Introduction:

Time of creative fragmentation

Recovering from the demographic and political crises, great losses in population replenished,
monarchs/new rulers imposing new political order, religious crisis would have to wait until
Reformation/Counter-Reformation of 16th century
City-states of Italy survived during 1300-1450 better than northern Europe, due to strategic
location between east/west/Eruasian trade
Wealth gave rulers/merchants ability to be patron of government, education, etc.
15th century saw scholarly renaissance
Vernacular began to take place along the international language Latin, used for literary/political
means of communication
Church started to lose importance as highest allegiance
Late 15th century/16th century period of unprecedented expansion of
exploration/experimentation, colonies established within Americas, New World's
human/mineral resources
1. Metals helped scientific inventions, created new weapons
2. African slaves sold and used to work mines/plantations as replacement for Native
Americans, who were killed off by diseases
Social engineering/political planning/newly centralized government to put economy policies
into practice began known as mercantilism

The Renaissance in Italy (1375-1527)

Jacob Burckhardt argued revival of ancient learning in Italy gave rise to new secular and
scientific values, period where people began to adopt a rational /statistical approach to
reality/rediscover worth of individual, the gradual release of the full, whole nature of man
Renaissance Europe characterized by growing national consciousness/political centralization,
urban economy based on commerce/capitalism, growing lay secular control of thought and
culture including religion
Sack of Rome in 1527 marks end of Renaissance

The Italian City-State

Renaissance society took shape within merchant cities of late medieval Italy
Geography made Italy have cultural advantage because of natural gateway between East/West
Venice, Genoa, Pisa traded without interruption through Middle Ages
During 13th/14th century, trade rich cites became city states, dominating political/economical life
of surrounding countryside, by 15th century, Italian cities were bankers for most of Europe
Endemic warfare between pope and emperor assisted growth of Italian cities/urban culture
Great Italian cities remained free to expand on own unlike other European cities with kings
5 major cites: Milan, Florence,Venice, Papal states, kingdom of Naples
Evolved into despotism to survive, except for Venice
Florence had many social groups, bankers, shop owners, middle ranks, paupers, all competed
for power (old rich vs. new rich)
Ciompi Revolt: uprising of poor, resulted from 3 reasons: feuding between old rich/new rich;
social anarchy created when Black Death occurred, collapse of great banking house which left

poor more vulnerable than ever. Resulted in four year reign of lower class Florentines until
Cosimo de' Medici took power
Cosimo de' Medici was wealthiest Florentine man that controlled city internally from behind
scenes
Signoria governed the city mad of men from guilds, industries, bankers, doctors, judges.
Through informal relations with electors, Cosimo was able to keep councilors loyal to him
through Singoria
Grandson was Lorenzo de Medici, a cautious/determined ruler
Despotism everywhere else was less, need podesta (strong men) to maintain law and order,
operated through mercenary soldiers obtained through military brokers known as condottieri
Being podesta was hazardous job, could get assassinated, dismissed
Italian city proved good climate for flowering of thought/culture, promoted by despots,
republicans, secularized popes
ITALIAN CITIES HAD LOTS OF MONEY FOR PATRONAGE

Humanism:

Ways Humanism is viewed1. Some see Italian Renaissance as Burckhartd did, un-Christian philosophy that stressed
dignity of mankind, individualism, secular values
2. Some argue humanists were champions of Catholic Christianity, pposing pagan teachings of
Aristotle and Scholasticism writings
3. Others humanism was neutral form of historical scholarship to promote sense of civic
responsibility/political liberty
4. Humanism:scholarly study of Latin/Greek classics and of the ancient Church Fathers, both
for own sake and hope of reviving respected ancient norms and values
Humanists advocated studia humanitatis, a liberal arts program of study embracing grammar,
rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, moral philosophy
Florentine Leonardo Bruni gave name humanitas humanity to learning that came from
scholarly pursuits
First humanists orators/poets, wrote literature in Latin and vernacular inspired by old works
Where teachers and taught rhetoric in universities, when not teachers sought talents as
secretaries, speech writers, and diplomats
Unlike Scholastic rivals, humanists were less bound to recent traditions; did not spend all time
on views of recognized authorities. Scholastics most respected sources were biblical and
classics, versus theologians and philosophers
Petrarch was father of humanism, left legal profession to pursue letter/poetry
Most of life spent in Avignon, wrote Letters to Ancient Dead, Africa, Lives of Illustrious Men,
wrote love letters to Laura
Dante Alighieri's Vita Nuova, Divine Comedy form with Petrarch's sonnets were cornerstones of
Italian vernacular literature
Giovanni Boccaccio wrote Decameron, story of 3 men and 7 woman who ran away from plague
Humanists took mastery of ancient languages to past, kept them as innovative educators, in
search of new information
Goal of humanist studies was wisdom eloquently spoken, both knowledge of good and ability to
move others to desire it, learning was to be fully known and practiced
Men should be educated

Christine de Pisan wrote The Treasure of the City of Ladies, taught women how to handle
husbands, how to be a good wife
One of most important recoveries of Italian Renaissance was revival of Greek studies,
especially works of Plato
After fall of Constantinople many Greek scholars fled to Florence for refuge, Florentine
Platonic Academy evolved under patronage of Cosimo de' Medici
Renaissance thinkers attracted to Platonic tradition, Florentine Academy was not formal school,
but infromal gathering of influential Florentine humanists devoted to works of Plato and
Neoplatonists
Platonism lay in flattering veiw of human nature, strongest influence evident in Pico's Oration
on the Dignity of Man, drew on Platonic teachings that man had the choice/will to do whatever
they chose
Lorenzo Valla became hero to later Protestant reformers, popularity came from Donation of
Constatnine, defense of free will
Young humanist formed first group of Martin Luther supporters
Education should promote individual virtue and public service: civic humanism
Three examples: all used rhetorical skills to rally Florentine against aggression of Naples and
Milan, some believe they were just men who wanted to exercise power
1. Colluccio Salutati
2. Leonardo Burni
3. Poggio Bracciolini
Towards end of Renaissance, many humanists became cliquish/snobby, focused more on
intellectual elite and narrow scholarly interests with pure Latin writing, than promoting civic
life
Two sides of humanism: scholarship vs. practical policies

Renaissance art:

Values/interests of laity no longer under clergy

Renaissance art embraced natural world/human emotions vs. medieval art to be
abstract/formulaic
Renaissance more proportional, symmetry, harmony of universe
Had oil paints, shading to enhance naturalness (chiaroscuro), adjustments of size of figures to
give viewers view of continuity (linear perspective)
Giotto father of Renaissance painting, painted natural world, still filled with religious
seriousness, but no longer abstract/unatural
Great Masters of High Renaissance:
1. Leonardo da Vinci: true master of many skills, one of greatest painters of all time, gave
Italian/French kings on military engineering, scientific experimentation, dissected corpses to
learn anatomy, botanist, foresaw airplanes/submarines
2. Raphael: painter of The School of Athens, virtually perfect example of Renaissance
technique, painted Madonnas
3. Michelangelo: eighteen-foot sculpture of David, Sistine Chapel, later works style of
mannerism, a style that allowed artist to express what they felt. (Tintoretto/El Greco
mannerism supreme)

Slavery in Renaissance
Slavery flourished as much as art/culture
After Black Death reduced labor created need for slaves
Imported from Africa, Balkans, Constantinople, Cyprus, Crete, lands surrounding Black Sea
Owners had complete dominion over slaves, slaves well worth price
Italy's Political Decline: French Invasions (1494-1527)
Treaty of Lodi brought enemies Milan and Naples in alliance with Florence, stood together
against Venice who joined with Papal states, but 5 could join together if needed
In 1490 hostilities between cities resumed, Milanese despot Ludovico il Moro appealed to
French for aid, allowed French to enter and reclaim Naples, also did not realize that French had
claim to Milan
Charles VIII's March Through Italy
French King Loius X1 kept claims in Italy alive but didn't invade
His successor responded to Ludovico's call and withing 5 months crossed the Alps and raced
through Florence/Papal states to Naples
Florence/Papal states tried to hand over Pisa/Florentine possessions but preacher Girolamo
Savonarola convinced Florentines French king was coming and was just long delayed
Allowed Charles to enter without resistance, allowed Savonarola to rule. After Italy reunited
Savonarola's days were numbered
Charle's march through Italy scared non Italian's, Ferdinand of Aragon formed counter-alliance,
League of Venice
League of Venice brought Papal States, Venice, and Emperor Maximilian I together againts
French, Ludovico joined after realizing mistake
Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family
French returned to Italy under Louis X11, new Italian ally, Borgia pope Alexander VI assisted
them
Placed papal policy in tandem with efforts of powerful family to secure political base in
Romagna
Took steps to secure French favor
Annulled Loius XII's marriage to Charles VIII's sister so Louis could marry Charel's wido,
Anne of Brittany to keep Brittany French
Bestowed cardinals had on arch bishop of Rouen, Louiss favorite cleric
He abandoned League of Venice, that made the league too weak to resist French reconquest of
Milan
Cesare Borgia received sister of King of Navarre in marriage to enhance Borgia military
strength, he also received land grants from Louis XII and promise of French military aid in
Romagna
French king/pope realized ambitions in Italy and Louis and Ferdinand divided Naples
Pope Julius II
Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere succeeded Pope Alexander VI
Suppressed Borgias/placed newly conquered lands in Romagna under jurisdiction
Raised the Renaissance papacy to peak of military prowess and diplomatic intrigue, known as
warrior pope

Shocked by secular papacy, erasmus wrote satire Julius Excluded from Heaven
Pope Julius drove Venetians out of Romagna and secured Papal states, then wanted to drive
French out of Italy
Formed Second Holy League with Ferdinand of Aragon, Venice, Maximilian I and Swiss, had
French in full retreat, Swiss defeated them at Novara
French came back and killed Swiss soldiers avenging Novara, won the Concordat of Bologna
from pope in August 1516, agreement that gave French king control over French clergy in
exchange for French recognition of pope's superiority over church councils and right to collect
annates in France
Set stage for Habsurg-Valois wars

Nicolo Machiavelli
Watched French, Spanish, German armies wreak havoc on Italy and decided that Italy needed
political unity and independence
Humanist/student of ancient Rome, impressed by way Roman citizens/rulers had virtu, the
ability to act decisively and heroically for good of country
Did not want Republican ideas to vanish from Italy, scolded own people for causing feuds
within own land, believed people could drive enemies out of Italy
Only a strongman could impose order on so divided and selfish a people
Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe
Feudal monarchy was characterized by division of basic powers of government between
king/semi autonomous vassals, towns acted with various unity and assemblies English
parliament, French Estates General, Spanish Cortes
Important towns allied with kin, not nobility/clergy but bookkeepers, military tactician, foreign
diplomats
Created national armies, professional soldiers, mercenaries
Warfare caused monarchs to need more money, could put taxes on food/clothing needs, salt tax,
tax on peasantry, collect rents from royal domains, borrowed from rich nobles, great bankers of
Italy/Germany
France
Charles's VII ministers created permanent professional army, drove English out of France
Enterprise of independent merchant banker Jacques Coeur created strong economy, diplomatic
crops, national administration, helped Louis XI make France a great power
There were two cornerstone's in France's national building: Hundred Year's War, defeat of
Charles the Bold of Burgundy
Louis XI divided Burgundian lands with Habsburg emperor Maximilian I, ended up with
kingdom almost twice the size of what he had inherited
Louis harnessed nobility, expanded trade/industry created national postal system, and even
establish lucrative silk industry
Strong nation is double edged sword, with secure/efficient government, successors felt that they
could pursue whatever they wanted, which ended up fatal
Spain
Union of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile created strong European power
Castile had sheep farming run by government Mesta

Isabella/Ferdinand subdued realms, secured borders, ventured abroad militarily, Christianize

Spain
Conquered Moors in Grenada, Naples, kingdom of Navarre, won allegiance of league of
Hermandad and extended authority over wealthy chivalric orders, further limiting power of
nobility

England
English had civil warfare between House of York and House of Lancaster, War of Roses
Duke of York challenged Lancastrian monarchy of Henry VI.
Edward IV seized power/institued strong-arm rule that lasted more than twenty years
Richard III took throne from Edward's sons and was portrayed as villian who seemed to have
murdered off all of the sons to keep the throne
Richard's reign led on to Henry Tudor, who brought the rival families together, created Court of
the Star Chamber to prevent nobles from bribing judges for verdict
Henry used English law to take land/fortunes from Nobles, didn't have to depend on money
from Parliament
Holy Roman Empire
German territorial rulers resisted effort for national consolidation/unity
Soon created Golden Bull, seven member electoral college consisted of archbishops of Mainz,
Trier, Cologne, duke of Saxony, margrave of Brandenburg, count of Palatine, king of Bohemia,
they elected emperor, provided transregional unity/administration
Reichstag was an effort for control incessant feuding consisting of seven electors, non electoral
princes, representatives from the 65 imperial free cities
Reforms were poor substitution from true national unity
The Northern Renaissance
Northern humanism was initially stimulated by importation of Italian learning through such
varied students who studied in Italy, merchant traders, and Brothers of Common life
Northern humanists developed own distinctive culture, came from more diverse social
backgrounds and were more devoted to religious reforms
Printing Press
With no people to read, think critically, and write reports, no kingdom could be governed
Johann Gutenberg invented printing with moveable type and books were rapidly and nicely
produced on topics for ordinary readers, scholars, clerics
Printing press was boon to careers of humanists, who gained international audiences
Literary affected people everywhere, rulers in church had to deal had less credulous and docile
laity, kings could indoctrinate people, clergymen mass produced indulgences/pamphlets
Erasmus
most famous northern humanist, life and work made clear that many Catholics wanted major
reforms in church
Wrote Latin for students, and believed disciplined study of classics and Bible if begun early
enough was best way to reform individuals and society
philosophia Christi
Edited works of Church Fathers, produced Greek editions of New Testament, added Latin

translation
Church as not happy and banned his books
His works proved to be tools for new reformers, Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched

Humanism and Reform

Germany
Rudolf Agricola father of German humanism
Von Hutten gave German humanism a nationalist coloring hostile to non-German cultures,
illustrates union of humanism, German nationalism, Luther's religious reform
Johann Reuchlin wrote first reliable Hebrew grammar, Christian began movement to suppress
his writings and attacked. German humanists, in the name of academic freedom, rushed to his
Reuchlin's side
When martin Luther came under attack German humanists did the same thing seeing it as a
repetition of Reuchlin
England
Italian learning came to England by way of English scholars/merchants visiting Italian prelates
Thomas More is best known English humanist, wrote Utopia depicting imaginary society based
on reason/tolerance that overcame social/political injustice by holding all property/goods
common and requiring everyone to work for food, also became one of Henry VIII's most trusted
diplomats
France
France invasions of Italy allowed learning to penetrate France
1. Guillaume Bude accomplished Greek scholar
2. Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples Biblical authority leaders of French humanism
Spain
Spain entered service of Catholic church
Francisco Jimenez allowed him to enforce strictest religious orthodoxy
Founded University of Alaca, worked with Bibles and kept Spain Catholic
Voyages of Discovery/New Empires in West/East
The Portuguese Chart the Course
Prince Henry the Navigator captured North African Muslim city of Ceuta for mercenary and
religious, but also for gold, saving Muslims souls, began exploration of Portuguese exploration
of African coast
Traders took slaves, spices
Sailed to look for more routes, gained Muslim allies
Spanish Voyages of Columbus
Columbus thought he had sailed to India but was on New World
Native American's gave men all they desired, many were killed off from small pox and measles,
Europeans died from syphilis
Magellan was first sailors to circumnavigate the globe
Gave Spanish new land, brought new fruits, vegetables, animals, vice versa

Spanish Empire in New World

By Spanish conquest, Aztecs ruled almost all of central Mexico from capital Tenochtitlan,
Hernan Cortez came and Aztec emperor Moctezuma may have believed to be god Quetzalcoatl,
hesitated to confront Cortez, soon were defeated
Francisco Pizarro captured Inca in Peru
Civilizations, technological achievements destroyed
The Church in Spanish America
Roman Catholic priest followed explorers and wanted to bring inhabitants to Christianity and
European civilization
Black Legend according to Spanish treatment of Native Americans was unprincipled and
inhuman
Economy of Exploitation
Three major colonial economy of Latin America: mining, agriculture, and shipping
1. Mining early conquistadors primarily interested in gold, but silver mining was chief
source of metallic wealth
2. Agriculture Hacienda was large landed estate owned by person originally born in
Spain or person of Spanish descent born in America, laborers on hacienda usually were
bound and could not move from one landowner to another
3. Labor was required for new life that Spanish imposed, economienda, formal grant of
right to labor of specific number of Indians, soon led to repartimeiento which required
male Indians to work and treatment was sometimes harsh. Black slavery was another
form of labor for sugar plantations of West Indies and Brazil, many diseases killed off
Native Americans due to sterile environment they had been living in for so long
Impact on Europe
Increased skepticism on wisdom of ancients, so many new things led to trust issues on ancient
wisdom
Spices and precious metals created inflation rate
New coinages and weapons
many people prepared to make way for the Reformation, making people critical of traditional
institutions, those that seemed to promise greater freedom and a chance at a better life