADR 1500S Pad Drill Rigs In Montney Play, New Tech
Magazine (Calgary, Alberta), 21 November 2014, retrieved 6 December 2014
OSHA guide for drilling rigs
Chapter 7
Forge
For the process of shaping metal by localized compressive forces, see Forging. For other uses, see Forge (disambiguation).
A forge is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or
A smithy in East Meon, Hampshire, England
A blacksmiths coal forge
ening steel or cooling the work so that it may be handled

with bare hands; the workpiece is transported to the slack
tub, which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of
water. The slack tub also provides water to control the
re in the forge.
7.1 Types of forges

7.1.1 Coal/coke/charcoal forge
Coal tranforming
to coke
Burning coke
Wooden smithy in Opole, Upper Silesia, Poland

Moving air
Hearth
Firepot
the workplace (smithy) where such a hearth is located.

The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a
Moving air
Ash
temperature where it becomes easier to shape by forging,
source
or to the point where work hardening no longer occurs.
The metal (known as the workpiece) is transported to
and from the forge using tongs, which are also used to Bottom blast coal forge
hold the workpiece on the smithys anvil while the smith
works it with a hammer. Sometimes such as when hard- A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or
78
7.1. TYPES OF FORGES
79
charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these

forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal,
coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same.
A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or replace
designed to allow a re to be controlled such that metal
introduced to the re may be brought to a malleable state
or to bring about other metallurgical eects (hardening,
annealing, and tempering as examples). The forge re in
this type of forge is controlled in three ways: amount of
air, volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/re.
A typical Scottish smithy at Auchentiber, North Ayrshire, Scotland.
In a typical coal forge, a repot will be centered in a at

hearth. The tuyere will enter the repot at the bottom. In
operation, the hot core of the re will be a ball of burning coke in and above the repot. The heart of the re
will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke.
Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of
coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the re.
Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw
coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the
shape of the res heart and to keep the coal from burning
directly so that it cooks into coke rst.
If a larger re is necessary, the smith increases the air
owing into the re as well as feeding and deepening the
coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width
of the re in such a forge to accommodate dierent shapes
of work.
A forge re for hot working of metal
The major variation from the forge and re just described

is a 'back draft' where there is no re pot, and the tuyere
enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall.
Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that
evolved in one form or another as the essential features use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel
of this type of forge:
at the heart of the re (as with coal), the re is handled
dierently.
Tuyere a pipe through which air can be forced
Individual smiths and specialized applications have fosinto the re
tered development of a variety of forges of this type, from
Bellows or blower a means for forcing air into the the coal forge described above, to simpler constructions
amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into
tuyere
it.
Hearth a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening.
During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and
ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows,
introduces additional air into the re through the tuyere.
With additional air, the re consumes more fuel and burns
hotter.
7.1.2 Gas forge
A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the

fuel. One common, ecient design uses a cylindrical
forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with
A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the re to suit refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory
particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: Kaowool).
The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip,
and maintaining the shape of the re.
80
CHAPTER 7. FORGE
which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The

air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a
mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi
eect.
Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges
using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric
burners to forges built out of a coee can utilizing a
cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be
carved out of a single soft rebrick.
The primary advantage of a gas forge is ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate
compared to coal forges, and the re produced is clean
and consistent. They are less versatile, as the re cannot
be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped
pieces;. It is also dicult to heat a small section of a
piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a
well designed gas forge is hot enough for any task.
7.1.3
Finery forge
Main article: Finery forge

A nery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron is
rened into wrought iron.
face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve a blacksmith as such because they are too soft. A common term
for a cast iron anvil is ASO or Anvil Shaped Object.
The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide
what some call Rebound as well as being hard and not
denting easily from misplaced hammer blows . The term
rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmiths hammer blows back into the metal thus moving
more metal at once than if there were no rebound. A good
anvil can project anywhere from 50-99% of the force
back into the workpiece. The at top, called the face
is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have
more or less depending on the design). The square hole is
called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy
tool ts. There are many dierent kinds of hardy tools.
The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools
similar to how the hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360 degree angle such as a hold
down tool for when the blacksmiths tongs cannot hold a
workpiece as securely as it needs to be. On the front of
the anvil there is sometimes a horn that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks. Between the
horn and the anvil face there is often a Small area called
a step or a cutting table That is used for cutting hot
or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvils face. Marks on the face transfer into the
blacksmiths work and make it ugly.
7.2 Forging equipment
7.2.2 Hammer
7.2.1
Main article: Hammer
Anvil
There are many types of hammer used in a blacksmiths

workshop but this will name just a few common ones.
Hammers can range in shape and weight from a half an
ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work
being done with it.
Pritchel hole
Face
Step
Horn
1. Hand hammer - used by the smith.
Hardie hole
Ball-peen hammer
Cross-peen hammer
Rounded edge
Straight-peen hammer
Rounding hammer
2. Sledge hammer - used by the striker.
Main article: Anvil

The anvil serves as a work bench to the blacksmith, where
the metal to be forged is placed. Anvils may seem clunky
and heavy, but they are a highly rened tool and made
perfectly to suite a blacksmiths needs. Anvils are made
of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on
or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some
anvils are made of only cast iron, and have no tool steel
7.2.3 Chisel
Main article: Chisel
Chisels are made of high carbon steel. They are hardened
and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft
so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two
7.4. GALLERY
81
types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for 7.3.1 Drop forging
cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals.
Usually hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its
substituted with cold chisels.[1]
face onto the work piece.[2]
7.2.4
Tongs
Process
Main article: Tongs

Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals
securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in
various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of
metal. There are various types of tongs available in market. (1) at tong (2) rivet or ring tong (3) straight lip uted
tong (4) gad tong
7.2.5
Fuller
Main article: Fuller (metalworking)
The workpiece is placed into the forge. Then the impact

of a hammer causes the heated material, which is very
malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities. Typically only one die is needed to completely form
the part. The extra space between the die faces is called
the ash. It acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure
produced by the closing of the die halves but is eventually
trimmed o of the nished part.
Equipment
The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that ts in a

hardy hole. There are many dierent kinds of hardy tool
such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on
the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and
making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to
list.
The equipment used in the drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer. These may be
powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on
how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and
the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from
11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies
and punches, come in many dierent shapes and sizes,
as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are at
and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and
single or multiple-impression dies used for closed dieforging. The designs for the dies have many aspects to
them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the
ash will ow properly and ll all the grooves, and special
considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs
and the parting line location. The materials must also be
selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material
selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to
withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and
other such things. The most common materials used for
the tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, nickel based
alloys.
7.2.7
Workpiece materials
Fullers are forming tools of dierent shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the
bottom fuller has a square shank which ts into the hardy
hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The
work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is placed
on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is
also used for nishing round corners and for stretching or
spreading metal.
7.2.6
Hardy
Main article: Hardy (blacksmithing)
Slack tub
A slack tub is usually a large container full of water used

by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. In blade smithing
and tool making the term will usually be changed to a
quench tank because oil or brine is used to cool the
metal. The term slack is believed to derive from the word
slake, as in slaking the heat.
7.3 Types of forging
The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminum, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless
steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and
magnesium generally performs poorly as a drop forging
material.
7.4 Gallery
7.4.1 Photography
Main article: Forging

Forge re
82
CHAPTER 7. FORGE
Brake Drum Coal Forge

A typical smithy in Finland
Lokomo anvil in use
7.4.2
In art
Further information: commons:Category:Forges_in_art
A 17th century painting from the school of Cornelis

Gerritsz Decker of men around a forge
The artist William Blake used the blacksmith as a
motif in his own extensive mythology. Here, Los, a
protagonist in several of Blakes poems, is tormented
at his smithy by the gure Spectre in an illustration
Blakes poem Jerusalem. This image comes from
Copy E. of that work, printed in 1821 and in the
collection of the Yale Center for British Art[1][2]
Fransisco Goya's The Forge currently held at the
Frick Collection[3]
Blacksmith Munechika (end of the 10th century),
helped by a fox spirit (left, surrounded by little
foxes), forging the blade Ko-Gitsune Maru (Little
Fox). Woodcut by Ogata Gekk.
1. ^ Copy Information for Jerusalem The Emanation
of The Giant Albion. William Blake Archive. Retrieved Sep 11, 2013.
2. ^ Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (ed.). Object description for"Jerusalem The
Emanation of The Giant Albion, copy E, object 15
(Bentley 15, Erdman 15, Keynes 15)"". William
Blake Archive. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
3. ^ http://collections.frick.org/view/objects/asitem/
items\protect\char"0024\relax0040:196
7.5 See also

Oven
Kiln
Furnace
Clinker (waste)
Blast furnace
Crucible steel
Steel mill
Steel industry
7.6 References
[1] Peat Oberons School of Blacksmithing: The cold chisel
you will make on our 'Make your own tools course
[2] Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide; Todd, Allen,
Alting
7.7 External links

Forging Magazine - All issues available online free
of charge.
The ERC/NSM, a metal forming research organization at The Ohio State University
Chapter 8
Factory
This article is about places of manufacture. For other their equipment outdoors.
uses, see Factory (disambiguation).
Discrete products may be nal consumer goods, or parts
A factory (previously manufactory) or manufactur- and sub-assemblies which are made into nal products
elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials. Continuous
production industries typically use heat or electricity to
transform streams of raw materials into nished products.
The term mill originally referred to the milling of grain,
which usually used natural resources such as water or
wind power until those were displaced by steam power
in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling, and paper manufacturing
were originally powered by water, the term survives as in
steel mill, paper mill, etc.
Volkswagen factory in Wolfsburg, Germany
ing plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods
or operate machines processing one product into another.
Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space
requirements became too great for cottage industry or
workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts
of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and Reconstructed historical factory in ilina (Slovakia) for producfewer than a dozen workers have been called gloried tion of safety matches. Originally built in 1915 for the business
rm Wittenberg and son.
workshops.[1]
Most modern factories have large warehouses or
warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment
used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to 8.1 History
be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail, highway and water loading Max Weber considered production during ancient times
and unloading facilities.
as never warranting classication as factories, with methFactories may either make discrete products or some type ods of production and the contemporary economic situaof material continuously produced such as chemicals, tion incomparable to modern or even pre-modern develpulp and paper, or rened oil products. Factories man- opments of industry. In ancient times, the earliest proufacturing chemicals are often called plants and may duction limited to the household, developed into a sepahave most of their equipment tanks, pressure vessels, rate endeavour independent to the place of inhabitation
chemical reactors, pumps and piping outdoors and op- with production at that time only beginning to be charerated from control rooms. Oil reneries have most of acteristic of industry, termed as unfree shop industry, a
83
84
CHAPTER 8. FACTORY
von Mises [11]
Entrance to the Venetian Arsenal by Canaletto, 1732.
The rst machine is stated by one source to have been

traps used to assist with the capturing of animals, corresponding to the machine as a mechanism operating independently or with very little force by interaction from
a human, with a capacity for use repeatedly with operation exactly the same on every occasion of functioning.[12]
The wheel was invented circa 3000 BC, the spoked wheel
c.2000 BC. The Iron Age began approximately 12001000 BC.[13][14]
Archaeology provides a date for the earliest city as 5000
BC as Tell Brak (Ur et al. 2006), therefore a date for cooperation and factors of demand, by an increased community size and population to make something like factory level production a conceivable necessity.[15][16][17]
According to one text the water-mill was rst made in 555
A.D. by Belisarius,[18] although according to another they
were known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius in the rst
century B.C. By the time of the 4th century A.D. mills
with a capacity to grind 3 tonnes of cereal an hour, a rate
sucient to meet the needs of 80,000 persons, were in
use by the Roman Empire.[19][20][21]
The Venice Arsenal provides one of the rst examples

of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded
in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred
situation caused especially under the reign of the Egyptian years before the Industrial Revolution, it mass-produced
pharaoh, with slave employment and no dierentiation of ships on assembly lines using manufactured parts. The
skills within the slave group comparable to modern de- Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship evnitions as division of labour.[2][3][4]
ery day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people.
According to translations of Demosthenes and
Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in
the entirety of ancient Egypt.[5][6][7] A source of 1983 8.1.1 Industrial Revolution
(Hopkins), states the largest factory production in ancient
times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens.[8] Main article: Factory system
An article within the New York Times article dated 13 See also: Industrial Revolution
One of the earliest factories was John Lombe's waterOctober 2011 states:
Interior of the Lyme Regis watermill, UK (14th century).
In African Cave, Signs of an Ancient Paint

Factory - (John Noble Wilford )
... discovered at Blombos Cave, a cave on the south coast
of South Africa where 100,000-year-old tools and ingredients were found with which early modern humans
mixed an ochre-based paint.[9]
Although The Cambridge Online Dictionary denition of
factory states:
Cromford mill as it is today.
a building or set of buildings where large

amounts of goods are made using machines [10]
elsewhere:
... the utilization of machines presupposes
social cooperation and the division of labour
powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. By

1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley
near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was
smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire,
and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on
site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staordshire and Matthew
8.2. HISTORICALLY SIGNIFICANT FACTORIES
85
Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent

early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
The factory system began widespread use somewhat later
when cotton spinning was mechanized.
Richard Arkwright is the person credited with inventing
the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented
his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill,
in Derbyshire, England, signicantly expanding the village of Cromford to accommodate the migrant workers
new to the area. The factory system was a new way of
organizing labour made necessary by the development of
machines which were too large to house in a workers cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for
the farmer, that is, from dawn to dusk, six days per week.
Overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. Arkwrights
factory was the rst successful cotton spinning factory in
the world; it showed unequivocally the way ahead for industry and was widely copied.
Factory Automation with industrial robots for palletizing food

products like bread and toast at a bakery in Germany.
uct such as (in Fords case) an automobile. This concept dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought about the age of
Between 1820 and 1850 mechanized factories supplanted consumerism.
traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, because the larger-scale factories In the mid- to late 20th century, industrialized countries
enjoyed a signicant technological advantage over the introduced next-generation factories with two improvesmall artisan shops. The earliest factories (using the ments:
factory system) developed in the cotton and wool textiles
industry. Later generations of factories included mech1. Advanced statistical methods of quality control, pianized shoe production and manufacturing of machinoneered by the American mathematician William
ery, including machine tools. Factories that supplied the
Edwards Deming, whom his home country initially
railroad industry included rolling mills, foundries and loignored. Quality control turned Japanese factories
comotive works. Agricultural-equipment factories prointo world leaders in cost-eectiveness and producduced cast-steel plows and reapers. Bicycles were masstion quality.
produced beginning in the 1880s.
2. Industrial robots on the factory oor, introduced in
The Nasmyth, Gaskell and Companys Bridgewater
the late 1970s. These computer-controlled weldFoundry, which began operation in 1836, was one of the
ing arms and grippers could perform simple tasks
earliest factories to use modern materials handling such
such as attaching a car door quickly and awlessly
as cranes and rail tracks through the buildings for han24 hours a day. This too cut costs and improved
dling heavy items.[22]
speed.
Large scale electrication of factories began around 1900
after the development of the AC motor which was able to Some speculation as to the future of the factory includes
run at constant speed depending on the number of poles scenarios with rapid prototyping, nanotechnology, and
and the current electrical frequency.[23] At rst larger orbital zero-gravity facilities.
motors were added to line shafts, but as soon as small
horsepower motors became widely available, factories
switched to unit drive. Eliminating line shafts freed fac- 8.2 Historically signicant factotories of layout constraints and allowed factory layout
ries
to be more ecient. Electrication enabled sequential
automation using relay logic.
Venetian Arsenal
8.1.2
Assembly line
Cromford Mill
Lombes Mill
Main article: Assembly line

Henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept in
the early 20th century, with the innovation of the mass
production. Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps would build up a prod-
Soho Manufactory
Portsmouth Block Mills
Slater Mill Historic Site
86
CHAPTER 8. FACTORY
between factories, as when one factorys output or wasteproduct became the raw materials of another factory
(preferably nearby). Canals and railways grew as factories spread, each clustering around sources of cheap energy, available materials and/or mass markets. The exception proved the rule: even greeneld factory sites such
as Bournville, founded in a rural setting, developed its
own housing and proted from convenient communications systems.
Highland Park Ford plant, c. 1922
Lowell Mills
Springeld Armory
Harpers Ferry Armory
Regulation curbed some of the worst excesses of

industrialization's factory-based society, a series of
Factory Acts leading the way in Britain. Trams, automobiles and town planning encouraged the separate development of industrial suburbs and residential suburbs,
with laborers commuting between them.
Though factories dominated the Industrial Era, the
growth in the service sector eventually began to dethrone
them: the focus of labor in general shifted to centralcity oce towers or to semi-rural campus-style establishments, and many factories stood deserted in local rust
belts.
The next blow to the traditional factories came from

Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company also called the globalization. Manufacturing processes (or their logical
Bridgewater Foundry
successors, assembly plants) in the late 20th century refocussed in many instances on Special Economic Zones in
Baldwin Locomotive Works
developing countries or on maquiladoras just across the
national boundaries of industrialized states. Further re Highland Park Ford Plant
location to the least industrialized nations appears pos Ford River Rouge Complex
sible as the benets of out-sourcing and the lessons of
exible location apply in the future.
Hawthorne Works
8.3 Siting the factory
8.4 Governing the factory

Much of management theory developed in response to
the need to control factory processes. Assumptions on
the hierarchies of unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled laborers and their supervisors and managers still linger on;
however an example of a more contemporary approach to
handle design applicable to manufacturing facilities can
be found in Socio-Technical Systems (STS).
8.5 Shadow factories
A factory worker in 1940s Fort Worth, Texas, United States.
A shadow factory is a term given to dispersed manufacturing sites in times of war to reduce the risk of disruption
due to enemy air-raids and often with the dual purpose of
increasing manufacturing capacity. Before World War II
Britain had built many shadow factories.
Before the advent of mass transportation, factories needs

for ever-greater concentrations of laborers meant that 8.5.1 British shadow factories
they typically grew up in an urban setting or fostered their
own urbanization. Industrial slums developed, and re- Main article: British shadow factories
inforced their own development through the interactions
8.8. NOTES
Production of the Supermarine Spitre at its parent companys base at Woolston, Southampton was vulnerable to
enemy attack as a high prole target and was well within
range of Luftwae bombers. Indeed, on 26 September
1940 this facility was completely destroyed by an enemy bombing raid. Supermarine had already established
a plant at Castle Bromwich; this action prompted them
to further disperse Spitre production around the country with many premises being requisitioned by the British
Government.[24]
Connected to the Spitre was production of its equally
important Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, Rolls-Royce's
main aero engine facility was located at Derby, the need
for increased output was met by building new factories in
Crewe and Glasgow and using a purpose-built factory of
Ford of Britain in Traord Park Manchester.[25]
8.6 Gallery
Zeche Ewald in Herten, exterior (2011)
Zeche Ewald in Herten, interior (2011)
Coldharbour Mill textile factory, built in 1799.
Adolph von Menzel: Moderne Cyklopen
New Lanark mill
Workers in the fuse factory, late 1800s
The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation
at Wheateld, New York, United States, 1944
Interior of the Rouge Tool & Die works, 1944
Hyundais Assembly line (about 2005)
8.7 See also

British shadow factories
Company Town
Factory farm
Factory system
Industrial robot
Industrial railway
List of production topics
Lockout
87
8.8 Notes
[1] Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus:
Technological Change and Industrial Development in
Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge,
New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-09418-6.
[2] John R. Love - Antiquity and Capitalism: Max Weber
and the Sociological Foundations of Roman Civilization
Routledge, 25 April 1991 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN
0415047501
[3] (secondary) JG Douglas, N Douglas - Ancient Households
of the Americas: Conceptualizing What Households Do
O'Reilly Media, Inc., 15 April 2012 Retrieved 2012-0712 ISBN 1457117444
[4] M Weber - General Economic History Transaction Publishers, 1981 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN 0878556907
[5] Demosthenes, Robert Whiston - Demosthenes, Volume 2
Whittaker and Company, 1868 Retrieved 2012-07-12
[6] Herodotus, George Rawlinson - History of Herodotus John
Murray 1862 Retrieved 2012-07-12
[7] (secondary) (E.Hughes ed) Oxford Companion to Philosophy - techne
[8] (P Garnsey, K Hopkins, C. R. Whittaker) - Trade in the
Ancient Economy University of California Press, 1983 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN 0520048032
[9] John Noble Wilford (13 October 2011). In African Cave,
Signs of an Ancient Paint Factory. The New York Times.
Retrieved 14 October 2011.
[10] factory denition, meaning - what is factory in the British
English Dictionary & Thesaurus - Cambridge Dictionaries
Online. cambridge.org.
[11] L von Mises - Theory and History Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN 1933550198
[12] E Bautista Paz, M Ceccarelli, J Echvarri Otero, JL
Muoz Sanz - A Brief Illustrated History of Machines and
Mechanisms Springer, 12 May 2010 Retrieved 2012-0712 ISBN 9048125111
[13] JW Humphrey - Ancient Technology Greenwood Publishing Group, 30 Sep 2006 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN
0313327637
[14] WJ Hamblin - Warfare in the Ancient Near East to
1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History Taylor
& Francis, 12 April 2006 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN
0415255880
[15] Ur, J et al 2007 - Early Mesopotamian Urbanism : A new
view from the North Harvard University Retrieved 201207-12
Plant layout study
[16] Understanding the Role of Production and Craft Specialization in Ancient ... - Kyle Andrew Knabb - Google
Books. google.co.uk.
Software factory
[17] Ancient Cities. google.co.uk.
Manufacturing
88
[18] LAA Hope - The Tablet of Memory: Showing every

memorable event in History, from the earliest period to
the year 1817 G. Wilkie, 1818 Retrieved 2012-07-12
[19] TK Derry, (TI Williams ed) - A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900 Courier
Dover Publications, 24 March 1993 Retrieved 2012-0712 ISBN 0486274721
[20] A Pacey - Technology in World Civilization: A ThousandYear History MIT Press, 1 July 1991 Retrieved 2012-0712 ISBN 0262660725
[21] WM Sumner - Cultural development in the Kur River
Basin, Iran: an archaeological analysis of settlement
patterns University of Pennsylvania., 1972 Retrieved
2012-07-12
[22] Musson; Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the
Industrial Revolution. University of Toronto Press. pp.
4915.
[23] Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood; Bryant, Lynwood
(1991). A History of Industrial Power in the United States,
1730-1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press. ISBN 0-26208198-9.
[24] Price 1986, p. 115.
[25] Pugh 2000, pp. 192-198.
8.9 References
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books,
Ltd.
Thomas, Dublin(1995). Transforming Womens
Work page: New England Lives in the Industrial
Revolution 77, 118 Cornell University Press.
Price, Alfred. The Spitre Story: Second edition.
London: Arms and Armour Press Ltd., 1986. ISBN
0-85368-861-3.
Pugh, Peter. The Magic of a Name The RollsRoyce Story The First 40 Years. Cambridge, England. Icon Books Ltd, 2000. ISBN 1-84046-151-9
Thomas, Dublin(1981). Women at Work: The
Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 18261860: Page 86107 New
York: Columbia University Press.
Biggs, Lindy (1996). The rational factory: architecture, technology, and work in Americas age of mass
production. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
978-0-8018-5261-9.
CHAPTER 8. FACTORY

Christian, Gallope, D (1987) Are the classical
management functions useful in describing managerial processes?" Academy of Management Review.
v 12 n 1, p3851.
Peterson, T (2004) Ongoing legacy of R.L. Katz:
an updated typology of management skills, Management Decision. v 42 n10, p12971308.
Mintzberg, H (1975) The managers job: Folklore
and fact, Harvard Business Review, v 53 n 4, July
August, p4961.
Hales, C (1999) Why do managers do what they
do? Reconciling evidence and theory in accounts of
managerial processes, British Journal of Management, v 10 n4, p335350.
Mintzberg, H (1994) Rounding out the Managers
job, Sloan Management Review, v 36 n 1 p 1126.
Rodrigues, C (2001) Fayols 14 principles then and
now: A plan for managing todays organizations effectively, Management Decision, v 39 n10, p 880
889
Twomey, D. F. (2006) Designed emergence as a
path to enterprise, Emergence, Complexity & Organization, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p1223.
McDonald, G (2000) Business ethics: practical proposals for organisations Journal of Business Ethics.
v 25(2) p 169185
8.11 External links
Chapter 9
Foundry
This article is about metal foundries. For other uses, see
Foundry (disambiguation).
Iron foundry redirects here. For the music composition by Soviet composer Alexander Mosolov, see Iron
Foundry.
A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings.
From Fra Burmeister og Wains Iron Foundry, by Peder Severin

Kryer, 1885.
Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid,

pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidied as it cools. A Foundryman, pictured by Daniel A. Wehrschmidt in 1899.
The most common metals processed are aluminium and
cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass,
steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce cast- 9.1.1 Melting
ings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes
and sizes can be formed.
Melting is performed in a furnace. Virgin material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying elements are used
to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to commer9.1 Process
cially pure forms of the primary metal used to form a particular alloy. Alloying elements are either pure forms of
Main article: Casting (metalworking)
an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel, or alloys of
limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys.
In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal External scrap is material from other forming processes
into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap
shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The so- consists of gates, risers, defective castings, and other exlidied part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or traneous metal oddments produced within the facility.
broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting The process includes melting the charge, rening the
is most often used for making complex shapes that would melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping into a
be dicult or uneconomical to make by other methods.[1] transport vessel. Rening is done to remove deleterious
89
90
CHAPTER 9. FOUNDRY
tem quantities produced. For ferrous materials EAFs,
cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings.
Melting metal in a crucible for casting
Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can

be optimized based on multiple factors. Furnaces in
foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used
to melt precious metals to furnaces weighing several tons,
designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time.
They are designed according to the type of metals that are
to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on
the fuel being used to produce the desired temperature.
For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or
tin, melting furnaces may reach around 500 C. Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to achieve
these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as
steel or nickel based alloys, the furnace must be designed
for temperatures over 1600 C. The fuel used to reach
these high temperatures can be electricity (as employed
in electric arc furnaces) or coke.
The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal
and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use
an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries
use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas
heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces.
9.1.2 Degassing
See also: Hydrogen gas porosity
A metal die casting robot in an industrial foundry
In the case of aluminium alloys, a degassing step is usually

necessary to reduce the amount of hydrogen dissolved in
the liquid metal. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt
is too high, the resulting casting will be porous as the hydrogen comes out of solution as the aluminium cools and
solidies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal.
gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting

defects. Material is added during the melting process to
bring the nal chemistry within a specic range specied
by industry and/or internal standards. Certain uxes may
be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and
degassers are used to remove dissolved gas from metals
An ecient way of removing hydrogen from the melt
that readily dissolve certain gasses. During the tap, nal
is to bubble argon or nitrogen through the melt. To do
chemistry adjustments are made.
that, several dierent types of equipment are used by
foundries. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch
the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the top surface.
Furnace
There are various types of equipment which measure
Several specialised furnaces are used to melt the metal. the amount of hydrogen present in it. Alternatively, the
Furnaces are refractory lined vessels that contain the ma- density of the aluminium sample is calculated to check
terial to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. Mod- amount of hydrogen dissolved in it.
ern furnace types include electric arc furnaces (EAF), In cases where porosity still remains present after the
induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished
furnaces. Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy sys- through a process called metal impregnating.
9.1. PROCESS
9.1.3
Mold making
Diagrams of two pattern types
91
Die casting Metal mold.
Billet (ingot) casting Simple mold for producing
ingots of metal normally for use in other foundries.
9.1.4 Pouring
A diagram of draft on a pattern
A diagram of an undercut in a mold

In the casting process a pattern is made in the shape of
the desired part. Simple designs can be made in a single
piece or solid pattern. More complex designs are made in
two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or
upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have
cores inserted to complete the nal part shape. Cores are
used to create hollow areas in the mold that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. Where the cope and drag
separates is called the parting line.
When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that
the pattern can be removed without breaking the mold.
This is called draft. The opposite of draft is an undercut
where there is part of the pattern under the mold material, making it impossible to remove the pattern without
damaging the mold.
Bronze poured from a crucible into a mold, using the ancient lostwax casting process
In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern
foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines for
pouring molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured
by hand using ladles.
9.1.5 Shakeout
The pattern is made out of wax, wood, plastic or metal.

The molds are constructed by several dierent processes
The solidied metal component is then removed from its
dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured,
mold. Where the mold is sand based, this can be done
quantity of parts to be produced, size of the casting and
by shaking or tumbling. This frees the casting from the
complexity of the casting. These mold processes include:
sand, which is still attached to the metal runners and gates
- which are the channels through which the molten metal
Sand casting Green or resin bonded sand mold. traveled to reach the component itself.
Lost-foam casting Polystyrene pattern with a
mixture of ceramic and sand mold.
9.1.6 Degating
Investment casting Wax or similar sacricial patDegating is the removal of the heads, runners, gates, and
tern with a ceramic mold.
risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may
be removed using cutting torches, bandsaws or ceramic
Ceramic mold casting Plaster mold.
cuto blades. For some metal types, and with some gat V-process casting Vacuum is used in conjunction ing system designs, the sprue, runners and gates can be
with thermoformed plastic to form sand molds. No removed by breaking them away from the casting with a
moisture, clay or resin is needed for sand to retain sledge hammer or specially designed knockout machinshape.
ery. Risers must usually be removed using a cutting
92
CHAPTER 9. FOUNDRY
method (see above) but some newer methods of riser removal use knocko machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser neck geometry that allow the riser
to break o at the right place.
The gating system required to produce castings in a mold
yields leftover metal, including heads, risers and sprue,
sometimes collectively called sprue, that can exceed 50%
of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this
metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating conguration becomes an important economic
consideration when designing various gating schemes, to
minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus melting costs.
9.1.7
Heat treating
Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking

processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the
manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat
treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally
to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such
as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment
techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only
to processes where the heating and cooling are done for
the specic purpose of altering properties intentionally,
heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other
manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.
9.1.8
Surface cleaning
After degating and heat treating, sand or other molding

media may adhere to the casting. To remove this the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a
granular media will be propelled against the surface of the
casting to mechanically knock away the adhering sand.
The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be
hurled using a shot wheel. The media strikes the casting
surface at high velocity to dislodge the molding media
(for example, sand, slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used as media, including steel,
iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads,
walnut shells, baking powder among others. The blasting media is selected to develop the color and reectance
of the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process
include cleaning, bead blasting, and sand blasting. Shot
peening may be used to further work-harden and nish
the surface.
Modern foundry (about 2000)
the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape and

surface nish.
Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub,
is usually done using a grinder or sanding. These processes are used because their material removal rates are
slow enough to control the amount of material. These
steps are done prior to any nal machining.
After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional
control are machined. Many castings are machined in
CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these
processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for many components to be used without
machining.
A few foundries provide other services before shipping

components to their customers. Painting components to
prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal is common.
9.1.9 Finishing
Some foundries will assemble their castings into complete
machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiThe nal step in the process usually involves grinding, ple castings or wrought metals together to form a nished
sanding, or machining the component in order to achieve product.[2]
9.4. EXTERNAL LINKS

More and more the process of nishing a casting is being achieved using robotic machines which eliminate the
need for a human to physically grind or break parting
lines, gating material or feeders. The introduction of
these machines has reduced injury to workers, costs of
consumables whilst also reducing the time necessary to
nish a casting. It also eliminates the problem of human error so as to increase repeatability in the quality of
grinding. With a change of tooling these machines can
nish a wide variety of materials including iron, bronze
and aluminium.[3]
9.2 See also

Bellfounding
Coremaking
Foundry sand testing
Smelting
Inclusions in aluminium castings
9.3 References
[1] Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley,
ISBN 0-471-65653-4, p. 277.
[2] Beeley, Peter (2001), Foundry Technology (2nd ed.),
Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-07506-4567-6
[3] Campbell, John (2003), Castings (2nd ed.), Oxford, UK:
Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-4790-8
9.4 External links

Free infos and articles in Spanish and English of
magazine FUNDIDORES
The Institute of Indian Foundrymen
American Foundry Society
World Foundry Organization
Photographic documentation of the founding process
93
Chapter 10
Gristmill
10.1.1 Early history
Main article: Watermill
See also: List of ancient watermills and List of early
medieval watermills
The Greek geographer Strabo reports in his Geography a
water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace
of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor,
before 71 BC.[1]
Allied Mills our mill on the banks of the Manchester Ship Canal
A gristmill (also: grist mill, corn mill or our mill)

grinds grain into our. The term can refer to both the
grinding mechanism and the building that holds it.
10.1 History
Grinding mechanism in an old Swedish our mill
Senenu Grinding Grain, ca. 1352-1336 B.C., The royal scribe

Senenu appears here bent over a large grinding stone. This unusual sculpture seems to be an elaborate version of a shabti, a
funerary gurine placed in the tomb to work in place of the deceased in the hereafter. Brooklyn Museum
The early mills had horizontal paddle wheels, an arrangement which later became known as the "Norse wheel",
as many were found in Scandinavia.[2] The paddle wheel
was attached to a shaft which was, in turn, attached to
the centre of the millstone called the "runner stone".
The turning force produced by the water on the paddles
was transferred directly to the runner stone, causing it
to grind against a stationary "bed", a stone of a similar
size and shape.[2] This simple arrangement required no
94
10.1. HISTORY
gears, but had the disadvantage that the speed of rotation 10.1.2
of the stone was dependent on the volume and ow of
water available and was, therefore, only suitable for use
in mountainous regions with fast-owing streams.[2] This
dependence on the volume and speed of ow of the water also meant that the speed of rotation of the stone was
highly variable and the optimum grinding speed could not
always be maintained.[2]
95
Classical British and American

mills
Vertical wheels were in use in the Roman Empire by the

end of the rst century BC, and these were described by
Vitruvius.[3] The peak of Roman technology is probably
the Barbegal aqueduct and mill where water with a 19metre fall drove sixteen water wheels, giving a grinding
capacity estimated at 2.4 to 3.2 tonnes per hour. Water mills seem to have remained in use during the post- Wayside Inn Grist Mill in Massachusetts
Roman period, and by 1000 AD, mills in Europe were
rarely more than a few miles apart.
The old water mill at Decew Falls, Niagara Escarpment,

St.Catharines, Canada
In England, the Domesday survey of 1086 gives a precise count of Englands water-powered our mills: There
were 5,624, or about one for every 300 inhabitants, and
this was probably typical throughout western and southern Europe. From this time onward, water wheels began
to be used for purposes other than grist milling. In England, the number of mills in operation followed populaStretton Watermill, 17th-century built operational mill in
tion growth, and peaked around 17,000 by 1300.[4]
Cheshire, England
Limited extant examples of gristmills can be found in
Europe from the High Middle Ages. An extant well- Although the terms gristmill or corn mill can refer
preserved waterwheel and gristmill on the Ebro River in to any mill that grinds grain, the terms were used historSpain is associated with the Real Monasterio de Nuestra ically for a local mill where farmers brought their own
Senora de Rueda, built by the Cistercian monks in 1202. grain and received back ground meal or our, minus a
The Cistercians were known for their use of this technol- percentage called the millers toll.[7] Early mills were
ogy in Western Europe in the period 1100 to 1350.
almost always built and supported by farming commuGeared gristmills were also built in the medieval Near nities and the miller received the millers toll in lieu of
East and North Africa, which were used for grinding wages. Most towns and villages had their own mill so that
grain and other seeds to produce meals.[5] Gristmills in local farmers could easily transport their grain there to be
the Islamic world were powered by both water and wind. milled. These communities were dependent on their local
The rst wind-powered gristmills were built in the 9th and mill as bread was a staple part of the diet.
10th centuries in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Classical mill designs are usually water powered, though
some are powered by the wind or by livestock. In a waterIran.[6]
96
CHAPTER 10. GRISTMILL
mill a sluice gate is opened to allow water to ow onto, or

under, a water wheel to make it turn. In most watermills
the water wheel was mounted vertically, i.e., edge-on, in
the water, but in some cases horizontally (the tub wheel
and so-called Norse wheel). Later designs incorporated
horizontal steel or cast iron turbines and these were sometimes retted into the old wheel mills.
In most wheel-driven mills, a large gear-wheel called the
pit wheel is mounted on the same axle as the water wheel
and this drives a smaller gear-wheel, the wallower, on a
main driveshaft running vertically from the bottom to the
top of the building. This system of gearing ensures that
the main shaft turns faster than the water wheel, which
typically rotates at around 10 rpm.
The millstones themselves turn at around 120 rpm. They
are laid one on top of the other. The bottom stone, called
the bed, is xed to the oor, while the top stone, the
runner, is mounted on a separate spindle, driven by the
main shaft. A wheel called the stone nut connects the runners spindle to the main shaft, and this can be moved out
of the way to disconnect the stone and stop it turning,
leaving the main shaft turning to drive other machinery.
This might include driving a mechanical sieve to rene
the our, or turning a wooden drum to wind up a chain
used to hoist sacks of grain to the top of the mill house.
The distance between the stones can be varied to produce
the grade of our required; moving the stones closer to- Modern mills are highly automated. Interior in Tartu Mill, that
gether produces ner our.
is the biggest grain milling company in the Baltic states.
The grain is lifted in sacks onto the sack oor at the top
of the mill on the hoist. The sacks are then emptied into
bins, where the grain falls down through a hopper to the
millstones on the stone oor below. The ow of grain
is regulated by shaking it in a gently sloping trough (the
slipper) from which it falls into a hole in the center of
the runner stone. The milled grain (our) is collected as
it emerges through the grooves in the runner stone from
the outer rim of the stones and is fed down a chute to be
collected in sacks on the ground or meal oor. A similar
process is used for grains such as wheat to make our, and
for maize to make corn meal.
In order to prevent the vibrations of the mill machinery
from shaking the building apart, a gristmill will often have The Pilgrims Pride feed mill in Pittsburg, Texas, in August 2015
at least two separate foundations.
American inventor Oliver Evans revolutionized this
graham our. The dierent milling techniques produce
labor-intensive process at the end of the eighteenth cenvisibly dierent results, but can be made to produce nutritury when he patented and promoted a fully automated
tionally and functionally equivalent output. Stone-ground
mill design.
our is, however, preferred by many bakers and natural food advocates because of its texture, nutty avour,
and the belief that it is nutritionally superior and has a
10.2 Modern mills
better baking quality than steel-roller-milled our.[8] It
is claimed that, as the stones grind relatively slowly, the
Modern mills typically use electricity or fossil fuels to wheat germ is not exposed to the sort of excessive temspin heavy steel, or cast iron, serrated and at rollers to peratures that could cause the fat from the germ portion to
separate the bran and germ from the endosperm. The en- oxidize and become rancid, which would destroy some of
dosperm is ground to create white our, which may be re- the vitamin content.[8] Stone-milled our has been found
combined with the bran and germ to create whole grain or to be relatively high in thiamin, compared to roller-milled
10.5. FURTHER READING

our, especially when milled from hard wheat.[8]
Gristmills only grind clean grains from which stalks and
cha have previously been removed, but historically some
mills also housed equipment for threshing, sorting, and
cleaning prior to grinding.
Modern mills are usually merchant mills that are either
privately owned and accept money or trade for milling
grains or are owned by corporations that buy unmilled
grain and then own the our produced.
10.3 See also

List of watermills
Grist
97
[7] ARTFL Project: Webster Dictionary, 1913. The University of Chicago - Department of Romance Languages
and Literature. Retrieved 2006-09-28.
[8] Campbell, Judy; Mechtild Hauser; Stuart Hill (1991).
NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS of ORGANIC,
FRESHLY STONE-GROUND, SOURDOUGH & CONVENTIONAL BREADS. Ecological Agriculture
Projects Publications. Ecological Agriculture Projects.
Retrieved 15 December 2009.
Wikander, rjan (1985). Archaeological Evidence

for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report. History
of Technology 10. pp. 15179
Wikander, rjan (2000). The Water-Mill. In
Wikander, rjan. Handbook of Ancient Water
Technology. Technology and Change in History 2.
Leiden: Brill. pp. 371400. ISBN 90-04-11123-9
Hammermill
Textile mill
Tide mill
Unine Mill
Water wheel

Richard Bennett & John Elton. History of corn
milling (London, Simpkin, Marshall and company,
1898).
Windmill
Volume 1 - Handstone, Slave and Cattle

Mills
Ship mill
Volume 2 - Water and Wind Mills
People
Robert L. Burns, began Consolidated Flour Mills of
Kansas
10.4 References
Volume 3 - Feudal Laws and customs of

Mills
Volume 4 - Some famous feudal mills
History of Cannon River Mills in Southern MN, USA
10.6 Gallery
[1] Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000, p. 396
Gristmill with water wheel, Skyline Drive, Virginia,

1938
[2] Denny, Mark (4 May 2007). Waterwheels and Windmills. Ingenium: ve machines that changed the world.
The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 3638. ISBN
0-8018-8586-8. Retrieved 15 December 2009.
Gristmill hopper, Skyline Drive, VA, 1938. Grain

was funneled through the hopper to a grinding stone
below
[3] Oleson, John Peter (30 Jun 1984). Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology.
Springer. p. 373. ISBN 90-277-1693-5. Retrieved 15
December 2009.
[4] Gimpel, J., The Medieval Machine, Gollanz, 1976, Chapter 1.
[5] Donald Routledge Hill (1996), Engineering, p. 781, in
(Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 75195)
[6] Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and
Medieval Milling Technology, p. 65, Brill Publishers,
ISBN 90-04-14649-0
Corn over the grinding stone in Kenyons johnnycake our mill in Usquepaugh, RI, (near Kingston)
1940
Gristmill drive machinery, Thomas Mill, Chester
County, PA
Pedal powered wheat mill, Shediac Cape, New
Brunswick
Remnants of some of the scores of our mills built in
Minneapolis between 1850 and 1900. Note the underground Mill race that powered mills on the west
side of the Mississippi River at St. Anthony Falls
98
Phelps Mill in Otter Tail County, Minnesota
Wheel of the 1840s-era Grist Mill at Old Sturbridge
Village in Sturbridge, MA
Slipper feeding corn into the grindstones of
George Washington's Grist Mill
Splash mill from Smland, Sweden
Weir at the old grist mill in Thorp, Washington
Old turbine wheel at the old grist mill in Thorp,
Washington
The grist mill at the Wayside Inn in Sudbury, Massachusetts
Stockdale Mill on the Eel River near Roann, Indiana
Grain mill with bevel gears outside local museum at
Dordrecht
Manseld Roller Mill in Manseld, Indiana, USA
Caledonia Mill, Caledonia, Ontario, Canada
Close-up of a Dutch cornmill
A Flour Mill seen in India
10.7 External links

Southeastern Minnesota Cannon River Valley Historic Mill Information, Drawings and Images
Historic Mill Information and Images
Whitemill, Wimborne, Dorset, England
The Society for Preservation of Old Mills
Old Stone Mill National Historic Site of Canada
Stockdale Mill
Greenbank Mill
Gristmill diagram and description
North American Millers Association How
Wheat Flour is Milled
Worlds Grits Festival St. George, SC
Site of rst grist mill in North America, 1607
Prewetts Mill a British mill built in 1861 driven by
steam until the 1970s
Working Mill in Pickwick, Minnesota, 1854
Cooper Mill - Working Grist Mill in Chester, New
Jersey 1826
Newlin Grist Mill
CHAPTER 10. GRISTMILL

The Mill at Anselma - A National Historic Landmark
War Eagle Mill - A Working Water Powered Grist
Mill in Rogers, Arkansas
Peirce Mill and Barn, Rock Creek Park, U.S. National Park Service
Graue Mill and Museum, Oakbrook, Illinois
Chapter 11
Mining
For other uses, see Mining (disambiguation).
ative impact on the environment both during the mining
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other operations and for years after the mine is closed. This
impact has led most of the worlds nations to adopt regulations designed to moderate the negative eects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as well,
and modern practices have improved safety in mines signicantly.
11.1 History
11.1.1 Prehistoric mining
Surface coal mining
Simplied world active mining map
geological materials from the earth from an orebody,

lode, vein, seam, or reef, which forms the mineralized Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert
package of economic interest to the miner.
Since the beginning of civilization, people have used
Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, stone, ceramics and, later, metals found close to the
gemstones, limestone, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, Earth's surface. These were used to make early tools and
gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material weapons; for example, high quality int found in norththat cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or ern France and southern England was used to create int
created articially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in tools.[1] Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where
a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts
resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.
and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially
Mining of stones and metal has been done since famous, and like most other int mines, are Neolithic
pre-historic times. Modern mining processes involve in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocks
prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the prot potential mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the
of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.
and nal reclamation of the land after the mine is closed. The oldest known mine on archaeological record is
The nature of mining processes creates a potential neg- the Lion Cave in Swaziland, which radiocarbon dat99
100
CHAPTER 11. MINING
ing shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this site

Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red
pigment ochre.[2][3] Mines of a similar age in Hungary are
believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined
int for weapons and tools.[4]
11.1.2
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi.[5] At rst,

Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494
BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad
to the area of Wadi Maghara in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself.[6]
Quarries for turquoise and copper were also found at
Wadi Hamamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian
sites[6] on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna.
clude the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support

the Greek city state of Athens. Despite the mine having
over 20,000 slaves working in them, the technology was
essentially identical to their Bronze Age predecessors.[7]
Other mines, such as on the island of Thassos, had marble
quarried by the Parians after arriving in the 7th Century
BC.[8] The marble was shipped away and was found to
have been used in buildings including the tomb of Amphipolis. Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander
the Great, captured the gold mines of Mount Pangeo in
357 BC to fund his military campaigns.[9] He also captured gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage, eventually producing 26 tons per year.
However, it is the Romans who developed large scale

mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of
water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts.
The water was used for a variety of purposes, including
removing overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic
Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. The mining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, ores
gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most and driving simple machinery.
extensive of any in Ancient Egypt, and are described by The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large
the Greek author Diodorus Siculus. He mentions that re- scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a now
setting was one method used to break down the hard rock obsolete form of mining known as hushing. It involved
holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one building numerous aqueducts to supply water to the mineof the earliest known maps. The miners crushed the ore head where it was stored in large reservoirs and tanks.
and ground it to a ne powder before washing the powder When a full tank was opened, the wave of water sluiced
for the gold dust.
away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath
and any gold veins. The rock was then attacked by resetting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a
11.1.3 Ancient Greek and Roman Mining stream of water. The thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed, aided by further streams of water
Further information: Mining in Roman Britain
from the overhead tanks. The Roman miners used simiMining in Europe has a very long history. Examples in- lar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and
lead ore in the Pennines.
The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain
in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest
site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts
were built to tap local rivers and to sluice the deposits.
Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but
all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. In Great
Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia,[10]
but when the Romans came, the scale of the operations
changed dramatically.
Ancient Roman development of the Dolaucothi Gold Mines,

Wales
The Romans needed Britannia's resources, especially

gold, silver, tin, and lead. Roman techniques were not
limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins
underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins, and drove
adits through barren rock to drain the stopes. The same
adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially
important when re-setting was used. At other parts of
the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the
mines using several kinds of machine, especially reverse
overshot water-wheels. These were used extensively in
the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and
11.1. HISTORY
101
lifting water about 80 feet (24 m). They were worked as

treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many
examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the
British Museum and the National Museum of Wales.[11]
11.1.4
Medieval Europe
Main article: Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe

Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in
Gallery, 12th to 13th century, Germany
during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on, precious metals, gold and silver still remained
vital to the story of medieval mining.
Agricola, author of De Re Metallica
medieval Europe. The mining industry in the early Middle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper
and iron. Other precious metals were also used mainly for
gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained
through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted
from shallow depths, rather than though the digging of
deep mine shafts. Around the 14th century, the demand
for weapons, armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval knights, for example, were often laden with up to 100 pounds of plate or
chain link armour in addition to swords, lances and other
weapons.[12] The overwhelming dependency on iron for
military purposes helped to spur increased iron production and extraction processes.
In the mid-sixteenth century the great attack on mineral

deposits spread from central Europe to England. England
had iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin ores. On the continent all mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and this
regalian right was stoutly maintained; but in England it
was pared down to gold and silver (of which there was
virtually none) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a law
of 1688. Landlords therefore owned the base metals and
coal under their estates and had a strong inducement to
extract them or to lease the deposits and collect royalties
from mine operators. English, German, and Dutch capital combined to nance extraction and rening. Hundreds of German technicians and skilled workers were
brought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000 foreigners was
mining and smelting copper at Keswick in the northwestern mountains.[14]
Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive. The water mills were employed in crushing ore,
raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows. Black powder was rst used in mining in Selmecbnya, Kingdom of Hungary in 1627.[15]
Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen
and reveal ore veins. Blasting was much faster than rethe mining of previously impenetraThe silver crisis of 1465 occurred when the mines had setting and allowed [16]
ble
metals
and
ores.
In 1762, the worlds rst mining
all reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be
academy
was
established
in the same town.
[13]
Although
pumped dry with the available technology.
an increased use of bank notes, credit and copper coins The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such
102
CHAPTER 11. MINING
as the iron plowshare, as well as the growing use of metal

as a building material, was also a driving force in the
tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period. Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the
Spanish to pulverize ore after being mined. This device
was powered by animals and used the same principles
used for grain threshing.[17]
earrings were handed down from antiquity and inherited

from their ancestors. Gold dagger handles, gold dishes,
tooth plating, and huge gold ornamets were also used.[18]
In Laszlo Legezas Tantric elements in pre-Hispanic
Philippines Gold Art, he mentioned that gold jewelry
of Philippine origin was found in Ancient Egypt.[18] According to Antonio Pigafetta, the people of Mindoro possessed great skill in mixing gold with other metals and
gave it a natural and perfect appearance that could deceive
even the best of silversmiths.[18] The natives were also
known for the jewelries made of other precious stones
such as carnelian, agate and pearl. Some outstanding examples of Philippine jewelry included necklaces, belts,
armlets and rings placed around the waist.
Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques

comes from books such as Biringuccios De la pirotechnia and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola's
De re metallica (1556). These books detail many dierent mining methods used in German and Saxon mines.
One of the prime issues confronting medieval miners (and
one which Agricola explains in detail) was the removal of
water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to access new veins, ooding became a very real obstacle. The
11.1.6
mining industry became dramatically more ecient and
prosperous with the invention of mechanical and animal
driven pumps.
11.1.5
The Americas
Classical Philippine Civilization
See also: Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines

Mining in the Philippines began around 1000 BC. The
Lead mining in the upper Mississippi River region of the U.S.,

1865.
There are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along Lake

Superior, and metallic copper was still found there,
near the surface, in colonial times. [19] [20] [21] Indians
availed themselves of this copper starting at least 5,000
years ago,[19] and copper tools, arrowheads, and other
artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade network have been discovered. In addition, obsidian, int,
and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded.[20]
Early French explorers who encountered the sites made
no use of the metals due to the diculties of transporting
them,[20] but the copper was eventually traded throughout
the continent along major river routes. In Saskatchewan,
Canada, there also are ancient quartz mines near Waddy
Lake and surrounding regions.[22]
In the early colonial history of the Americas, native
gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to
Spain in eets of gold- and silver-laden galleons,[23] the
gold and silver mostly from mines in Central and South
America. Turquoise dated at 700 A.D. was mined in
pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District
The image of a Maharlika class of the Philippine Society , de- in New Mexico, estimates are that about 15,000 tons
picted in Boxer Codex that the Gold used as a form of Jewelry of rock had been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl using
(ca.1400).
stone tools before 1700.[24][25]
early Filipinos worked various mines of gold, silver, cop- Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th
per and iron. Jewels, gold ingots, chains, calombigas and century, and the General Mining Act of 1872 was passed
11.2. MINE DEVELOPMENT AND LIFECYCLE
103
in mining occurred in the 1960s. Now, in the early
21st century, Australia remains a major world mineral
producer.[29]
As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining industry of large multinational corporations has arisen. Peak
minerals and environmental impacts have also become a
concern. Dierent elements, particularly rare earth minerals, have begun to increase in demand as a result of new
technologies.
11.2 Mine development and lifecycle

Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S.
in 1905.
to encourage mining of federal lands.[26] As with the

California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century, mining for
minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, was a
driving factor in the Westward Expansion to the Pacic
coast. With the exploration of the West, mining camps
were established and expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation;" Gold Rushers would
experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of
the transient West that preceded them.[27] Aided by railroads, many traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns.
As new areas were explored, it was usually the gold
(placer and then load) and then silver that were taken rst,
with other metals often waiting for railroads or canals.
Coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting and
are easy to identify and transport.[21]
Schematic of a cut and ll mining operation in hard rock.
The process of mining from discovery of an ore body

through extraction of minerals and nally to returning the
land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps.
The rst is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out
through prospecting or exploration to nd and then dene
the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads
to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size
and grade of the deposit.
This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study

to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit.
This identies, early on, whether further investment in es11.1.7 Modern period
timation and engineering studies is warranted and identiIn the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the es key risks and areas for further work. The next step is
to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the nancial viawestern United States also stimulated mining for base
metals such as copper, lead, and iron as well as coal. Ar- bility, the technical and nancial risks, and the robustness
of the project.
eas in modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska
became predominate suppliers of copper to the world, This is when the mining company makes the decision
which was increasingly demanding copper for electrical whether to develop the mine or to walk away from
and households goods.[28] Canadas mining industry grew the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate
more slowly than did the United States due to limitations the economically recoverable portion of the deposit,
in transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontario the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and
was the major producer of the early 20th century with payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns,
milling and infrastructure costs, nance and equity renickel, copper, and gold.[28]
Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian gold quirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from
rushes and by the 1850s was producing 40% of the the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation.
worlds gold, followed by the establishment of large mines The proportion of a deposit that is economically recoversuch as the Mount Morgan Mine, which ran for nearly able is dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore in
a hundred years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of the the area.
largest zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is
Iron Knob. After declines in production, another boom often necessary to mine through or remove waste mate-
104
CHAPTER 11. MINING
rial which is not of immediate interest to the miner. The

total movement of ore and waste constitutes the mining
process. Often more waste than ore is mined during the
life of a mine, depending on the nature and location of
the ore body. Waste removal and placement is a major
cost to the mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material forms an essential part of the
geological exploration program for a mining operation.
uble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride,

sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water. Some minerals,
such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid
or carbonate solutions to dissolve.[31][32]
Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore
body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built,
and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation
of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as
long as the company operating the mine nds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce
protably is recovered, reclamation begins to make the
land used by the mine suitable for future use.
Main article: Surface mining
11.3 Mining techniques
11.3.1 Surface mining
Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface

vegetation, dirt, and, if necessary, layers of bedrock in
order to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface
mining include: open-pit mining, which is the recovery
of materials from an open pit in the ground, quarrying,
identical to open-pit mining except that it refers to sand,
stone and clay;[33] strip mining, which consists of stripping surface layers o to reveal ore/seams underneath;
and mountaintop removal, commonly associated with
coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain o to reach ore deposits at depth. Most (but not
all) placer deposits, because of their shallowly buried
nature, are mined by surface methods. Finally, landll
mining involves sites where landlls are excavated and
processed.[34]
Garzweiler surface mine, Germany

Underground longwall mining.
Mining techniques can be divided into two common

excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (under- 11.3.2 Underground mining
ground) mining. Today, surface mining is much more
common, and produces, for example, 85% of miner- Main articles: Underground mining (hard rock) and
als (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United
Underground mining (soft rock)
States, including 98% of metallic ores.[30]
Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts
Targets are divided into two general categories of ma- into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for proterials: placer deposits, consisting of valuable minerals cessing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the
contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface minunconsolidated materials; and lode deposits, where valu- ing can be classied by the type of access shafts used, the
able minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral extraction method or the technique used to reach the mingrains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual eral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunrock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined nels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts,
by both surface and underground methods.
and shaft mining utilizes vertical access shafts. Mining
Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements in hard and soft rock formations require dierent techand uranium mining, is done by less-common methods, niques.
such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is
neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of mining upward, creating a sloping underground room,
target minerals by this technique requires that they be sol- long wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surface
11.5. PROCESSING
105
velop sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break
and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to
process the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and
trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In the
case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium,
is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking
screen or trommel which frees the desired minerals from
the waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs.
Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and

obtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport
miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and
out of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machinery
Mantrip used for transporting miners within an underground in and out, of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovmine
els and cranes are employed in surface mining to move
large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants
underground, and room and pillar mining, which is re- utilize large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other
moving ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and
support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining of- extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore.
ten leads to retreat mining, in which supporting pillars are
removed as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in,
thereby loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include hard rock mining, which is mining
of hard rock (igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary) materials, bore hole mining, drift and ll mining, long hole 11.5 Processing
slope mining, sub level caving, and block caving.
11.4 Machines
Main articles: mineral processing and extractive metallurgy

Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed.
The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area
in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of
valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means.
The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining.

It is also the largest land vehicle of all time.
Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized

area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable
the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals
or minerals from their gangue (waste material). Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent
methods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate
(unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface
or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed
and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals
begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several,
mechanical and chemical techniques.
Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or suldes, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form.
A Bucyrus Erie 2570 dragline and CAT 797 haul truck at the This can be accomplished through chemical means such
North Antelope Rochelle opencut coal mine
as smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in the
case of aluminium. Geometallurgy combines the geoHeavy machinery is used in mining to explore and de- logic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining.
106
CHAPTER 11. MINING
11.6 Environmental eects
international nancing, there are a number of other mechanisms to enforce good environmental standards. These
generally relate to nancing standards such as the Equator
Main article: Environmental issues with mining
Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of Principles, IFC environmental standards, and criteria for
Socially responsible investing. Mining companies have
used this oversight from the nancial sector to argue for
some level of self-policing.[37] In 1992, a Draft Code of
Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at
the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council
for Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-regulation instead.[38]
This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative which
was begun by nine of the largest metals and mining companies and which led to the formation of the International
Council on Mining and Metals, whose purpose was to
act as a catalyst in an eort to improve social and environmental performance in the mining and metals industry internationally.[37] The mining industry has provided
funding to various conservation groups, some of which
have been working with conservation agendas that are at
odds with an emerging acceptance of the rights of indigenous people particularly the right to make land-use
decisions.[39]
Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage

from surface coal mining.
sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil,

groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining
processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done
in the vicinity of mines to create space for the storage
of the created debris and soil.[35] Contamination resulting
from leakage of chemicals can also aect the health of the
local population if not properly controlled.[36] Extreme
examples of pollution from mining activities include coal
res, which can last for years or even decades, producing
massive amounts of environmental damage.
Certication of mines with good practices occurs through

the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
For example, ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certify
an auditable environmental management system, involve short inspections, although they have been accused
of lacking rigor.[37]:1834 Certication is also available
through Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are voluntary and unveried. Miscellaneous other
certication programs exist for various projects, typically
through nonprot groups.[37]:1856
The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper[40] was to provide evidence on policies managing ecological costs and
maximise socio-economic benets of mining using host
country regulatory initiatives. It found existing literature
suggesting donors encourage developing countries to:
Make the environment-poverty link and introduce
cutting-edge wealth measures and natural capital accounts.
Reform old taxes in line with more recent nancial

Mining companies in most countries are required to folinnovation, engage directly with the companies, enlow stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes in
acting land use and impact assessments, and incororder to minimize environmental impact and avoid imporate specialised support and standards agencies.
pacting human health. These codes and regulations all require the common steps of environmental impact assess Set in play transparency and community participament, development of environmental management plans,
tion initiatives using the wealth accrued.
mine closure planning (which must be done before the
start of mining operations), and environmental monitoring during operation and after closure. However, in some
11.6.1 Waste
areas, particularly in the developing world, government
regulations may not be well enforced.
Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings.
For major mining companies and any company seeking For example, 99 tons of waste are generated per ton of
11.7. MINING INDUSTRY
107
copper,[41] with even higher ratios in gold mining - because only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, a
ton of gold produces 200,00 tons of tailings.[42] These
tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly dumped into ponds
made from naturally existing valleys.[43] These ponds
are secured by impoundments (dams or embankment
dams).[43] In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major
failures and 35 minor failures occurred;[44] for example,
in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million tons
of tailings were released into a local river.[44] Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option.[43] The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD),
which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it
avoids the risks of tailings ponds; although the practice is
illegal in the United States and Canada, it is used in the
developing world.[45]
US mining industry is also large, but it is dominated by the

coal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand),
and various regulations have worked to reduce the significance of mining in the United States.[48] In 2007 the total
market capitalization of mining companies was reported
at US$962 billion, which compares to a total global market cap of publicly traded companies of about US$50 trillion in 2007.[49] In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedly
the major mining countries of South America.[50] The
mineral industry of Africa includes the mining of various
minerals; it produces relatively little of the industrial metals copper, lead, and zinc, but according to one estimate
has as a percent of world reserves 40% of gold, 60% of
cobalt, and 90% of the worlds platinum group metals.[51]
Mining in India is a signicant part of that countrys economy. In the developed world, mining in Australia, with
BHP Billiton founded and headquartered in the country,
and mining in Canada are particularly signicant. For
China reportedly controlled
The waste is classied as either sterile or mineralised, rare earth minerals mining, [52]
95%
of
production
in
2013.
with acid generating potential, and the movement and
storage of this material forms a major part of the mine
planning process. When the mineralised package is determined by an economic cut-o, the near-grade mineralised waste is usually dumped separately with view to
later treatment should market conditions change and it
becomes economically viable. Civil engineering design
parameters are used in the design of the waste dumps,
and special conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and to
seismically active areas. Waste dump designs must meet
all regulatory requirements of the country in whose jurisdiction the mine is located. It is also common practice to
rehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable standard, which in some cases means that higher standards
than the local regulatory standard are applied.[44]
11.6.2
Renewable energy and mining
Many mining sites are remote and not connected to the

grid. Electricity is typically generated with diesel generators. Due to high transportation cost and theft during
transportation the cost for generating electricity is normally high. Renewable energy applications are becoming
an alternative or amendment. Both solar and wind power
plants can contribute in saving diesel costs at mining sites.
Renewable energy applications have been built at mining
sites.[46] Cost savings can reach up to 70%.[47]
11.7 Mining industry

Main articles: List of mines, List of mining companies
and Category:Mining companies
Mining exists in many countries. London is known as
the capital of global mining houses such as Rio Tinto
Group, BHP Billiton, and Anglo American PLC.[48] The
The Bingham Canyon Mine of Rio Tintos subsidiary, Kennecott

Utah Copper.
While exploration and mining can be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modernday mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts
of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector
of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational,
companies, most of them publicly listed. It can be argued that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is
actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for
new resources and the other in mining those resources.
The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals
and small mineral resource companies, called juniors,
which are dependent on venture capital. The mining sector is made up of large multinational companies that are
sustained by production from their mining operations.
Various other industries such as equipment manufacture,
environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on,
and support, the mining industry throughout the world.
Canadian stock exchanges have a particular focus on mining companies, particularly junior exploration companies through TorontosTSX Venture Exchange; Canadian
108
CHAPTER 11. MINING
companies raise capital on these exchanges and then invest the money in exploration globally.[48] Some have argued that below juniors there exists a substantial sector
of illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipulating stock prices.[48]
Mining operations can be grouped into ve major categories in terms of their respective resources. These are
oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining,
nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining
support activities.[53] Of all of these categories, oil and
gas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its
global economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry,
is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as
seismic prospecting and remote-sensing satellites. Mining is heavily aected by the prices of the commodity
minerals, which are often volatile. The 2000s commodities boom (commodities supercycle) increased the
prices of commodities, driving aggressive mining. In addition, the price of gold increased dramatically in the
2000s, which increased gold mining; for example, one
study found that conversion of forest in the Amazon increased six-fold from the period 20032006 (292 ha/yr)
to the period 20062009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to artisanal mining.[54]
11.7.1
Corporate classications
Mining companies can be classied based on their size

and nancial capabilities:
Major companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than
US$500 million, with the nancial capability to develop a major mine on its own.
Intermediate companies have at least $50 million
in annual revenue but less than $500 million.
Junior companies rely on equity nancing as their
principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are
mainly pure exploration companies, but may also
produce minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding US$50 million.[55]
11.7.2
Regulation and governance
New regulation and process of legislative reforms aims to

enrich the harmonization and stability of the mining sector in mineral-rich countries.[56] The new legislation for
mining industry in the African countries still appears as
an emerging issue with a potential to be solved, until a
consensus is reached on the best approach.[57] By the beginning of 20th century the booming and more complex
mining sector in mineral-rich countries provided only
slight benets to local communities in terms of sustainability. Increasing debates and inuence by NGOs and
communities appealed for a new program which would
have had also included a disadvantaged communities,
and would have had worked towards sustainable development even after mine closure (included transparency
and revenue management). By the early 2000s, community development issues and resettlements became mainstreamed in Bank mining projects.[57] Mining-industry
expansion after an increase of mineral prices in 2003 and
also potential scal revenues in those countries created
an omission in the other economic sectors in terms of nances and development. Furthermore, it had highlighted
regional and local demand of mining-revenues and lack of
ability of sub-national governments to use the revenues.
The Fraser Institute (a Canadian think tank) has highlighted the environmental protection laws in developing
countries, as well as the voluntary eorts by mining companies to improve their environmental impact.[58]
In 2007 the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) was mainstreamed in all countries cooperating with the World Bank in mining industry reform.[57]
The EITI is operating and implementing with a support
of EITI Multi-Donor Trust Fund, managed by The World
Bank.[59] The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) aims to increase transparency in transactions
between governments and companies within extractive
industries[60] by monitoring the revenues and benets between industries and recipient governments. The entrance process is voluntary for each country and is being
monitored by multi-stakeholders involving government,
private companies and civil society representatives, responsible for disclosure and dissemination of the reconciliation report;[57] however, the competitive disadvantage of company-by company public report is for some of
the businesses in Ghana, the main constraint.[61] Therefore, the outcome assessment in terms of failure or success of the new EITI regulation does not only rest on
the governments shoulders but also on civil society and
companies.[62]
On the other hand, criticism points out two main implementation issues; inclusion or exclusion of artisanal mining and small-scale mining (ASM) from the EITI and how
to deal with non-cash payments made by companies to
subnational governments. Furthermore, disproportion of
the revenues mining industry creates to the comparatively
small number of people that it employs,[63] causes another
controversy. The issue of artisanal mining is clearly an
issue in EITI Countries such as the Central African Republic, D.R. Congo, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone
i.e. almost half of the mining countries implementing the
EITI.[63] Among other things, limited scope of the EITI
involving disparity in terms of knowledge of the industry and negotiation skills, thus far exibility of the policy
(e.g. liberty of the countries to expand beyond the minimum requirements and adapt it to their needs), creates another risk of unsuccessful implementation. Public aware-
11.8. SAFETY
109
ness increase, where government should act as a bridge

between public and initiative for a successful outcome of
the policy is an important element to be considered.[64]
11.7.3
World Bank
The World Bank has been involved in mining since

1955, mainly through grants from its International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with the
Banks Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency oering political risk insurance.[65] Between 1955 and 1990 it
provided about $2 billion to fty mining projects, broadly
categorized as reform and rehabilitation, greeneld mine
construction, mineral processing, technical assistance,
and engineering. These projects have been criticized,
particularly the Ferro Carajas project of Brazil, begun in
1981.[66] The World Bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign investment; in 1988 it solicited
feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase
their involvement.[37]:20
In 1992 the World Bank began to push for privatization of government-owned mining companies with a new Le Petit Journal illustration of the Courrires mine disaster
set of codes, beginning with its report The Strategy for
African Mining. In 1997, Latin Americas largest miner
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized.
These and other developments such as the Philippines
1995 Mining Act led the bank to publish a third report
(Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform
in Member Countries) which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the concerns of the local population. The codes based on this
report are inuential in the legislation of developing nations. The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reduced
income taxes, and related measures.[37]:22 The results of
these codes were analyzed by a group from the University
of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote foreign investment but fall very short of permitting sustain- Fireghter training in fell slate mine, Germany
able development.[67] The observed negative correlation
between natural resources and economic development is
known as the resource curse.
11.8 Safety
Safety has long been a concern in the mining business especially in sub-surface mining. The Courrires mine disaster, Europes worst mining accident, involved the death
of 1,099 miners in Northern France on March 10, 1906.
This disaster was surpassed only by the Benxihu Colliery
accident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549
miners.[69] While mining today is substantially safer than Remnants of pit San Vicente in Linares, Jan, Spain. On its
last day of operation, in 1967, six workers died in an elevator
it was in previous decades, mining accidents still occur.
accident.[68]
Government gures indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners
die in accidents each year, while other reports have suggested a gure as high as 20,000.[70] Mining accidents
110
CHAPTER 11. MINING
continue worldwide, including accidents causing dozens

of fatalities at a time such as the 2007 Ulyanovskaya Mine
disaster in Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion
in China, and the 2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disaster
in the United States.
derground mines, a miner without proper hearing protection is at a high risk for hearing loss.[73] By age 50,
nearly 90% of U.S. coal miners have some hearing loss,
compared to only 10% among workers not exposed to
loud noises.[74] Roof bolters are among the loudest maMining ventilation is a signicant safety concern for chines, but auger miners, bulldozers, continuous mining
many miners. Poor ventilation inside sub-surface mines machines, front end loaders, and shuttle cars and trucks
most responsible for excauses exposure to harmful gases, heat, and dust, which are also among those machines
cessive noise in mine work.[74]
can cause illness, injury, and death. The concentration of methane and other airborne contaminants un- Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its natderground can generally be controlled by dilution (ven- ural location, thereby creating large empty pits, rooms,
tilation), capture before entering the host air stream and tunnels, cave-ins as well as ground and rock falls are a
(methane drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings).[71] major concern within mines. Modern techniques for timRock dusts, including coal dust and silicon dust, can cause bering and bracing walls and ceilings within sub-surface
long-term lung problems including silicosis, asbestosis, mines have reduced the number of fatalities due to caveand pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or black ins, but ground falls continue to represent up to 50% of
lung disease). A ventilation system is set up to force mining fatalities.[75] Even in cases where mine collapses
a stream of air through the working areas of the mine. are not instantly fatal, they can trap mine workers deep
The air circulation necessary for eective ventilation of underground. Cases such as these often lead to higha mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usu- prole rescue eorts, such as when 33 Chilean miners
ally located above ground. Air ows in one direction only, were trapped deep underground for 69 days in 2010.
making circuits through the mine such that each main High temperatures and humidity may result in heatwork area constantly receives a supply of fresh air. Wa- related illnesses, including heat stroke, which can be fatal.
tering down in coal mines also helps to keep dust levels The presence of heavy equipment in conned spaces also
down: by spraying the machine with water and ltering poses a risk to miners. To improve the safety of mine
the dust-laden water with a scrubber fan, miners can suc- workers, modern mines use automation and remote opcessfully trap the dust.[71]
eration including, for example, such equipment as autoGases in mines can poison the workers or displace the
oxygen in the mine, causing asphyxiation.[71] For this reason, the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration requires that groups of miners in the United States carry
gas detection equipment that can detect common gases,
such as CO, O2 , H2 S, CH4 , as well as calculate % Lower
Explosive Limit. Regulation requires that all production
stop if there is a concentration of 1.4% of ammable
gas present. Additionally, further regulation is being requested for more gas detection as newer technology such
as nanotechnology is introduced.
mated loaders and remotely operated rockbreakers. However, despite modern improvements to safety practices,
mining remains a dangerous occupation throughout the
world.
11.8.1 Abandoned mines
Ignited methane gas is a common source of explosions

in coal mines, which in turn can initiate more extensive
coal dust explosions. For this reason, rock dusts such as
limestone dust are spread throughout coal mines to diminish the chances of coal dust explosions as well as to limit
the extent of potential explosions, in a process known as
rock dusting. Coal dust explosions can also begin independently of methane gas explosions. Frictional heat and
sparks generated by mining equipment can ignite both
methane gas and coal dust. For this reason, water is often
used to cool rock-cutting sites.[72]
Miners utilize equipment strong enough to break through
extremely hard layers of the Earths crust. This equipment, combined with the closed work space in which
underground miners work, can cause hearing loss.[73] For
example, a roof bolter (commonly used by mine roof
bolter operators) can reach sound power levels of up to
115 dB.[73] Combined with the reverberant eects of un-
Warning sign near a dangerous area lled with open mineshafts,

Calico Ghost Town, California.
There are upwards of 560,000 abandoned mines on

public and privately owned lands in the United States
alone.[76][77] Abandoned mines may be dangerous to anyone who attempts to explore them without proper knowledge and safety training.
11.10. METAL RESERVES AND RECYCLING
11.9 Records
See also: Extremes on Earth Subterranean
As of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona in
111
11.10 Metal reserves and recycling

Main articles: Landll mining and Recycling
During the twentieth century, the variety of metals used
in society grew rapidly. Today, the development of major
nations such as China and India and advances in technologies are fueling an ever greater demand. The result is that
metal mining activities are expanding and more and more
of the worlds metal stocks are above ground in use rather
than below ground as unused reserves. An example is the
in-use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copper
in use in the USA rose from 73 kilograms (161 lb) to 238
kilograms (525 lb) per person.[85]
Chuquicamata, Chile, site of the largest circumference and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world.
Carletonville, South Africa at 3.9 kilometres (2.4 mi),[78]

replacing the neighboring Savuka Mine in the North West
Province of South Africa at 3,774 metres (12,382 ft).[79]
East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briey held
the record at 3,585 metres (11,762 ft), and the rst mine
declared the deepest in the world was also TauTona when
it was at 3,581 metres (11,749 ft).
The Moab Khutsong gold mine in North West Province
(South Africa) has the worlds longest winding steel wire
rope, able to lower workers to 3,054 metres (10,020 ft)
in one uninterrupted four-minute journey.[80]
The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the uranium mines in Pbram, Czech Republic at 1,838 metres (6,030 ft),[81] second is Bergwerk Saar in Saarland,
Germany at 1,750 metres (5,740 ft).
The deepest open-pit mine in the world is Bingham
Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States
at over 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The largest and
second deepest open-pit copper mine in the world is
Chuquicamata in Chuquicamata, Chile at 900 metres
(3,000 ft), 443,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of
molybdenum produced annually.[82][83][84]
The deepest open-pit mine with respect to sea level is
Tagebau Hambach in Germany, where the base of the pit
is 293 metres (961 ft) below sea level.
The largest underground mine is Kiirunavaara Mine in
Kiruna, Sweden. With 450 kilometres (280 mi) of roads,
40 million tonnes of ore produced yearly, and a depth of
1,270 metres (4,170 ft), it is also one of the most modern
underground mines. The deepest borehole in the world is
Kola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft).
This, however, is not a matter of mining but rather related
to scientic drilling.
95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.[86] However,
levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010,
the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that exist within society[87] and their
recycling rates.[85]
The reports authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. However,
they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals
used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs
for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped
up these critical metals will become unavailable for use
in modern technology.
As recycling rates are low and so much metal has already
been extracted, some landlls now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves.[88] This is especially true with aluminium, found in cans, and precious
metals in discarded electronics.[89] Furthermore, waste
after 15 years has still not broken down, so less processing would be required when compared to mining ores.
A study undertaken by Craneld University has found
360 million of metals could be mined from just 4 landll
sites.[90] There is also up to 20MW/kg of energy in waste,
potentially making the re-extraction more protable.[91]
However, although the rst landll mine opened in Tel
Aviv, Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to the
abundance of accessible ores.[92]
11.11 See also

Outline of mining
Asteroid mining
Automated mining
Environmental impact of mining
112
CHAPTER 11. MINING
11.12 References
[1] Hartman, Howard L. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration
Inc, 1992, p3.
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[4] ASA - October 1996: Mining and Religion in Ancient
Man. www2.asa3.org. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[5] Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.
New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-59.
[6] Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.
New York: Oxford University Press, p. 108.
[7] MINING GREECE ANCIENT MINES.
miningreece.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
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[8] MINING GREECE ANCIENT QUARRIES IN THASSOS. www.miningreece.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[9] MINING GREECE THE GOLDMINES OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. www.miningreece.com. Retrieved
2015-06-11.
[10] The Independent, 20 Jan.
2007: ''The end of
a Celtic tradition: the last gold miner in Wales'".
News.independent.co.uk. 2007-01-20. Retrieved 201306-22.
[19] Lankton, L. (1991). Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and

Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 5-6.
[20] West, G.A. (1970). Copper: its mining and use by the
aborigines of the Lake Superior Region. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
[21] Ricard, T. A. (1932), A History of American Mining,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
[22] Bruno, L. & Heaman, L.M. (2004). Structural controls on hypozonal oroganic gold mineralization in the
La Rouge Domain, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Saskatchewan.
The Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 41, Issue
12, pp. 1453-1471.
[23] Vaden, H.E. & Prevost. G. (2002). Politics of Latin America: The Power Game. New York: Oxford University
Press, p. 34.
[24] Maynard, S.R., Lisenbee, A.L. & Rogers, J. (2002).
Preliminary Geologic Map of the Picture Rock 7.5 Minute Quadrangle Sante Fe County, Central New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Open-File Report DM-49.
[25] The Cerrillos Hills Park Coalition, (2000). Cerrillos Hills
Historic Park Vision Statement. Public documents: Author. Retrieved August 27, 2007, .
[26] McClure R, Schneider A. The General Mining Act of
1872 has left a legacy of riches and ruin. Seattle PI.
[27] Boorstin, D.J. (1965). The Americans: The National Experience. New York: Vintage Books, pp. 78-81.
[11] The Romans in Britain: mining
[28] Miller C. (2013). Atlas of US and Canadian Environmental History, p64. Taylor & Francis.
[12] A culture of Improvement. Robert Friedel. MIT Press.

2007. Pg.81
[29] History of Australias Minerals Industry. Australian Atlas

of Minerals Processing, Mines, and & Processing Centres.
[13] Chapter 7: Medieval Silver and Gold. Mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
[30] Hartmann HL. Introductory Mining Engineering, p. 11.

First chapter.
[14] Heaton Herbert (1948) Economic History of Europe. A

Harper International Edition. Fifth printing. February
1968. P.316
[31] In Situ Leach Mining (ISL) of Uranium.

nuclear.org. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
[15] Heiss, A.G. & Oeggl, K. (2008). Analysis of the fuel

wood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper
mining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol, Austria). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17(2):211221, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, .
[16] The use of Firesetting in the Granite Quarries of South
India Paul T. Craddock The Bulletin of the Peak District
Mines Historical Society, Vol. 13 Number 1. 1996
[17] The Spanish Tradition in Gold and Silver Mining. Otis
E. Young Arizona and the West, Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1965), pp. 299-314 (Journal of the Southwest) Stable
URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40167137.
[18] Ancient Philippine Civilization. Accessed January 7,
2013.(archived from the original on 2007-12-01).
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[32]
[33] Mining, Quarrying & Prospecting: The Dierence
between Mining, Quarrying & Prospecting. mqpgeotek.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[34] Landll Mining Landll Mining, Preserving Resources
through Integrated Sustainable Management of Waste,
Technical Brief from the World Resource Foundation
[35] Logging of forests and
Ngm.nationalgeographic.com.
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debris dumping.
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[36] Larmer, Brook (January 2009). The Real Price of Gold.

National Geographic.
[37] Moody R. (2007). Rocks and Hard Places. Zed Books.
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[38] Abrahams D. (2005). Regulations for Corporations: A

historical account of TNC regulation, p. 6. UNRISD.
[39] Chapin, Mac (2004-10-15). A Challenge to Conservationists: Can we protect natural habitats without abusing
the people who live in them?". World Watch Magazine. 6
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[40] Bloom, M.J. & Denison, M. (2012) Environmental
management for extractives, PROFESSIONAL EVIDENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICES
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[41] Consequences of over Exploitation of Mineral Resources. www.preservearticles.com. Retrieved 2015-0611.
[42] What is the Cost of Mining Gold? - Visual Capitalist.
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[43] US EPA. (1994). Technical Report: Design and Evaluation of Tailings Dams.
[44] TE Martin, MP Davies. (2000). Trends in the stewardship
of tailings dams.
[45] Coumans C. (2002). Minings Problem with Waste. MiningWatch Canada.
[46] http://www.th-energy.net/english/
platform-renewable-energy-and-mining/
database-solar-wind-power-plants/
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[57] The
World
Bank.
ces.worldbank.org/
INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1288881181404/
7530465-1288881207444/eifd19_mining_sector_
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to Mining Sector Reform (PDF). Retrieved 4 April
2011.
[58] Do Canadian mining companies operating abroad face
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Fraser Institute.
[59] Extractive
Industries
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[60] Business and Human Right Resource Centre (2009).
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(EITI)". Retrieved 6 April 2011.
[61] The Ghanaian Journal. At the Fifth EITI Global Conference. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
[62] Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Report of
5th EITI Global Conference in Paris, 2011 (PDF). Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[63] World Banks Oil, Gas and Mining Policy and Operations Unit (COCPO). Advancing the EITI in the Mining
Sector: Implementation Issues (PDF). Retrieved 6 April
2011.
[64] Revenue Watch Institute 2010. Promoting Transparency
in the Extractive Sectors: An EITI Training for Tanzania
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[47] http://www.mining.com/web/
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[65] For an overview of the Bank and mining, see Mining, Sustainability and Risk:World Bank Group Experiences.
[48] MacDonald A. (2002). Industry in Transition: A Prole
of the North American Mining Sector. Free full-text.
[66] See the 1995 World Development 23(3) pp. 385-400.
[49] Reuters. Global stock values top $50 trln: industry data.
[50] Environmental Eects of Foreign Investment Versus Domestic Investment in the Mining Sector In Latin-America.
OECD.
[51] Mining in Africa - Overview. Mbendi.
[67] GRAMA. (2003). The Challenges of Development, Mining Codes in Africa And Corporate Responsibility. In:
International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy:
Trends and Prospects. Summarized in the African Mining
Codes Questioned.
[52] Chinas Continuing Monopoly Over Rare Earth Minerals.

U.S. News & World Report.
[68] Maas Mrmol, Francisco (31 July 2011). San Vicente:

Un pozo de leyenda. Linares28.es. Retrieved 28 May
2013.
[53] United States Bureau of Labor http://www.bls.gov/oco/

cg/cgs004.htm#nature
[69] Marcel Barrois (in French). Le Monde. March 10,

2006.
[54] Swenson JJ, Carter CE, Domec J-C, Delgado CI (2011)

Gold Mining in the Peruvian Amazon: Global Prices,
Deforestation, and Mercury Imports. PLoS ONE 6(4):
e18875. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018875. Lay summary: Amazon Gold Fever Comes with a High Environmental Cost.
[70] "Where The Coal Is Stained With Blood". TIME. March

2, 2007
[55] Metals Economics Group World Exploration Trends Report (PDF). Metals Economics Group Inc. Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[56] Cambell, Bonnie (2008). Regulation & Legitimacy in
the Mining Industry in Africa: Where does (PDF).
Review of African Political Economy 35 (3): 367389.
doi:10.1080/03056240802410984. Retrieved 7 April
2011.
[71] NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Ventilation. United

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Health. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
[72] NIOSH, Coal Mine Explosion Prevention
[73] Peterson, J.S.; P.G. Kovalchik; R.J. Matetic (2006).
Sound power level study of a roof bolter (PDF). Trans
Soc Min Metal Explor (320): 1717. Retrieved 2009-0616.
[74] NIOSH Engineering Controls Research Shows Promise
in Reducing Noise Exposure Among Mine Workers.
NIOSH. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
114
CHAPTER 11. MINING
[75] NIOSH Ground Control Program

[76] Kertes, N., (March, 1996). US abandoned mine count still
a mystery - General Accounting Oce report. American
Metal Market, Retrieved August 27, 2007,
[77] People, Land, and Water (March, 2007). KEEP OUT!
Old Mines Are Dangerous. Oce of Surface Mining: U.S.
Department of the Interior. Retrieved Aug, 27, 2007,
[78] TauTona, Anglo Gold - Mining Technology. SPG Media Group PLC. 2009-01-01. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
[79] Naidoo, Brindaveni (2006-12-15). TauTona to take
'deepest mine' accolade. Creamer Medias Mining
Weekly Online. Archived from the original on 2007-0819. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953)
pp 749881; with many tables and maps on the
worldwide mining industry in 1950, including coal,
metals and minerals
Ali, Saleem H. (2003) Mining, the Environment and
Indigenous Development Conicts. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press.
Ali, Saleem H. (2009) Treasures of the Earth: need,
greed and a sustainable future. New Haven and London: Yale University Press
[80] Mining and minerals in South Africa. SouthAfrica.info.

8 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
Even-Zohar, Chaim (2002). From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies
in the International Diamond Industry. Mining Journal Books. p. 555. ISBN 0-9537336-1-0.
[81] Mineral deposits: from their origin to their environmental impacts. Taylor & Francis.
Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format)
[82] Chuquicamata | MINING.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
Garrett, Dennis Alaska Placer Mining
[83] Chuquicamatas Life Underground Will Cost a Fortune,

but is Likely to Pay O for Codelco | Copper Investing
News. 2015-04-06. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
Jayanta, Bhattacharya (2007). Principles of Mine

Planning (2nd ed.). Wide Publishing. p. 505. ISBN
81-7764-480-7.
[84] The TEX Report Ltd.. www.texreport.co.jp. Retrieved

2015-06-11.
[85] The Recycling Rates of Metals: A Status Report 2010,
International Resource Panel, United Nations Environment Programme
[86] Tread lightly:
Aluminium attack
Guardian.co.uk, 22 February 2008.
Carolyn
Fry,
[87] Metal Stocks in Society: Scientic Synthesis 2010,

International Resource Panel, United Nations Environment Programme
[88] "http://www.macfarlanes.com/media/1467/
landfill-mining-new-opportunities-ahead.pdf"
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Morrison, Tom (1992) Hardrock Gold: a miners

tale. ISBN 0-8061-2442-3
John Milne: The Miners Handbook: A Handy Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits(1894)
Mining operations in the19th century.
Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003) Trends
in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in
Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact (in
Journal of Cleaner Production 11: 131-140)
The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Community Development Fund (2009) Social Mine Closure
Strategy, Mali(in )
(PDF).
[89] Landll Mining. www.enviroalternatives.com.

trieved 2015-06-11.
11.14 External links

Re-
[90] Study shows around 360 million of metals could be

mined from just four landll sites. www.rebnews.com.
Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[91] "http://www.elfm.eu/Uploads/ELFM/FILE_
79F81D49-34DC-4B5B-9BFC-5E5101CE7520.PDF"
(PDF). www.elfm.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[92] Assessing the opportunities of landll mining - Research
database - University of Groningen. www.rug.nl. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
First chapter of Introductory Mining Engineering

An introduction to geology and hard rock mining
Role of Construction and Mining Sector in Economy for the year 2013
Chapter 12
Power station
Power plant redirects here. For other uses, see Power
plant (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Power station (disambiguation).
A power station (also referred to as a generating sta-
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate

electricity. Others use nuclear power, but there is an increasing use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar,
wind, wave and hydroelectric.
12.1 History
The worlds rst power station was designed and built
by Lord Armstrong at Cragside, England in 1868. Water from one of the lakes was used to power Siemens
dynamos. The electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ran an elevator as well as laborsaving devices and farm buildings.[4][5]
The rst public power station was the Edison Electric Light
Station, built in London at 57, Holborn Viaduct, which
started operation in January 1882. This was a project of
Thomas Edison that was organized and managed by his
partner, Edward Johnson. A Babcock and Wilcox boiler
powered a 125-horsepower steam engine that drove a 27ton generator called Jumbo, after the celebrated elephant. This supplied electricity to premises in the area
that could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct
without digging up the road, which was the monopoly
of the gas companies. The customers included the City
Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer
was the Telegraph Oce of the General Post Oce, but
this could not be reached though the culverts. Johnson
arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and Newgate.[6]
The Athlone Power Station in Cape Town, South Africa.
Hydroelectric power station at Gabkovo Dam, Slovakia.
tion, power plant, powerhouse, or generating plant)

is an industrial facility for the generation of electric
power.[1][2][3] Most power stations contain one or more
generators, a rotating machine that converts mechanical
power into electrical power. The relative motion between
a magnetic eld and a conductor creates an electrical current. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power stations in the world burn
In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station

was established by Edison to provide electric lighting in
the lower Manhattan Island area. The station ran until
destroyed by re in 1890. The station used reciprocating
steam engines to turn direct-current generators. Because
of the DC distribution, the service area was small, limited by voltage drop in the feeders. The War of Currents
eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, although some DC systems persisted to the end
of the 20th century. DC systems with a service radius of
a mile (kilometer) or so were necessarily smaller, less efcient of fuel consumption, and more labor-intensive to
operate than much larger central AC generating stations.
115
116
CHAPTER 12. POWER STATION
AC systems used a wide range of frequencies depending

on the type of load; lighting load using higher frequencies,
and traction systems and heavy motor load systems preferring lower frequencies. The economics of central station generation improved greatly when unied light and
power systems, operating at a common frequency, were
developed. The same generating plant that fed large industrial loads during the day, could feed commuter railway systems during rush hour and then serve lighting load
in the evening, thus improving the system load factor and
reducing the cost of electrical energy overall. Many exceptions existed, generating stations were dedicated to
power or light by the choice of frequency, and rotating
frequency changers and rotating converters were particularly common to feed electric railway systems from the
general lighting and power network.
Throughout the rst few decades of the 20th century central stations became larger, using higher steam pressures
to provide greater eciency, and relying on interconnections of multiple generating stations to improve reliability and cost. High-voltage AC transmission allowed
hydroelectric power to be conveniently moved from distant waterfalls to city markets. The advent of the steam
turbine in central station service, around 1906, allowed
great expansion of generating capacity. Generators were
no longer limited by the power transmission of belts or the
relatively slow speed of reciprocating engines, and could
grow to enormous sizes. For example, Sebastian Ziani
de Ferranti planned what would have been the largest reciprocating steam engine ever built for a proposed new
central station, but scrapped the plans when turbines became available in the necessary size. Building power systems out of central stations required combinations of engineering skill and nancial acumen in equal measure. Pioneers of central station generation include George Westinghouse and Samuel Insull in the United States, Ferranti
and Charles Hesterman Merz in UK, and many others.
12.2 Thermal power stations
Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in power station.
The eciency of a steam turbine is limited by the maximum steam temperature produced. The eciency is not
directly a function of the fuel used. For the same steam
conditions, coal-, nuclear- and gas power plants all have
the same theoretical eciency. Overall, if a system is on
constantly (base load) it will be more ecient than one
that is used intermittently (peak load). Steam turbines
generally operate at higher eciency when operated at
full capacity.
Besides use of reject heat for process or district heating,
one way to improve overall eciency of a power plant
is to combine two dierent thermodynamic cycles. Most
commonly, exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to
generate steam for a boiler and a steam turbine. The combination of a top cycle and a bottom cycle produces
higher overall eciency than either cycle can attain alone.
12.2.1 Classication
Main article: Thermal power station

In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced
by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often
from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most
thermal power stations produce steam, so they are sometimes called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics; therefore, there
is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district
heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration
power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant.
In countries where district heating is common, there are
dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stations. An St. Clair Power Plant, a large coal-red generating station in
important class of power stations in the Middle East uses Michigan, United States.
by-product heat for the desalination of water.
12.2. THERMAL POWER STATIONS
117
Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water and produce steam which turns the generator.
By prime mover
Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a
turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this
system. About 90% of all electric power produced
in the world is through use of steam turbines.[8]
Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, Japan.
Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station, Iceland.
By heat source
Fossil-fuel power stations may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas-red
plants may use a combustion turbine. A coal-red
power station produces heat by burning coal in a
steam boiler. The steam drives a steam turbine and
generator that then produces electricity The waste
products of combustion include ash, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Some of
the gases can be removed from the waste stream to
reduce pollution.
Nuclear power plants[7] use a nuclear reactor's heat
that is transferred to steam which then operates a
steam turbine and generator. About 20% of electric
generation in the USA is produced by nuclear power
plants.
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from

owing gases (air and combustion products) to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled
(and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start
rapidly and so are used to supply peak energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost
than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown[9] being the worlds
rst, commissioned in 1959.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine red
by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine
which use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to
produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall eciency of the plant, and many new baseload
power plants are combined cycle plants red by natural gas.
Internal combustion reciprocating engines are used
to provide power for isolated communities and are
frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, oce buildings, industrial plants, and other
critical facilities also use them to provide backup
power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas, and
landll gas.
Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low-cost solutions for
using opportunity fuels, such as landll gas, digester
gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from
oil production.
By duty
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from
hot underground rocks.
Power plants that can be dispatched (scheduled) to provide energy to a system include:
Biomass-fuelled power plants may be fuelled by
waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, land Base load power plants run nearly continually to proll methane, or other forms of biomass.
vide that component of system load that doesn't vary
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is
a low-cost, although low-energy-density, fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally
concentrated enough to use for power generation,
usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
during a day or week. Baseload plants can be highly

optimized for low fuel cost, but may not start or stop
quickly during changes in system load. Examples of
base-load plants would include large modern coalred and nuclear generating stations, or hydro plants
with a predictable supply of water.
118
Peaking power plants meet the daily peak load,

which may only be for one or two hours each day.
While their incremental operating cost is always
higher than base load plants, they are required to
ensure security of the system during load peaks.
Peaking plants include simple cycle gas turbines
and sometimes reciprocating internal combustion
engines, which can be started up rapidly when system peaks are predicted. Hydroelectric plants may
also be designed for peaking use.
Load following power plants can economically follow the variations in the daily and weekly load, at "Camouaged" natural draft wet cooling tower
lower cost than peaking plants and with more exibility than baseload plants.
Non-dispatchable plants include such sources as wind and
solar energy; while their long-term contribution to system energy supply is predictable, on a short-term (daily or
hourly) base their energy must be used as available since
generation cannot be deferred. Contractual arrangements
( take or pay) with independent power producers or
system interconnections to other networks may be eectively non-dispatchable.
age at the right) that release the waste heat to the ambient
atmosphere by the evaporation of water.
However, the mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft

wet cooling towers in many large thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, fossil-red power plants, petroleum
reneries, petrochemical plants, geothermal, biomass and
waste-to-energy plants use fans to provide air movement
upward through downcoming water, and are not hyperboloid chimney-like structures. The induced or forced12.2.2 Cooling towers
draft cooling towers are typically rectangular, box-like
structures lled with a material that enhances the mixing
Main article: Cooling tower
[10][11]
All thermal power plants produce waste heat energy of the upowing air and the downowing water.
In areas with restricted water use, a dry cooling tower or
directly air-cooled radiators may be necessary, since the
cost or environmental consequences of obtaining makeup water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive.
These coolers have lower eciency and higher energy
consumption to drive fans, compared to a typical wet,
evaporative cooling tower.
Cooling towers showing evaporating water at Ratclie-on-Soar

Power Station, United Kingdom.
as a byproduct of the useful electrical energy produced.

The amount of waste heat energy equals or exceeds the
amount of energy converted into useful electricity. Gasred power plants can achieve as much as 65% conversion
eciency, while coal and oil plants achieve around 30
49%. The waste heat produces a temperature rise in the
atmosphere, which is small compared to that produced
by greenhouse-gas emissions from the same power plant.
Natural draft wet cooling towers at many nuclear power
plants and large fossil fuel-red power plants use large
hyperboloid chimney-like structures (as seen in the im-
Where economically and environmentally possible, electric companies prefer to use cooling water from the ocean,
a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling
tower. This type of cooling can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping
cooling water through the plants heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause the temperature of the water to rise detectably. Power plants using natural bodies
of water for cooling must be designed to prevent intake
of organisms into the cooling machinery. A further environmental impact is that aquatic organisms which adapt
to the warmer discharge water may be injured if the plant
shuts down in cold weather.
Water consumption by power stations is a developing
issue.[12]
In recent years, recycled wastewater, or grey water, has
been used in cooling towers. The Calpine Riverside and
the Calpine Fox power stations in Wisconsin as well as the
Calpine Mankato power station in Minnesota are among
these facilities.
12.3. POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY
119
12.3 Power from renewable energy
than 12 hours to start up from cold, the hydroelectric

plant can be brought into service in a few minutes, ideal
Power stations can also generate electrical energy from to meet a peak load demand. Two substantial pumped
storage schemes are in South Africa, Palmiet Pumped
renewable energy sources.
Storage Scheme and another in the Drakensberg, Ingula
Pumped Storage Scheme.
12.3.1
Hydroelectric power station
12.3.3 Solar
Main article: Hydroelectricity
A power station is where water ows though turMain article: Solar power
Solar energy can be turned into electricity either directly
Three Gorges Dam, Hubei, China.
bines using hydropower to generate Hydroelectricity.

Power is captured from the gravitational force of water
falling through penstocks to water turbines connected to
generators. The amount of power available is a combination of height and ow. A wide range of Dams may be
built to raise the water level, and create a lake for storing
water. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with
the Asia-Pacic region generating 32 percent of global
hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in
2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.
12.3.2
Pumped storage
Main article: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity

A pumped-storage is a reversible hydroelectric power
plant. They are a net consumer of energy but can be
used for storage to smooth peaks and troughs in overall electricity demand. Pumped storage plants typically
use spare electricity during o peak periods to pump
freshwater or saltwater from a lower reservoir to an upper
reservoir. Because the pumping takes place o peak,
electricity is typically cheaper than at peak times. This is
because power sources such as coal-red, solar and wind
are not switched o and remain in service even when demand is low. During hours of peak demand, when the
electricity price is high, the water pumped to the upper
reservoir is allowed to ow back to the lower reservoir
through a water turbine connected to an electricity generator. Unlike coal power stations, which can take more
Nellis Solar Power Plant in Nevada, United States.
in solar cells, or in a concentrating solar power plant by

focusing the light to run a heat engine.
A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into
direct current electricity using the photoelectric eect.
Inverters change the direct current into alternating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of
plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.
Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use either parabolic troughs or
heliostats to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat
transfer uid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to
boil water into steam, which turns a turbine that drives an
electrical generator. The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors,
depending on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on
top of a tower. Again, the heat is used to produce steam
to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.
12.3.4 Wind
Main article: Wind power
Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady winds, sometimes oshore. Many
dierent designs have been used in the past, but almost
all modern turbines being produced today use a threebladed, upwind design. Grid-connected wind turbines
now being built are much larger than the units installed
120

ferences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specically studied by the
Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up
to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this process in
Norway. Statkraft has built the worlds rst prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo ord which was opened on
November 24, 2009.
12.3.7 Biomass
Wind turbines in Texas, United States.
during the 1970s. They thus produce power more cheaply

and reliably than earlier models. With larger turbines (on
the order of one megawatt), the blades move more slowly
than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually
distracting and safer for airborne animals.
12.3.5
Biomass energy can be produced from combustion of

waste green material to heat water into steam and drive a
steam turbine. Bioenergy can also be processed through
a range of temperatures and pressures in gasication,
pyrolysis or torrefaction reactions. Depending on the desired end product, these reactions create more energydense products (syngas, wood pellets, biocoal) that can
then be fed into an accompanying engine to produce electricity at a much lower emission rate when compared with
open burning.
Marine
Main article: Marine energy

Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy or ocean power) refers to
the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and
ocean temperature dierences. The movement of water
in the worlds oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed
to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power
power from surface waves, and tidal power obtained
from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water.
Oshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as
wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind
turbines are placed over water.
12.4 Typical power output

The power generated by a power station is measured in
multiples of the watt, typically megawatts (106 watts) or
gigawatts (109 watts). Power stations vary greatly in capacity depending on the type of power plant and on historical, geographical and economic factors. The following examples oer a sense of the scale.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are
located in the USA. As of 2011, the Roscoe Wind Farm
is the second largest onshore wind farm in the world, producing 781.5 MW of power, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of July 2013,
the London Array in United Kingdom is the largest oshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW, followed by
Thanet Oshore Wind Project in United Kingdom at 300
MW.
The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and

As of April 2012, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power
are close to many if not most concentrated populations.
plants in the world are led by Indias Gujarat Solar Park
Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial
rated at 605 megawatts. A planned installation in China
[13]
amount of new renewable energy around the world.
will produce 2000 megawatts at peak.[14]
12.3.6
Osmosis
Main article: Osmotic power
Solar thermal power stations in the U.S. have the following output:
The countrys largest solar facility at Kramer
Junction has an output of 354 MW
Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osThe Blythe Solar Power Project planned promosis. In this method, seawater is pumped into a presduction is estimated at 485 MW
sure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the dierence between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure cham- Large coal-red, nuclear, and hydroelectric power staber through a membrane, which increases both the vol- tions can generate hundreds of Megawatts to multiple Giume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure dif- gawatts. Some examples:
12.5. OPERATIONS
121
power from such power plants, because their marginal
cost is practically zero, but the available power varies
widelyin particular, it may be zero during heavy storms
at night.
In some cases operators deliberately produce less power
for economic reasons. The cost of fuel to run a load following power plant may be relatively high, and the cost
of fuel to run a peaking power plant is even higher
they have relatively high marginal costs. Operators keep
power plants turned o (operational reserve) or running
at minimum fuel consumption (spinning reserve) most
of the time. Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only when the demand rises above what
lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base load plants)
can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power
plants only when the demand rises faster than the load
following power plants can follow.
Aerial view of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station,

USA.
12.5 Operations
The Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in the USA has a rated capacity of 802
megawatts.
The power station operator has several duties in the

electricity-generating facility. Operators are responsible
for the safety of the work crews that frequently do repairs on the mechanical and electrical equipment. They
The coal-red Ratclie-on-Soar Power Station
maintain the equipment with periodic inspections and log
in the UK has a rated capacity of 2 gigawatts.
temperatures, pressures and other important information
The Aswan Dam hydro-electric plant in Egypt
at regular intervals. Operators are responsible for starting
has a capacity of 2.1 gigawatts.
and stopping, the generators depending on need. They
The Three Gorges Dam hydro-electric plant in
are able to synchronize and adjust the voltage output of
China will have a capacity of 22.5 gigawatts
the added generation with the running electrical system,
when complete; 18.2 gigawatts capacity is opwithout upsetting the system. They must know the elecerating as of 2010.
trical and mechanical systems in order to troubleshoot
solve/x problems in the facility and add to the reliability
Gas turbine power plants can generate tens to hundreds of the facility. Operators must be able to respond to an
emergency and know the procedures in place to deal with
of megawatts. Some examples:
it.
The Indian Queens simple-cycle peaking
power station in Cornwall UK, with a single
gas turbine is rated 140 megawatts.
12.6 See also
The Medway Power Station, a combined-cycle
power station in Kent, UK with two gas turbines and one steam turbine, is rated 700
megawatts.[15]
The rated capacity of a power station is nearly the maximum electrical power that that power station can produce.
Some power plants are run at almost exactly their rated
capacity all the time, as a non-load-following base load
power plant, except at times of scheduled or unscheduled
maintenance.
However, many power plants usually produce much less
power than their rated capacity.
In some cases a power plant produces much less power
than its rated capacity because it uses an intermittent energy source. Operators try to pull maximum available
Battery-to-grid mini-power plants

Combined heat and power
Cooling tower
District heating
Electricity generation
Environmental concerns with electricity generation
Flue gas stacks
Fossil-fuel power station
Geothermal power
List of power stations
122
List of largest power stations in the world
List of thermal power station failures
Plant eciency
12.8 External links

Identication System for Power Stations (KKS)
Power station diagram
Relative cost of electricity generated by dierent

sources
Largest Power Plants in the World
Virtual power plant
Power Plant Operators, Distributors, and Dispatchers (Occupational Outlook Handbook)
12.7 References
Database of carbon emissions of power plants

worldwide (Carbon Monitoring For Action:
CARMA)
[1] British Electricity International (1991). Modern Power

Station Practice: incorporating modern power system practice (3rd Edition (12 volume set) ed.). Pergamon. ISBN
0-08-040510-X.
Power Plants in Iceland, Photogallery by islandsmyndir.is Iceland uses geothermal and hydroelectric energy.
[2] Babcock & Wilcox Co. (2005). Steam: Its Generation

and Use (41st ed.). ISBN 0-9634570-0-4.
[3] Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp (coauthors) (1997). Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 007-019435-1.
[4] http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-21586177
[5] http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/cragside/
[6] Jack Harris (14 January 1982), The electricity of Holborn, New Scientist
[7] Nuclear Power Plants Information, by International
Atomic Energy Agency
[8] Wiser, Wendell H. (2000). Energy resources: occurrence,
production, conversion, use. Birkhuser. p. 190. ISBN
978-0-387-98744-6.
[9] SWEBs Pocket Power Stations
[10] J.C. Hensley (Editor) (2006). Cooling Tower Fundamentals (2nd ed.). SPX Cooling Technologies.
[11] Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from
Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. LCCN 67019834. (Includes cooling tower
material balance for evaporation emissions and blowdown
euents. Available in many university libraries)
[12] AAAS Annual Meeting 17 - 21 Feb 2011, Washington
DC. Sustainable or Not? Impacts and Uncertainties of
Low-Carbon Energy Technologies on Water. Dr Evangelos Tzimas , European Commission, JRC Institute for
Energy, Petten, Netherlands
[13] Carbon Trust, Future Marine Energy. Results of the Marine Energy Challenge: Cost competitiveness and growth of
wave and tidal stream energy, January 2006
[14] http://blogs.worldbank.org/climatechange/
will-china-and-us-be-partners-or-rivals-new-energy-economy
[15] CCGT Plants in South England, by Power Plants Around
the World
Chapter 13
Sawmill
For other uses, see Sawmill (disambiguation).
A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber.
Early 20th century sawmill, maintained at Jerome, Arizona.
Branches are cut o the trunk. This is known as

limbing.
An American sawmill, 1920
Logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive

to the sawmill.
Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon
arrival at the mill.
13.1 Sawmill process

A sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end and
dimensional lumber exits on the other end.
After trees are selected for harvest, the next step
in logging is felling the trees, and bucking them to
length.
123
Debarking removes bark from the logs.

Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species,
size and end use (lumber, plywood, chips).
A sawyer uses a head saw, head rig or primary saw to
break the log into cants (unnished logs to be further
processed) and itches (unnished planks).
124
CHAPTER 13. SAWMILL
Depending upon the species and quality of the log,

the cants will either be further broken down by a
resaw or a gang edger into multiple itches and/or
boards
Edging will take the itch and trim o all irregular
edges leaving four-sided lumber.
Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths.
Drying removes naturally occurring moisture from
the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried.
Planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a
uniform width and thickness.
Shipping transports the nished lumber to market.[1]
13.2 Early history
Illustration of a human-powered sawmill with a gang-saw published in 1582.
Scheme of the water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia

Minor. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to
incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[2]
The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone

saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey)
dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD is the earliest known sawmill. It is also the earliest known machine
to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[2]
Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and
connecting rods, but without gear train, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa and Ephesus.[3]
The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill
comes from a Roman poet, Ausonius who wrote an epic
poem about the river Moselle in Germany in the late 4th
century AD. At one point in the poem he describes the
shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble.[4] Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian
saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390
AD, demonstrating a diversied use of water-power in
many parts of the Roman Empire.[4]
Madeira following its discovery in c. 1420 and spread

widely in Europe in the 16th century.[6]
By the 11th century, hydropowered sawmills were in
widespread use in the medieval Islamic world, from
Islamic Spain and North Africa in the west to Central Asia
in the east.[7]
Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived
and planed, or more often sawn by two men with a whipsaw, using saddleblocks to hold the log, and a saw pit for
the pitman who worked below. Sawing was slow, and required strong and hearty men. The topsawer had to be the
stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by
each man, and the lower had the advantage of gravity.
The topsawyer also had to guide the saw so that the board
was of even thickness. This was often done by following
a chalkline.
Early sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical

power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the
process. The circular motion of the wheel was changed to
back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a connecting
rod known as a pitman arm (thus introducing a term used
Sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, in many mechanical applications).
as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had
1250.[5] They are claimed to have been introduced to to be loaded and moved by hand. An early improvement
13.3. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
"De Salamander" a wind driven sawmill in Leidschendam, The

Netherlands. Built in 1792, it was used until 1953, when it fell
into disrepair. It was fully restored in 1989.
125
Modern reconstruction Sutters mill in California, where gold was

rst found in 1848.
also generally only operate during the winter, the peak

logging season.
In the United States, the sawmill was introduced soon after the colonisation of Virginia by recruiting skilled men
from Hamburg. Later the metal parts were obtained from
the Netherlands,[9] where the technology was far ahead
of that in England, where the sawmill remained largely
unknown until the late 18th century. The arrival of a
sawmill was a large and stimulative step in the growth
of a frontier community.
A sawmill in the interior of Australia, circa 1900
13.3 Industrial revolution
Early mills had been taken to the forest, where a tempowas the development of a movable carriage, also water rary shelter was built, and the logs were skidded to the
powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. nearby mill by horse or ox teams, often when there was
A type of sawmill without a crank is known from Ger- some snow to provide lubrication. As mills grew larger,
many called knock and drop or simply drop -mills. In they were usually established in more permanent facilities
these drop sawmills, the frame carrying the saw blade is on a river, and the logs were oated down to them by log
knocked upwards by cams as the shaft turns. These cams drivers. Sawmills built on navigable rivers, lakes, or esare let into the shaft on which the waterwheel sits. When tuaries were called cargo mills because of the availability
the frame carrying the saw blade is in the topmost posi- of ships transporting cargoes of logs to the sawmill and
tion it drops by its own weight, making a loud knocking cargoes of lumber from the sawmill.[10]
noise, and in so doing it cuts the trunk. [8]
The next improvement was the use of circular saw blades,
A small mill such as this would be the center of many rural
communities in wood-exporting regions such as the Baltic
countries and Canada. The output of such mills would be
quite low, perhaps only 500 boards per day. They would
perhaps invented in England in the late 18th century, but

perhaps in 17th century Holland, the Netherlands. Soon
thereafter, millers used gangsaws, which added additional
blades so that a log would be reduced to boards in one
126
quick step. Circular saw blades were extremely expensive
and highly subject to damage by overheating or dirty logs.
A new kind of technician arose, the sawler. Sawlers
were highly skilled in metalworking. Their main job was
to set and sharpen teeth. The craft also involved learning
how to hammer a saw, whereby a saw is deformed with
a hammer and anvil to counteract the forces of heat and
cutting. The Modern circular saw blades have replaceable
teeth, but still need to be hammered.[11]
The introduction of steam power in the 19th century created many new possibilities for mills. Availability of railroad transportation for logs and lumber encouraged building of rail mills away from navigable water. Steam powered sawmills could be far more mechanized. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a ready fuel source for ring
the boiler. Eciency was increased, but the capital cost
of a new mill increased dramatically as well.[10]
In addition, the use of steam or gasoline-powered
traction engines also allowed the entire sawmill to be
mobile.[12][13]
By 1900, the largest sawmill in the world was operated
by the Atlantic Lumber Company in Georgetown, South
Carolina, using logs oated down the Pee Dee River from
as far as the edge of the Appalachian Mountains in North
Carolina.
A restoration project for Sturgeons Mill in Northern
California is underway, restoring one of the last steampowered lumber mills still using its original equipment.
13.4 Current trends
CHAPTER 13. SAWMILL

tieth century, and specialty markets still today.
A trend is the small portable sawmill for personal or even
professional use. Many dierent models have emerged
with dierent designs and functions. They are especially
suitable for producing limited volumes of boards, or specialty milling such as oversized timber.
Technology has changed sawmill operations signicantly
in recent years, emphasizing increasing prots through
waste minimization and increased energy eciency as
well as improving operator safety. The once-ubiquitous
rusty, steel conical sawdust burners have for the most part
vanished, as the sawdust and other mill waste is now processed into particleboard and related products, or used to
heat wood-drying kilns. Co-generation facilities will produce power for the operation and may also feed superuous energy onto the grid. While the bark may be ground
for landscaping barkdust, it may also be burned for heat.
Sawdust may make particle board or be pressed into wood
pellets for pellet stoves. The larger pieces of wood that
won't make lumber are chipped into wood chips and
provide a source of supply for paper mills. Wood byproducts of the mills will also make oriented strand board
(OSB) paneling for building construction, a cheaper alternative to plywood for paneling. Some automatic mills can
process 800 small logs into bark chips, wood chips, sawdust and sorted, stacked, and bound planks, in an hour.
13.5 Additional Images

Inside a modern sawmill equipped with laser-guided
technology
Wood traveling on sawmill machinery
Sawdust waste from the mill
An Allis-Chalmers Model B with a saw mill style
mechanism mounted on the back but normally used
for cutting 4 foot long cordwood into shorter stove
length pieces for wood burning and heating.
A sawmill in Armata, on mount Smolikas, Epirus,
Greece.
A preserved water powered sawmill, Norfolk, England.
Oregon Mill using energy ecient ponding to move logs
In the twentieth century the introduction of electricity

and high technology furthered this process, and now most
sawmills are massive and expensive facilities in which
most aspects of the work is computerized. The cost
of a new facility with 2 mmfbm/day capacity is up to
CAN$120,000,000. A modern operation will produce
between 100 mmfbm and 700 mmfbm annually.
Small gasoline-powered sawmills run by local entrepreneurs served many communities in the early twen-
13.6 See also

Band saw
Circular saw
Log bucking
Logging
Portable sawmill

Saw pit
Sawler
Wood drying
Hewing
13.7 References
[1] Lumber Manufacturing. Lumber Basics. Western Wood
Products Association. 2002. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
[2] Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161
[3] Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149153
[4] Wilson 2002, p. 16
[5] C. Singer et at., History of Technology II (Oxford 1956),
643-4.
[6] Charles E. Peterson, 'Sawdust Trail: Annals of Sawmilling
and the Lumber Trade' Bulletin of the Association for
Preservation Technology Vol. 5, No. 2. (1973), pp. 84-5.
[7] Adam Robert Lucas (2005), Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for
an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe, Technology
and Culture 46 (1): 1-30 [o10-1]
[8] http://www.familienverband-tritschler.de/index.php?id=
81&L=1
[9] Peterson, 94-5.
[10] Oakleaf p.8
[11] Norman Ball, 'Circular Saws and the History of Technology' Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology 7(3) (1975), pp. 79-89.
[12] Edwardian Farm: Roy Hebdiges mobile sawmill
[13] Steam traction engines
13.8 Sources
Grewe, Klaus (2009), Die Reliefdarstellung einer
antiken Steinsgemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung fr die Technikgeschichte.
Internationale Konferenz 13.16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul, in Bachmann, Martin, Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien (PDF), Byzas 9, Istanbul: Ege Yaynlar/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429
454, ISBN 978-975-8072-23-1
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007),
A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on
a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications,
Journal of Roman Archaeology 20: 138163
127
Oakleaf, H.B. (1920), Lumber Manufacture in the
Douglas Fir Region, Chicago: Commercial Journal
Company
Wilson, Andrew (2002), Machines, Power and the
Ancient Economy, The Journal of Roman Studies
92: 132
13.9 External links

Steam powered saw mills
The basics of sawmill (German)
Nineteenth century sawmill demonstration
Database of worldwide sawmills
Reynolds Bros Mill, northern foothills of Adirondack Mountains, New York State
L. Cass Bowen Mill, Skerry, New York
Chapter 14
Renery
For other uses, see Renery (disambiguation).
ow of intermediate products between the inlet crude oil

feedstock and the nal products. The diagram depicts
A renery is a production facility composed of a group of only one of the hundreds of dierent congurations. It
does not include any of the usual facilities providing utilchemical engineering unit processes and unit operations
rening certain materials or converting raw material into ities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as
well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for inproducts of value.
termediate products and end products.[1][2][3][4]
14.1 Types of reneries

Dierent types of reneries are as follows:
petroleum oil renery, which converts crude oil into
high-octane motor fuel (gasoline/petrol), diesel oil,
liqueed petroleum gases (LPG), jet aircraft fuel,
kerosene, heating fuel oils, lubricating oils, asphalt
and petroleum coke;
food oil renery which converts cooking oil into a
product that is uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and stability;
sugar renery, which converts sugar cane and sugar
beets into crystallized sugar and sugar syrups;
natural gas processing plant, which puries and converts raw natural gas into residential, commercial
and industrial fuel gas, and also recovers natural gas
liquids (NGL) such as ethane, propane, butanes and
pentanes;
salt renery, which cleans common salt (NaCl), pro- Schematic ow diagram of a typical oil renery.
duced by the solar evaporation of sea water, followed by washing and re-crystallization;
14.1.2 A typical natural gas processing
metal reneries rening metals such as alumina,

plant
copper, gold, lead, nickel, silver, uranium, zinc,
magnesium and cobalt;
Main article: Natural gas processing
14.1.1
A typical oil renery
Main article: Oil renery
The image below is a schematic block ow diagram of a

typical natural gas processing plant. It shows various unit
processes converting raw natural gas into gas pipelined to
end users.
The image below is a schematic ow diagram of a typ- The block ow diagram also shows how processing of the
ical oil renery depicting various unit processes and the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane,
128
14.2. REFERENCES
129
and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and nat- claried juice is concentrated in a multiple-eect evapoural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).[5][6][7][8][9]
rator to make a syrup with about 60 weight percent sucrose. The syrup is further concentrated under vacuum
until it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with
crystalline sugar. Upon cooling, sugar crystallizes out
of the syrup. Centrifuging then separates the sugar from
the remaining liquid (molasses). Raw sugar has a yellow
to brown color. Sometimes sugar is consumed locally at
this stage, but usually undergoes further purication.[10]
Sulfur dioxide is bubbled through the cane juice subsequent to crystallization in a process, known as sultation. This process inhibits color forming reactions
and stabilizes the sugar juices to produce mill white or
plantation white sugar.
Schematic ow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant.
14.1.3
The brous solids, called bagasse, remaining after the

crushing of the shredded sugarcane, are burned for fuel,
which helps a sugar mill to become self-sucient in energy. Any excess bagasse can be used for animal feed, to
produce paper, or burned to generate electricity for the
local power grid.
Sugar rening
Rening
Main article: Sugar renery
The second stage is often executed in heavy sugar-
Harvested sugar cane ready for processing.
Sugar renery in Arabi, Louisiana, United States.
Sugar is generally produced from sugarcane or sugar

beets. However, the global production of sugar from sugarcane is at least twice the production from sugar beets.
Therefore, this section focuses on sugar from sugarcane.
consuming regions such as North America, Europe, and

Japan. In the second stage, white sugar is produced that
is more than 99 percent pure sucrose. In such reneries,
raw sugar is further puried.....
Milling
14.2 References
Main article: Sugar mill

Sugarcane is traditionally rened into sugar in two stages.
In the rst stage, raw sugar is produced by the milling of
freshly harvested sugarcane. In a sugar mill, sugarcane
is washed, chopped, and shredded by revolving knives.
The shredded cane is mixed with water and crushed. The
juices (containing 10-15 percent sucrose) are collected
and mixed with lime to adjust pH to 7, prevent decay
into glucose and fructose, and precipitate impurities. The
lime and other suspended solids are settled out, and the
[1] Gary, J.H. and Handwerk, G.E. (1984). Petroleum Rening Technology and Economics (2nd ed.). Marcel Dekker,
Inc. ISBN 0-8247-7150-8.
[2] Guide to Rening from Chevron Oil's website
[3] Renery owchart from Universal Oil Products' website
[4] An example owchart of fractions from crude oil at a renery
[5] Natural Gas Processing: The Crucial Link Between Natural
Gas Production and Its Transportation to Market
130
[6] Example Gas Plant Flow Diagram

[7] From Purication to Liquefaction Gas Processing
[8] Feed-Gas Treatment Design for the Pearl GTL Project
[9] Benets of integrating NGL extraction and LNG liquefaction
[10] Shore, M; Broughton, N.W.; Dutton, J.V.; Sissons, A.
(1984). Factors aecting white sugar colour. (PDF).
Sugar Technology Reviews 12: 199.
CHAPTER 14. REFINERY
Chapter 15
Warehouse
This article is about the large buildings that store goods.
For other uses, see Warehouse (disambiguation).
A warehouse is a commercial building for stor-
Historic Atlantic Dock warehouse in Brooklyn in the 1800s
Storehouse of a ranch in Nevada
Old warehouses in Amsterdam, Netherlands
unloading of goods directly from railways, airports, or

seaports. They often have cranes and forklifts for moving
goods, which are usually placed on ISO standard pallets
loaded into pallet racks. Stored goods can include any raw
materials, packing materials, spare parts, components, or
Inside Green Logistics Co., Kotka, Finland. Goods are shown
loaded on pallets to the left of the aisle, and stacked pallets with nished goods associated with agriculture, manufacturing
and production.
no loads to the right of the aisle.
age of goods. Warehouses are used by manufacturers,
importers, exporters, wholesalers, transport businesses,
customs, etc. They are usually large plain buildings in in- 15.1 Warehouse function
dustrial areas of cities, towns and villages. They usually
have loading docks to load and unload goods from trucks. See also: Manchester cotton warehouses
Sometimes warehouses are designed for the loading and
131
132
CHAPTER 15. WAREHOUSE

Richard Cobden's construction in Mosley Street was the
rst palazzo warehouse. There were already seven warehouses on Portland Street when they commenced building the elaborate Watts Warehouse of 1855,[1][3] but four
more were opened before it was nished. It was this type
of warehouse that inspired the Germans in Dsseldorf
and Munich to name their prestigious department stores
Warenhuser.
15.1.2 Overseas warehouses

These catered for the overseas trade. They became
the meeting places for overseas wholesale buyers where
printed and plain could be discussed and ordered.[1]
Trade in cloth in Manchester was conducted by many nationalities.
India House, Manchester.
Historically warehouses were a dominant part of the

urban landscape from the start of the Industrial Revolution through the 19th century and into the twentieth century. The buildings remained when their original usage had changed. There are four identiable
types of warehouses.[1] The cotton industry rose with
the development of the warehouse, and all ve types
were represented in Manchester in the United Kingdom. Warehouses of that period in Manchester were often lavishly decorated, but modern warehouses are more
functional.[2]
Warehouse allow transport optimization along the supply chain, and allow companies to work with an optimal inventory (economic order quantity) regarding service quality. For example, at the terminal point of a transport system it is necessary to stockpile produce until a full
load can be transported. Warehouses can also be used to
store the unloaded goods from the vessel.
Behrens Warehouse is on the corner of Oxford Street and

Portland Street. It was built for Louis Behrens & Son
by P Nunn in 1860. It is a four storey predominantly red
brick build with 23 bays along Portland Street and 9 along
Oxford Street.[3] The Behrens family were prominent in
banking and in the social life of the German Community
in Manchester.[4] [5]
15.1.3 Packing warehouses

The main purpose of packing warehouses was the
picking, checking, labelling and packing of goods for
export.[1] The packing warehouses: Asia House, India
House and Velvet House along Whitworth Street were
some of the tallest buildings of their time.
15.1.4 Railway warehouses
Warehouses were built close to the major stations in railway hubs. The rst railway warehouse to be built was
opposite the passenger platform at the terminus of the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway. There was an imIn industries whose goods require a period of maturation portant group of warehouses around London Road station
between production and retail, such as viniculture and (now Piccadilly station).In the 1890s the Great Northcheesemaking, warehouses can be used to store the goods ern Railway Companys warehouse was completed on
in large quantities.
Deansgate: this was the last major railway warehouse to
be built.[1]
The London Warehouse Picadilly was one of four warehouses built by the Manchester, Sheeld and Lincolnshire Railway in about 1865 to service the new LonThese displayed goods for the home trade. This would be don Road Station. It had its own branch to the Ashton
nished goods- such as the latest cotton blouses or fashion Canal. This warehouse was built of brick with stone
items. Their street frontage was impressive, so they took detailing. It had cast iron columns with wrought iron
the styles of Italianate Palazzos.
beams.[6]
15.1.1
Display of goods for sale
15.3. AUTOMATION AND OPTIMIZATION
15.1.5
Canal warehouses
Further information: Canal warehouse
133
Horizontal Carousels consist of a frame and a rotating carriage of bins.
Vertical Carousels consisting of a series of carriers mounted on a vertical closed-loop track, inside a
metal enclosure.
All these warehouse types can trace their origins back to

the canal warehouses which were used for trans-shipment
and storage. Castleeld warehouses are of this type- A piece pick is a type of order selection process where
and important as they were built at the terminus of the product is picked and handled in individual units and
placed in an outer carton, tote or other container before
Bridgewater Canal in 1761.
shipping. Catalog companies and internet retailers are
examples of predominantly piece-pick operations. Their
15.2 Storage and shipping systems customers rarely order in pallet or case quantities; instead, they typically order just one or two pieces of one
or two items. Several elements make up the piece-pick
system. They include the order, the picker, the pick module, the pick area, handling equipment, the container, the
pick method used and the information technology used.[7]
Every movement inside a warehouse must be accompanied by a work order. Warehouse operation can fail when
workers move goods without work orders, or when a storage position is left unregistered in the system.
Material direction and tracking in a warehouse can be coordinated by a Warehouse Management System (WMS),
a database driven computer program. Logistics personnel use the WMS to improve warehouse eciency by directing pathways and to maintain accurate inventory by
recording warehouse transactions.
19th century warehouses in Gloucester docks in the United Kingdom, originally used to store imported corn
So-called Sust, a Middle Ages type of warehouse, in Horgen,

Switzerland
15.3 Automation and optimization
Automatic storage warehouse for small parts
Some of the most common warehouse storage systems Some warehouses are completely automated, and require
only operators to work and handle all the task. Pallets
are:
and product move on a system of automated conveyors,
cranes and automated storage and retrieval systems coor Pallet racking including selective, drive-in, drive- dinated by programmable logic controllers and computers
thru, double-deep, pushback, and gravity ow
running logistics automation software. These systems are
often installed in refrigerated warehouses where tempera Mezzanine including structural, roll formed, racks
tures are kept very cold to keep product from spoiling, es Vertical Lift Modules are packed systems with verti- pecially in electronics warehouse where they require specally arranged trays stored on both sides of the unit. cic temperature to avoid damaging the parts, and also
134
where land is expensive, as automated storage systems

can use vertical space eciently. These high-bay storage
areas are often more than 10 meters (33 feet) high, with
some over 20 meters (65 feet) high. Automated storage
systems can be built up to 40m high.
tween the manufacturer and the retailer (or the parts manufacturer and the industrial plant) grew considerably in
many domains, necessitating at least one warehouse per
country or per region in any typical supply chain for a
given range of products.
For a warehouse to function eciently, the facility

must be properly slotted. Slotting addresses which storage medium a product is picked from (pallet rack or
carton ow), and how they are picked (pick-to-light,
pick-to-voice, or pick-to-paper). With a proper slotting plan, a warehouse can improve its inventory rotation requirementssuch as rst in, rst out (FIFO) and
last in, rst out (LIFO)control labor costs and increase
productivity.[8]
Recent retailing trends have led to the development of

warehouse-style retail stores. These high-ceiling buildings display retail goods on tall, heavy duty industrial
racks rather than conventional retail shelving. Typically,
items ready for sale are on the bottom of the racks, and
crated or palletized inventory is in the upper rack. Essentially, the same building serves as both warehouse and
retail store.
Pallet racks are commonly used to organize a warehouse.

It is important to know the dimensions of racking and the
number of bays needed as well as the dimensions of the
product to be stored.[9] Clearance should be accounted
for if using a forklift or pallet mover to move inventory.
15.4 Modern trends
Another trend relates to Vendor-managed inventory

(VMI). This gives the vendor the control to maintain the
level of stock in the store. This method has its own issue
that the vendor gains access to the warehouse.
Large exporters and manufacturers use warehouses as
distribution points for developing retail outlets in a particular region or country. This concept reduces end cost
to the consumer and enhances the production sale ratio.
Cross docking is a specialised type of distribution center
(DC) in that little or no inventory is stored and product
is received, processed (if needed) and shipped within a
short timeframe. As in warehousing, there are dierent
types of cross docks.
Reverse logistics is another type of warehousing that has
become popular for environmental reasons. The term
refers to items that are going from the end user back to
the distributor or manufacturer.
Another modern trend is for warehouses is raving.
15.5 Cool warehouses and cold

storage
Cold storage preserves agricultural products.
Refrigerated storage helps in eliminating sprouting,
rotting and insect damage. Edible products are generally
not stored for more than one year. Several perishable
products require a storage temperature as low as 25
C.
Aisle with pallets on storage racks
Traditional warehousing has declined since the last

decades of the 20th century, with the gradual introduction of Just In Time techniques. The JIT system promotes product delivery directly from suppliers to consumer without the use of warehouses. However, with
the gradual implementation of oshore outsourcing and
oshoring in about the same time period, the distance be-
Cold storage helps stabilize market prices and evenly distribute goods both on demand basis and time basis. The
farmers get the opportunity of producing cash crops to
get remunerative prices. The consumers get the supply of
perishable commodities with lower uctuation of prices.
Ammonia and Freon compressors are commonly used
in cold storage warehouses to maintain the temperature.
Ammonia refrigerant is cheaper, easily available and has
a high latent heat of evaporation but it is also highly toxic
and can form an explosive mixture when mixed with oil
containing high percentage of carbon. Insulation is also
important, to reduce loss of cold and to keep dierent
15.7. WAREHOUSING EDUCATION
135
sections of the warehouse at dierent temperatures.

There are two main types of refrigeration system used
in cold storage warehouses, a Vapour absorption system
(VAS) and Vapour compression system (VCS). VAS, although comparatively costlier, is quite economical in operation and adequately compensates the higher initial investment.
The temperature necessary for preservation depends on
the storage time required and the type of product. In general, there are three groups of products, foods that are
alive (e.g. fruits and vegetables), foods that are no longer
alive and have been processed in some form (e.g. meat
and sh products), and commodities that benet from 19th century warehouse in Frankfort, Kentucky, United States
used to age bourbon whiskey casks, seen closely through the
storage at controlled temperature (e.g. beer, tobacco).
warehouse windows
Location is a very critical aspect for the success of cold

storage. It should be in close proximity of a growing area
located centrally to transportation. At these continental
as well as a market, be easily accessible for heavy vehicles,
hubs, goods may be customized for dierent countries.
and have uninterrupted power supply.
For example, goods get a price ticket in the language
of the destination country. Small, in-warehouse adjustments to goods are called value added services.
15.5.1 Cold storage and the law
There are state and local laws that regulate the cold storage industry, requiring safe working conditions for employees, and operational procedures must be in accordance with these laws. Companies that are aware of and
comply with applicable regulations are more likely to pass
inspection, avoid notices of violation, and will be able to
continue operating at full capacity, ensuring greater customer service and uninterrupted product ow.
15.5.2
Refrigerated warehouse industry
Refrigerated warehousing industries make up approximately one fth of the market size of general
warehousing.[10] Most of the market is concentrated in
the Midwest, but California has the largest market share
of the states. In 2006, the average market size of the industry was slightly over $3 billion, and the market continued growing in the following half decade.
The capacity of Refrigerated Warehouses in the United
States: October 1, 2011 was reported as being:
by the United States Department of Agriculture, National
Agricultural Statistics Service, ISSN: 1949-1638.[11]
15.7 Warehousing Education

There are few non-prot organizations which are focused on imparting knowledge, education and research
in the eld of warehouse management and its role in
the supply chain industry. The Warehousing Education and Research Council (WERC)[12] and International
Warehouse Logistics Association (IWLA)[13] in Illinois,
United States. They provide professional certication and
continuing education programs for the industry in the
country. The Australian College of Training have government funded programs to provide personal development and continuation training in warehousing certs II - V
(Diploma), they operate in Western Australia online and
face to face, or Australia wide for online only courses.
15.8 See also

Automated storage and retrieval system
Document automation
Data warehouse
15.6 Internet impact
Inventory
Inventory management software
Internet-based stores do not require physical retail space,

but still require warehouses to store goods. This kind
of warehouse lls many small orders directly from customers rather than fewer large orders from stores.
Pick and pack
Having a large and complex supply chain containing many

warehouse can be costly. It may be benecial for a company to have one large warehouse per continent, typically
Voice Directed Warehousing
RFID
Shipping list
Warehouse management system
136
15.9 References
[1] Wyke, Terry (2007/2008). Manchester warehouses.
Revealing Histories: Remembering Slavery. Manchester
City Galleries. Retrieved 24 January 2012. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[2] Kidd, Alan (2006). Manchester: A History. Lancaster:
Carnegie Publishing. ISBN 1-85936-128-5.
Frangopulo, Nicholas (1977). Tradition in Action. The
historical evolution of the Greater Manchester County.
Wakeeld: EP Publishing. ISBN 0-7158-1203-3.
Manchester - the rst industrial city. Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
[3] Parkinson-Bailey 2000, p. 81
[4] Parkinson-Bailey 2000, p. 84
[5] Coates, Su (199192). German Gentlemen: Immigrant Institutions in a Provincial City 1840-1920 (PDF).
Manchester Region History Review 5 (2).
[6] Moss, John (15/11/20111). Victorian Manchester: Textile Industries & Warehouses. Manchester 2000 Vitual
Encyclopedia. Manchester: Papillon Graphics. Retrieved
26 January 2012. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[7] OPSdesign Consulting (September 1, 2009). PICK
THIS! A Compendium of Piece-Picking Process Alternatives. Warehousing Education & Research Council
(WERC). ISBN 9781892663467.
[8] Eectively Slotting a Warehouse or Distribution Center by
Paul Hansen and Kelvin Gibson. Cygnus Supply and Demand Chain Executive. Accessed 2010-08-06.
[9] Installation Guide for Warehouse Rack Systems
[10] Pell Research Statistics on Refrigerated Warehousing and
Storage - cited with permission
[11] http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/
viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1424
The Capacity of Refrigerated Warehouses
UDSA
[12] WERC Illinois

[13] IWLA Illinois
Kumar (2014). warehouse - Layout Planning and

Part Feeding Methods. Yes Dee Publishing Pvt Ltd.
ISBN 9789380381381.

The Story of the Bale. Manchester: Lloyds Packing
Warehouses Ltd, Princess Street, 1926
Warehouse Analytics for Astute Logisticians Smart Conference 2011
15.11 External links

Media related to Warehouses at Wikimedia Commons
15.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
137
15.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.12.1
Text
Industry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry?oldid=673521894 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Christian List, Camembert,

Olivier, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Mic, Ixfd64, Sannse, Cameron Dewe, Tiles, Ahoerstemeier, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Darkwind,
Fuck You, Andres, Smack, Ike9898, Dysprosia, Jay, Graculus, Markhurd, Taxman, Jusjih, Robbot, Naddy, Wjhonson, Texture, Centrx,
Mikez, Michael Devore, Bensaccount, Macrakis, Antandrus, Pgreennch, WikiDon, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Andrejj,
S.K., RJHall, Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Robotje, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, .:Ajvol:., Jerryseinfeld, Kjkolb, Nk, Physicistjedi, Haham hanuka, Mdd, Espoo, Rye1967, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Buaidh, Goodoldpolonius2, Almafeta, HenkvD,
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Anonymous: 173
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on the Internet, Freakmighty, Element16, Landon1980, Gnotsie, Blechnic, Rich jj, TutterMouse, Roynora, GD 6041, CanadianLinuxUser,
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WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Theseeker4, Materialscientist, 90 Auto,
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Jauhienij, Jack4673, Trappist the monk, Comnenus, Benbullen, Vrenator, Enscripted, Innotata, Jesse V., Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Guerillero, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, FetchcommsAWB, Wstdonwiteout, DiligentDavidG, NerdyScienceDude,
Aircorn, DASHBot, EmausBot, Iamanediter, Immunize, Gfoley4, Ibbn, Fellbeast III, Crinkly bottom, Winner 42, Jayantw, Wikipelli,
K6ka, John Cline, F, Adt121494, Sab polyvore, H3llBot, Monterey Bay, Makecat, Rcsprinter123, Dryker, L Kensington, MonoAV,
Donner60, Pun, Orange Suede Sofa, Monteitho, Dineshkumar Ponnusamy, Pack456, RockMagnetist, Wakebrdkid, Spicemix, Clue-
143
Bot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, WarillusenGC, Corusant, Monsoon Waves, O.Koslowski, Widr, Morgan
Riley, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Estate11, HMSSolent, Gob Lofa, Toolsbuilt123456789, Topmusicman, Jfrog23, Beaucouplusneutre, Abz26, Lrostad, MusikAnimal, RighteousDenizen, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, Sanju25000, Knightserbia, Probity incarnate, GetTrolledSon, AlexMcBurnie, Enrrique Rodrigo, Xlxgoggaxlx, Anbu121, BattyBot, Ymbouveret, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Scissors86,
Drwongtong35, Dexbot, Iamthebest243, Myner49, Anne brand, Mxheil, Lugia2453, Frosty, Philipandrew, KarinaAt3, Corinne, GabeIglesia, Dehbanana, Hillbillyholiday, Donald mcfearson, Drmaximus1000, Eyesnore, Nonsenseferret, QuantiedElf, Tentinator, Killerslayer10,
Joy Richard Preuss Gold, WyeatesODI, Theboss247, ElHef, Grimaceadd, Ugog Nizdast, Magicman10001, Alexzombie9, Ginsuloft, AddWittyNameHere, DarkestElephant, TrekkieSpeller, Tigerlily713, JaconaFrere, Euromine, Oom1ngmach5, Monkbot, Buscus 3, Robert
PEnergy, Lordmine mining, Miningglobal, Eurodyne, IApplepet, RegistryKey, Dylan.lewis2530, KasparBot, Nikrulez, Mintai03, DavidSB
and Anonymous: 893
Power station Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_station?oldid=674758203 Contributors: The Anome, Topory, Nixdorf,
Ixfd64, GTBacchus, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, G-Man, CatherineMunro, Andres, Tristanb, GCarty, Smack, Denny, Stephenw32768,
Dysprosia, IceKarma, Robbot, Kizor, Blainster, Pengo, Lysy, Cedars, MichaelHaeckel, Robert Weemeyer, Khalid hassani, Wmahan,
Junuxx, Antandrus, Marcos, Bluemask, Mike Rosoft, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Alistair1978, Mani1, ESkog, Andrejj, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Duk, Viriditas, Darwinek, Twobells, Haham hanuka, Pearle, Nsaa, Espoo, Wtshymanski, Jrleighton, Suruena, Versageek,
DV8 2XL, SteinbDJ, TheCoee, New Age Retro Hippie, Ultramarine, AustinZ, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Brunnock, Miaow Miaow, Pol098,
MGTom, Sir Lewk, Mandarax, BD2412, Koavf, Heah, Smithfarm, Vegaswikian, CQJ, Gsp, FlaBot, Vclaw, Jonathan Kovaciny, Gurch,
Wongm, King of Hearts, Simesa, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Ikar.us, IanManka, Lar, Elmaynardo, Horncomposer,
Retired username, Misza13, KingDaveRa, Syrthiss, PrimeCupEevee, Bota47, Wknight94, KGasso, Tobixen, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam,
GrinBot~enwiki, Tom Morris, ChemGardener, Harthacnut, Vanka5, SmackBot, Jdoniach, KnowledgeOfSelf, Markus Schweiss~enwiki,
Eskimbot, Swerdnaneb, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, Joefaust, Skookum1, CSWarren, Baa, Aarontu, WinstonSmith,
Georgeccampbell, Theanphibian, Zhigangsuo, Jaimie Henry, St@teaction, Claush66, Zonk43, Salamurai, Kukini, EMT, John, JackLumber, General Ization, Mbeychok, JorisvS, Minna Sora no Shita, PseudoSudo, 16@r, MarkSutton, Waggers, Zorxd, P199, Amitch, Andrew Davidson, Ohlhous, UncleDouggie, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Orangutan, LeRoi, Double-Z, MeekMark, Equendil, Mato, Gogo Dodo,
Chasingsol, Christian75, Omicronpersei8, Billtubbs, Tunheim, Gralo, Rosarinagazo, Marek69, Ram4eva, Sturm55, Lajsikonik, Mentisto,
Prince.tb80, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Seaphoto, Prolog, Alan.Z, Agrawalsatish, JAnDbot, Husond, Gaeddal, Gsaup, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Nyttend, Mr. Carpenter, Engineman, Animum, Beagel, Gjd001, Grandia01, Rettetast, Fredrosse, Mschel, R'n'B, LedgendGamer,
Mausy5043, Tgeairn, Pilgaard, Trusilver, Maurice Carbonaro, Kemiv, Mamyles, Veriss1, GhostPirate, SriMesh, Potatoswatter, Cometstyles, Dbtbandit67, Martial75, Drablow, VolkovBot, Johnfos, ABF, Slyth1, Adilettante, Melvynitman, Szesetszedziesitsze, Philip
Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Miranda, NPrice, Klamser, Djw-wiki, MADe, Andy Dingley, Dirkbb, Lamro, Falcon8765, Burntsauce,
Avalanchekid93, Morostheou, Dassiebtekreuz, Regregex, SieBot, Sakkura, Smsarmad, LeadSongDog, Matthew Brandon Yeager, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Wizzard2k, Nopetro, Oxymoron83, Nuttycoconut, OKBot, Lehasa, Behrat, Fishnet37222, Denisarona, Squash Racket, ImageRemovalBot, Soporaeternus, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Dpmuk, CasualObserver'48, Harland1,
RafaAzevedo, Pointillist, Cgord, Ktr101, Excirial, Abrech, Jotterbot, Tnxman307, Manco Capac, Alexknight12, La Pianista, Vanished User
1004, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Engi08, Noctibus, Kalibanos, Addbot, Fintan264, Some jerk on the Internet, Retep01810, Fieldday-sunday,
Fluernutter, Ka Faraq Gatri, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, PranksterTurtle, Chzz, Favonian, Vyom25, Tide rolls, Romanskolduns, Apteva, Luckas
Blade, Powerplantforum, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Max, Reindra, TheThomas, , Finereach, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Daniele Pugliesi, Piano non troppo, Gc9580, Um, Jletzel, Ycl1227, Deth666666, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot,
Ammubhave, The sock that should not be, Dexter wizard4, J JMesserly, Abce2, No More Mr Nice Guy, Locobot, Chongkian, Shadowjams, Samwb123, Who then was a gentleman?, FrescoBot, Ageofaith, Getspaper, Grand-Duc, Turbine1, Vishnu2011, Rameshngbot,
King Zebu, A8UDI, Littledogboy, Coal-red power station, FoxBot, SchreyP, Suusion of Yellow, JeepdaySock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Ut382, Wintonian, EmausBot, Immunize, Hitop365, Boundarylayer, Winner 42, Adhicojo, Wikipelli, Thecheesykid, A930913, Donner60,
Quite vivid blur, Crown Prince, Sven Manguard, Loucoll, ClueBot NG, Vince the big bearded wizard, Brorsson, Hon-3s-T, Adwiii, Widr,
78562X, Reify-tech, Dougmcdonell, NuclearEnergy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Jollyjk, Northamerica1000, Dzlinker, Metricopolus,
Kendall-K1, Cadiomals, Altar, Ollie91297, Zedshort, Luciferwildcat, BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, Ninjadog23, Michael0703, Shaon2704,
Frosty, Tdowgiert, Charliedingdong123, Jamesmcmahon0, RafnSig, Srw nov, DavidLeighEllis, Mahafuzur 13, Regional planner, NottNott,
TCMemoire, Meganesia, SantiLak, Risato, MaximQ421, Trackteur, K.S.S.Jayathissa, Djfdkjlkj, SHREET MEMANI, Loobo2012, Niki
Goss, ScrapIronIV, KasparBot, Xxpagedestroyerxx and Anonymous: 487
Sawmill Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmill?oldid=675456722 Contributors: Amillar, Rmhermen, SimonP, Scott, Pollinator, AlexPlank, Altenmann, Ajd, Mottzo, Solipsist, Billposer, Stevenmattern, Liberatus, Fir0002, Duk, Darwinek, Jjron, Blobglob,
L33th4x0rguy, Luigizanasi, Oleg Alexandrov, Timosa, Rtdrury, Kelisi, SCEhardt, Vegaswikian, Bndcntn, Who, YurikBot, RobotE, Waitak,
Peterkingiron, Pigman, DanMS, Hellbus, Hydrargyrum, Rsrikanth05, TheGrappler, Fnorp, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Onno Zweers, Ospalh,
TheMadBaron, .cosme., Junglecat, NeilN, ChemGardener, Rentier, Jagged 85, Gjs238, Ksenon, Preslav, Zzorse, Valfontis, Kuru, John, Jim
Derby, Peterlewis, P199, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Ken Gallager, Ispy1981, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Odie5533, Logosol, Rosser1954, EvocativeIntrigue, Thijs!bot, Mereda, Dajagr, Shabicht, MER-C, Struthious Bandersnatch, Daniel Cordoba-Bahle, Doug Coldwell, Bobanny,
TTKK, Gun Powder Ma, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, CommonsDelinker, Shawn in Montreal, Student7, Idioma-bot, Station1, Zidonuke,
Crowne, Oh Snap, Davemc50, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, KjellG, Neparis, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Andrew28913, Faradayplank,
Seedbot, Ken123BOT, Rvannatta, Hammerofs, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Privatemusings, Mr Accountable,
Soputanotheroneunderthegrill, Tony Holkham, Thewellman, La Pianista, Loranchet, PretentiousSnot, Hotcrocodile, Noctibus, Addbot,
Grayfell, Chrattac, Well457, Glane23, Fireaxe888, Lightbot, Pietrow, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mverde2010, Amirobot, KamikazeBot,
Maexio, Adeliine, Walter1975, AdjustShift, LlywelynII, B137, Minnecologies, Materialscientist, Capricorn42, Anna Frodesiak, Loveless, Lanciano, Wikireader41, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Riventree, Intelligentsium, Pinethicket, Larryk123, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje,
Lord of the Pit, Balph Eubank, RenamedUser01302013, ., Jasmjc2, Usefullknowledge, Boardeaux101, Rubberstamp, Donner60,
ClueBot NG, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Visitor7, Stealth012, Runinthegrass, Jakob765, Anthonygauss, SRQ Sid, KasparBot,
Florencerose and Anonymous: 81
Renery Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinery?oldid=674767242 Contributors: Olivier, , Dale Arnett, Mani1,
Kaisershatner, Hesperian, Grutness, Fadookie, Biofuel, ScottDavis, Chris Buckey, Graham87, Lhademmor, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, FlaBot,
Bgwhite, NoAccount, YurikBot, Irishguy, Malcolma, Zwobot, Veinor, SmackBot, Slashme, Eskimbot, Knuto, Commander Keane bot,
Hmains, Mairibot, Antonrojo, Pretzels, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Wizardman, AdrianLozano, Mbeychok, Qwertytam, Makyen,
Ehistory, Paragon12321, Mbell, Ais523, Toohool, M.Stefanyshyn, .anacondabot, Elmschrat, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Soulbot, CommonsDelinker, Lohrmann International, Synthebot, VanBuren, SieBot, Maralia, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Erodium, Addbot, Yoenit, Knud Winckelmann, LlywelynII, Citation bot, Transity, Camedpr, HombreDHojalata, Dougofborg, Micasta, DrilBot, Light-
144
lowemon, JokerXtreme, Limited Atonement, Farmerpete, Amigomodular, Tomsdearg92, Gordon1104, ClueBot NG, Morgan Riley, Joy
Richard Preuss, BattyBot, Jeremy112233, Darth Sitges, Noyster, Mjb552, Green spatula and Anonymous: 48
Warehouse Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warehouse?oldid=676593613 Contributors: SimonP, Edward, Patrick, Zanimum,
Looxix~enwiki, Ronz, Furrykef, Paul W, Robbot, Paranoid, AlainV, Gidonb, ClemRutter, Kent Wang, SoLando, Cyrius, Dbenbenn,
Mintleaf~enwiki, Goatherd, Asc99c, Gary D, MementoVivere, Ornil, Alkivar, Mormegil, Heegoop, Newkai, Chris j wood, Discospinster,
Clawed, Brian0918, Art LaPella, Prozaic, Duk, ClementSeveillac, Espoo, Zedward, Andrewpmk, Snowolf, AndreasPraefcke, Saga City,
Oleg Alexandrov, Lloydd, Stephen, Boothy443, Jannex, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Uncle G, Plek, Lofor, Kelisi, Astanhope, SCEhardt,
NeonMerlin, Matt Deres, FlaBot, Lorkki, Old Moonraker, Kerowyn, Gurch, Tedder, Coolhawks88, VolatileChemical, Gwernol, Matt von
Furrie, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Kordas, Jandrinov, BOT-Superzerocool, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, KGasso, CIreland, ChemGardener,
SmackBot, Rex the rst, McGeddon, Facius, Octahedron80, Yidisheryid, Drstrangenorm, RexTraverse, Dantadd, Tomnap, Kuru, JackLumber, J 1982, Copeland.James.H, Park3r, Ckatz, Makyen, Tawkerbot2, Mrsaad31, CmdrObot, Van helsing, TattooedPhreak, Kimjoarr,
Stevo1000, Kjl1972, PepijnvdG, Jayen466, Pascal.Tesson, Kozuch, Mattisse, JamesAM, IvanStepaniuk, Marek69, JustAGal, GregMinton,
Dfrg.msc, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Darklilac, JAnDbot, Kaplansa, Freedomlinux, Kutu su~enwiki, VegKilla, DerHexer, E-pen,
FisherQueen, Church of emacs, TheEgyptian, R'n'B, Iijjccoo, Fconaway, AntiSpamBot, 97198, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Burlywood, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, A4bot, Beyond silence, Fredsmith2, Dgrmoganraj, AlleborgoBot, Roland zh, Biscuittin, Akoves, Rtangle, Flyer22, Mdsam2~enwiki, Lightmouse, Krishan prasad, Spartan-James, ZH Evers, Jongleur100, Xnatedawgx, ImageRemovalBot,
ClueBot, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Wikit2007, Niceguyedc, Lbertolotti, Alexbot, Arjayay, Bravoh~enwiki, SchreiberBike, Thingg, Versus22, Johnuniq, Apparition11, Katertomater, Robolb, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Download,
Ccacsmss, Visualseo, OsBlink, Yobot, Themfromspace, TaBOT-zerem, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Spacespecials, TettyNullus,
..24, LilHelpa, Trongphu, Chongkian, Philippe Nicolai-Dashwood, WikiMHEDA, Prari, Harilaos84, Vis met 1 oog, Pinethicket,
Caro92150, LittleWink, Tinton5, RedBot, Elmf, TjBot, EmausBot, Marcwulfraat, Mmikitka, Robertlo9, Jones1954, ChuispastonBot,
Rmashhadi, ClueBot NG, Qarakesek, Kikichugirl, Jb3141, Floatjon, Pradkhanna, Leonidesrodriguezjr, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Robinson
James, Charlieliang, Chilligoss, Gk 1988, Jb31415, Altar, BattyBot, Wercevp, Rodmecalux, Webclient101, Kellynatoma, OrganizedGuy,
VheeCious, Jodosma, Smartmart27, Balles2601, Ugog Nizdast, MrColorado2014, Trackteur, Yesdeeammu, Qwertyxp2000, Leo zambrelli,
KH-1, Ashsickle, Soldier of the Empire, Kelly Joness, KasparBot and Anonymous: 169
15.12.2
Images
File:2006-06-05_1580x2900_chicago_modernism.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/2006-06-05_

1580x2900_chicago_modernism.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: J. Crocker Original artist: J. Crocker
File:2009-0522-MN-SJU-abbeychurch.jpg
Source:
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2009-0522-MN-SJU-abbeychurch.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bobak Ha'Eri
File:8210_Brewery_in_Abbaye_Notre-Dame_de_Saint-Remy_Rochefort_2007_Luca_Galuzzi.jpg Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/8210_Brewery_in_Abbaye_Notre-Dame_de_Saint-Remy_Rochefort_2007_Luca_Galuzzi.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Photo taken by Luca Galuzzi / www.galuzzi.it Original artist: Luca Galuzzi (Lucag)
File:A_Foundryman,_Daniel_Albert_Wehrschmidt,_1899.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/A_
Foundryman%2C_Daniel_Albert_Wehrschmidt%2C_1899.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/
yourpaintings/paintings/a-foundryman-15947 Original artist: Daniel Albert Wehrschmidt (18611932)
File:A_sawmill_in_the_interior_from_The_Powerhouse_Museum_Collection.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1e/A_sawmill_in_the_interior_from_The_Powerhouse_Museum_Collection.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Powerhouse Museum Original artist: Unknown
File:Aerial_of_Three_Mile_Island_-_NARA_-_540012.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Aerial_
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INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE

List of countries by industrial output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Important technological developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.12 Other developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Industrialisation beyond Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Second Industrial Revolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intellectual paradigms and criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In Soviet Union: Constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Style Moderne: tradition and modernism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Urban design and mass housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Brutalism and monumentality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Late 20th-century reactions and movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examples of contemporary modern architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Major technological advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The modern brewery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Idealized distillation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Laboratory scale distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air-sensitive vacuum distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Short path distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distillation in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Petroleum drilling industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water well drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mining drilling industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mobile drilling rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Drilling rig classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

By method of rotation or drilling method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Percussion rotary air blast drilling (RAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air core drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cable tool drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reverse circulation (RC) drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Diamond core drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Direct push rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hydraulic rotary drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sonic (vibratory) drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Automated Drill Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Limits of the technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.10 New oileld technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.11 Causes of deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.12 Rig equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.13 Occupational safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historically signicant factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Siting the factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Governing the factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

British shadow factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.1 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.2 Classical British and American mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.2 Modern mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1.1 Prehistoric mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .