Reading

Coyne M.S. 1999. Soil Microbiology. Delmar Publishers. Ch. 4 The macrofauna.
Soil Biology Primer [online]. http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/
Chapter 1 The soil food web
Chapter 2 The food web and soil health
also check the DSO Resources folder for other references.
Introduction
An ecosystem is made up of plants, animals (biodiversity) and abiotic factors which
work together to capture, store and transfer energy, nutrients and water. For
example plants capture energy via photosynthesis and energy is stored as
carbohydrates in plants or fats and proteins in animals after they have eaten the
plants. Soil organisms break down plant and animal tissues and transfer the energy
to themselves, while returning nutrients to the soil for uptake by plants. The many
organisms in an ecosystem carry out these ecosystem functions, and the more
diverse an ecosystem is, the more stable and reliable are these functions. The soil
provides a good, easily studied example of an ecosystem.

The Task Assessing macrofauna

1.1

Macrofauna accelerate the rate of organic matter decomposition. They

break organic material into smaller pieces, and mix organic matter with soil.
However, the relative numbers of macrofauna to microfauna in the soil is small.
Collect a sample of the leaf litter (O Horizon) and topsoil (A Horizon no deeper than
about 3cm) from two different locations. Choose from lawn, native vegetation,
garden bed, under different species of tree etc. or other distinctive site. Place the
sample in plastic bags, seal them and label them with your name and the collection
location. At each site, record the type of vegetation at the site (eg. forest, swamp,
lawn etc.) and some of the site characteristics in the table below, then use this to

compare the soil habitat of the two sites. If you do not have the equipment
necessary (eg. pH kit or soil penetrometer), skip that characteristic.
Site Characteristic
type of vegetation
level of shade
soil dryness/dampness
soil pH
soil compactness
soil texture (sandy, heavy clay

Site 1

Site 2

etc)

On return to the lab, mix the soil and leaf litter sample from the same location
thoroughly. Put a known volume of one sample in the Tulgren funnel. Leave it for
about 2 days, then remove the preserving jar containing ethanol and screw on the
lid. Place the sample from the second location in the Tulgren funnel, and remove
after about 2 days, following the same procedure. If you know the volume of soil you
examined, you will be able to directly compare the macrofauna abundance between
the two sites.

Tulgren
Funnel

1.1

From the bags, examine a measured volume of the leaf litter (O Horizon)

and the topsoil (A Horizon) using a microscope or hand lense. Remove any fauna
found to a clean jar or petri dish for identification. Identify all organisms to Order if
possible, but at least put them into different groups (ie. group A no legs worms;
group B 8 legs spiders and mites etc.). Count the number of individuals from each
Order or group. If you have large numbers you may need to estimate the number
rather than try to count them all.
1.2
(a)

larger macrofauna
Macrofauna Order

number @ location 1

or group

number @
location 2 2

soil volume = ____

soil volume = ____

1.3

Empty the contents of the collecting jar into a petri dish, and identify as

many organisms as possible to Order or group. Count the number of individuals from
each Order or group (as far as possible).
(b)

smaller macrofauna
Macrofauna Order

number @ location 1

or group

number @ location
2

soil volume = ____

soil volume = ____

1.4

Use the results from both counts (1.2 and 1.3) and calculate the

number of Orders or groups per litre of soil and leaf litter, and the
numbers of individuals from each Order or group per litre of soil and leaf litter.
Macrofauna

location

location 2

1
number of Orders or groups per litre of
soil/litter

eg. no. individuals of group B per litre of

soil/litter
no. individuals of per litre of soil/litter
no. individuals of per litre of soil/litter

15

Your Report - Explaining the role of the soil biota

Your report should have a title, a brief introduction explaining what the prac is about,
and a brief discussion (about 600 words) of the following questions. You must also
include a summary table of your results. This report can be written as a question
and answer style, but it must be correctly referenced

Foodweb
1. How did the diversity (number of groups and number of individuals) of
macrofauna from the soils from the two locations differ ? Can you suggest why there
might be differences. What soil parameters could you have measured which may
help explain the differences ?
2. Explain the role of macrofauna in the soil.
3. On the food web diagram provided, label the type of biota (eg. fungi,
nematode etc.). what they do (predator, leaf shredder etc) and describe which way
the energy flows eg. where does it first get captured and where does it finish

(ie. the top of the food chain). What happens to the energy and nutrients when the
organisms at the top of the food chain die? Include this diagram with your report
What groups of organisms make up the mesofauna ?
What groups make up the microfauna?
What are the main functions of these two main groups ?
Due Date
Check the Assessment Details File for the date. This report is worth 10% of your total
mark.
Amali 1
Ekosistem Tanah - Biota Tanah dan Jaringan Makanan
Pendahuluan
Sesuatu ekosistem terdiri daripada tumbuhan, haiwan (biodiversiti) dan faktor-faktor
abiotik
yang bekerja bersama untuk menjana, menyimpan dan memindahkan tenaga ,
nutrien
dan air. Sebagai contoh, tumbuhan menjana tenaga dari proses fotosintesis dan
tenaga
disimpan dalam bentuk karbohidrat dalam tumbuhan atau lemak dan protin dalam
haiwan
selepas haiwan memakan tumbuhan tersebut. Organisma-organisma tanah
menguraikan
tisu-tisu tumbuhan dan haiwan dan memindahkan tenaga kepada mereka manakala
nutrien
balik ke tanah untuk diambil balik oleh tumbuhan. Kebanyakan organisma dalam
ekosistem ini menghasilkan fungsi fungsi ekosistem dan menyumbang kepada lebih
kepelbagaian dan kestabilan kepada ekosistem itu sendiri. Tanah menyediakan satu
contoh
kajian ekosistem yang mudah.
Tugasan:

Mengukur Makrofauna

Makrofauna mempercepatkan kadar pereputan bahan organik. Mereka memecahkan

bahan organik menjadi lebih kecil dan menggaulkan bahan organik dengan tanah.
Walaupun begitu, bandingan bilangan makrofauna dengan mikrofauna dalam tanah
adalah kecil.
Kumpul satu sampel tanah dibawah litupan daun luruh (O Horizon) dan tanah atas (A
Horizon tidak melebihi kedalaman 3cm) daripada dua lokasi berbeza. Pilih dari
laman, kawasan tumbuhan asli, aman,di bawah spesis pokok yang berbeza atau
kawasan-kawasan lain. Masukkan sampel-sampel ke dalam bag plastik, dimeterikan
dan dilabelkan dengan nama anda dan lokasi kutipan. Pada setiap lokasi, rekodkan
jenis tanaman pada lokasi (contoh, hutan, paya, laman dan lain-lain) dan ciri- ciri
dalam jadual di bawah, kemudian gunakan untuk membandingkan habitat tanah
dari dua lokasi. Jika anda tidak mempunyai peralatan yang cukup (contoh: pH kit
atau penetrometer), buang ciri tersebut.

Ciri-ciri Lokasi
Jenis tanaman
tahap naungan
Kelembapan/Kekeringa

Lokasi 1

Lokasi 2

n Tanah
pH Tanah
Kemampatan Tanah
Tekstur Tanah (pasir,
liat dll)
Jadual 1

Kembali ke makmal, campurkan sampel tanah dengan tanah litupan daun dari lokasi
yang sama. Masukkan satu sampel yang diketahui ke dalam corong Tulgren. Biarkan
selama 2 hari, kemudian tuangkan kedalam piring petri yang mengandungi alkohol.
Masukkan sampel dari lokasi kedua ke dalam corong Tulgren dan tuangkan selepas 2
hari, mengikut prosedur yang sama. Jika anda tahuisipadu tanah yang dikaji, anda
akan boleh membandingkan kehadiran makrofauna antara dua lokasi.

Jenisjenis corong Tulgren untuk mengekstrak fauna tanah

Daripada beg-beg sampel , periksa sampel tanah dari O Horizon dan A Horizon
dengan menggunakan microskope atau kanta tangan. Masukkan sebarang fauna
yang dijumpai ke dalam piring petri untuk dikenalpasti. Kenalpasti semua organisma
dan kelaskan kedalam kumpulan yang berlainan (contoh: Kumpulan A tiada kaki
cacing; kumpulan B 8 kaki laba-laba, hama dan lain-lain). Kira jumlah individu
dalam
setiap kumpulan. Jika terlalu banyak, anggarkan jumlah yang sepatutnya.
a. Makrofauna Terbesar
Order atau Kumpulan

Bilangan @ lokasi 1

Bilangan @ lokasi 2

Makrofauna

isipadu tanah =

isipadu tanah = ____

____

Jadual 2

Kosongkan kandungan dalam jar pengumpul ke dalam piring petri, dan

kenal pasti
dalam kumpulan. Kira jumlah individu dari setiap kumpulan.
b. Makrofauna terkecil
Order atau Kumpulan

Bilangan @ lokasi 1

Bilangan @ lokasi 2

Makrofauna

isipadu tanah =

isipadu tanah = ____

____

Jadual 3
Guna keputusan dari Jadual 2 dan 3 dan kira bilangan order atau kumpulan seliter
tanah dan litupan daun, dan bilangan individu dari setiap order atau kumpulan
seliter
tanah dan litupan daun.
Makrofauna

lokasi

lokasi 2

1
bilangan Order atau kumpulan seliter
tanah/litupan

contoh: bil individu kum. B seliter

tanah/litupan
bil. individu seliter tanah/litupan
bil. individu seliter tanah/litupan

15

Laporan Anda Menerangkan peranan biota tanah

Laporan anda mestilah mengandungi tajuk, pendahuluan yang menerangkan
tentang amali tersebut, dan satu penerangan tentang perbincangan (lebih kurang
600 patah perkataan) berdasarkan soalan-soalan berikut. Anda juga mesti
memasukkan satu jadual ringkasan bagi menunjukkan keputusan anda. Laporan ini
ditulis secara soalan dan jawapan tetapi rujukannya hendaklah tepat dan betul.
1. Bagaimanakah kepelbagaian makrofauna tanah dari dua lokasi berbeza?
Bolehkah anda cadangkan kenapa terjadinya perbezaan antara mereka.
Apakah parameter yang anda ukur yang boleh membantu anda untuk
menerangkan perbezaan- perbezaan tersebut?
2. Terangkan peranan makrofauna dalam tanah tersebut.
3. Pada rajah jaringan makanan yang disediakan, labelkan jenis-jenis biota
(contohnya,fungi, nematod dan lain-lain), apa yang mereka lakukan
(pemangsa, pemakan daun dll) dan huraikan bagaimana arah aliran tenaga
berlaku. Contoh, dimanakah bermulanya pembentukan tanaga dan dimanakah ianya
berakhir (puncak rantai makanan).
Apakah akan terjadi kepada tenaga dan nutrien apabila organisma pada
puncak rantai makanan mati?
Sertakan rajah ini dengan laporan anda.

Soil biota and invasive plants

Kurt O. Reinhart1,
Ragan M. Callaway2

Abstract
Top of page
Abstract
I.Introduction
II.Soil community effects
III.Soil-borne antagonists
IV.Soil-borne mutualists
V.Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Contents
Summary 445

I
Introduction 446
II
Soil community effects 446
III
Soil-borne antagonists 451
IV
Soil-borne mutualists 452
V
Conclusion 454
Acknowledgements 454
References 454
Summary
Interactions between plants and soil biota resist invasion by some nonnative plants
and facilitate others. In this review, we organize research and ideas about the role of
soil biota as drivers of invasion by nonnative plants and how soil biota may fit into
hypotheses proposed for invasive success. For example, some invasive species
benefit from being introduced into regions of the world where they encounter fewer
soil-borne enemies than in their native ranges. Other invasives encounter novel but
strong soil mutualists which enhance their invasive success. Leaving below-ground
natural enemies behind or encountering strong mutualists can enhance invasions,
but indigenous enemies in soils or the absence of key soil mutualists can help native
communities resist invasions. Furthermore, inhibitory and beneficial effects of soil
biota on plants can accelerate or decelerate over time depending on the net effect
of accumulating pathogenic and mutualistic soil organisms. These feedback
relationships may alter plantsoil biota interactions in ways that may facilitate
invasion and inhibit re-establishment by native species. Although soil biota affect
nonnative plant invasions in many different ways, research on the topic is
broadening our understanding of why invasive plants can be so astoundingly
successful and expanding our perspectives on the drivers of natural community
organization.

Jump to

I.Introduction
Top of page
Abstract
I.Introduction
II.Soil community effects
III.Soil-borne antagonists
IV.Soil-borne mutualists
V.Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Most naturalized nonnative species appear to behave ecologically more or less like
resident species, and occur at low to mid frequencies (Huston, 1994; Williamson &
Fitter, 1996; Davis et al., 2000; Brown & Peet, 2003). However, a small proportion of
introduced nonnative species become locally dominant (Levine et al., 2003, and
citations therein) and change relatively diverse communities into near
monocultures. These species are generally referred to as invasive (Colautti &
MacIsaac, 2004). This transformation of communities indicates that very powerful,
but poorly understood, ecological phenomena are at work. Interest in the causes and
effects of invasions has prompted the development of a number of nonmutually
exclusive hypotheses to explain invasions including: enemy release, the evolution of
novel traits, disturbance, novel biochemical weapons, and empty niches in invaded
communities (Macket al., 2000; Hierro et al., 2005). Rapidly accumulating research
has connected soil organisms to these hypotheses and indicates that they may have
powerful effects on invasions. Here, we have organized research and ideas about the
role of soil biota as drivers of invasion by nonnative plants and how the effects of
soil biota on invasives may expand the general hypotheses that have been proposed
for invasive success. In this context, we have organized this review into three
sections: II, Soil community effects; III, Soil-borne antagonists; and IV, Soil-borne
mutualists. Section II, Soil community effects, treats soil communities as a black
box while sections III, Soil-borne antagonists (i.e. nematodes and pathogens), and
IV, Soil-borne mutualists (i.e. mycorrhizas and nitrogen fixers), attempt to dissect

some components of the black box and partition biological interactions into two
distinct functional groups. Our groupings of organisms by their biotic interactions are
broad generalizations used for organizational clarity (e.g. most mycorrhizas are
classified as mutualists). However, it is important to clearly acknowledge that the
effects of some individual species are counter to our classification (e.g. mycorrhizas
can act as parasites instead of mutualists).