Common Terms Used in Earthing/Grounding of Installations- Standard

Practice
Earthing or Grounding of electrical installation is a common practice. However, some common terms
used in the practice could sometimes be tricky. Here, we have attempted to provide explanations for
some of the more common terms used when earthing or grounding an installation. These terms are the
ones used in the various national and international standards:

Earthing an Electrical Installation

To understand some of these terms, the schematic above will be very helpful:
Earth electrode
This is the conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and providing an electrical
connection with Earth.
Earth
This is the conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero.
Electrically independent earth electrodes
These are earth electrodes located at such a distance from one another that the maximum current likely
to flow through one of them does not significantly affect the potential of the others.
Earth Electrode Resistance

This is the contact resistance of an earth electrode with the Earth.

Earthing Conductor
This is a protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal of an installation to an earth
electrode or to other means of earthing.
Exposed-conductive-part
This is the conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which is not a live part, but which
may become live under fault conditions. Usually all exposed conductive parts are connected to the earth
electrode by protective conductors with the object of providing a low resistance path for fault currents
flowing to earth.
Protective conductor
This is the conductor used for some measures of protection against electric shock and intended for
connecting together any of the following parts:
(a) Exposed-conductive-parts
(b) Extraneous-conductive-parts
(c) The main earthing terminal
(d) Earth electrode(s)
(e) The earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral
Extraneous-conductive-part
This is a conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally earth potential, which is not part of the
electrical installation. Examples of extraneous conductive parts include:
(a) Non-insulated floors or walls, metal framework of buildings
(b) Metal conduits and pipework (not part of the electrical installation) for water, gas, heating,
compressed-air, etc. and metal materials associated with them.
Bonding conductor
This is the protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.
Main Earthing Terminal
This is the terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective conductors, including equipotential
bonding conductors, and conductors for functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
Equipotential bonding
Equipotential bonding simply means terminating all the extraneous conductive parts to the earthing
system of the installation in a process referred to as bonding.
Bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that,
in the event of an incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, water pipe etc.) being raised to
some potential due to a fault external to the building, no difference of potential can occur between
extraneous-conductive-parts within the installation.

Instrument Transformers Basic Operating Principles

Instrument transformers are used for measuring and control purposes. They provide currents and
voltages proportional to the primary, but there is less danger to instruments and personnel.
There are two distinct classes of instrument transformers: the potential transformer and the current
transformer.
Potential transformers (PTs) are used to step down high voltage while current transformers (CTs) used to
step current down. The function of a PT is to accurately measure voltage on the primary, while a CT is
used to measure current on the primary.
Potential Transformer
Potential (voltage) transformers have primary and secondary windings on a common core:

Schematic of a Potential Transformer & Symbol in electrical circuit

Standard potential transformers are single-phase and are usually designed so that the secondary voltage
maintains a fixed relationship with the primary voltage. Potential transformers are used with voltmeters,
wattmeters, watt-hour meters, power-factor meters, frequency meters, synchroscopes and synchronizing
apparatus, protective and regulating relays, undervoltage and overvoltage trip coils of circuit breakers.
Generally, a potential transformer is designed to be connected in parallel with the lines to transform and
step down the line voltage to 115 or 120 volts for metering or relay operation. They are typically rated
50 to 200VA (volt-amperes) at 120 secondary volts. The secondary terminals should never be short
circuited because a heavy current will result, which can damage the windings.

Current Transformers
A current transformer transforms line current into values suitable for standard protective relays and
instruments. The primary of a current transformer has a few turns, while the secondary may have a
great many turns which results in the stepping down of current as shown in the schematic below:

Current Transformer schematic & Symbol in electrical circuit

Current transformers are used with ammeters, wattmeters, power factor meters, watt-hour meters,
compensators, protective and regulating relays, and trip coils of circuit breakers. The secondary of
current transformers are typically rated 5Amps.
Most times, current transformers have several taps on the secondary winding to adjust the range of
current possible to measure on the primary.
Note if the secondary of a current transformer is opened, an extremely high voltage is induced in the
secondary which is dangerous to personnel and can destroy the current transformer. For this reason, the
secondary of a current transformer should always be shorted before removing a relay from its case or
removing any other device that the current transformer operates. This protects the current transformer
from overvoltage.

What are Autotransformers?

Transformers having only one winding are called autotransformers. This is the most efficient type of
transformer since a portion of the one winding carries the difference between the primary and secondary
currents.
An autotransformer has the usual magnetic core like a typical transformer but only one winding, which
is common to both the primary and secondary circuits. An autotransformer schematic is shown below:

Autotransformer Schematic
The primary is always the portion of the winding connected to the AC power source. This transformer
may be used to step voltage up or down. If the primary is the total winding and is connected to a supply,
and the secondary circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding (as shown in schematic (a)
above), the secondary voltage is stepped-down. If only a portion of the winding is the primary and is
connected to the supply voltage and the secondary includes all the winding(as shown above in schematic
(b) above) then the voltage will be stepped-up in proportion to the ratio of the total turns to the
number of connected turns in the primary winding.
The main disadvantage of the autotransformer is that the primary and secondary
circuits are electrically connected and, therefore, could not safely be used for stepping down from high
voltage to a voltage suitable for plant loads.
Uses of the Autotransformer
Autotransformers find wide application in the following situations:
(a) Where the system supplied contains an identified-grounded conductor that is solidly connected to a
similar identified grounded conductor of the system supplying the autotransformer.
(b) Where an induction motor is to be started or controlled
(c) Where a dimming action is required, as in the theatre lighting
(d) Where the autotransformer is to be a part of a ballast for supplying lighting units

Electrical Power in 3-Phase and 1-Phase Systems

Power in an electrical circuit or system is given by:

Where:
I = Current in Amps
V = Voltage in volts
The unit of power is the Watt(W). Power can also be expressed in volt amps (VA) usually in Alternating
current systems.
In a D.C system, the current and voltage do not vary over time. Hence the product of voltage and current
gives us power in Watt.
In A.C systems, the voltage and current entities are constantly changing in a sinusoidal manner as shown
below:

A.C Voltage and Current Waveform

Hence in an A.C system, the product of current and voltage does not give power in Watts but gives
power in VA (volt amps). Power in watt for a single phase A.C system is given by:

Where:
P = power in watts
Iphase = phase current
Vphase = phase voltage
Cos = power factor
In a three phase electrical system:

Power = 3 x power in single phase:

Delta (Mesh) & Star Connection in 3-phase A.C Systems

Alternating Current (A.C) power is often supplied and consumed in three phase systems that are
commonly connected in Delta (Mesh) or Star connections:

Figure 1: Wye and Delta Connections in 3-Phase A.C circuits

The connection in Figure 1a above is known as a delta connection, because the diagram bears a close
resemblance to the Greek letter, , called delta. The other connection style in figure 1b is known as the
star or wye connection. The wye differs from the delta connection in that it has two phases in series. The
common point O of the three windings is called the neutral because equal voltages exist between this
point and any of the three phases. This point is commonly grounded. Typically, transformers, motors and
generators can be connected in either Wye or Delta configurations.
Voltage and Current relationships in Delta & Wye connected Systems
(a) Delta connected System
In a Delta connected system(see Fig1a above):
Phase voltage = Line Voltage:

Line current = 1.732 times Phase current i.e

(b) Star or Wye Connected System

In a Wye connected System (see Figure1b above):
Line current = Phase current

Line voltage = 1.732 times Phase voltage

We have seen that power in a 3-phase system is given by:

Substituting the values for phase current and phase voltage for both Delta and Wye connected system
into the above formula gives power in watts in a 3-phase A.C circuit connected in either Delta or Wye
connection as:

So knowing the line voltage and line current in any 3-phase A.C circuit and the power factor , the power
delivered into the system can easily be calculated.

NEMA Insulation Classes for Transformers

The capacity or rating of a transformer is limited by the temperature that the insulation can tolerate. The
life of a transformer can be extended by making sure it is not operated over and above the temperature
rating of the insulation system on a continuous basis. A guiding rule of thumb would be that the useful
operating life of the transformer halves for every 10C rise above its rated temperature.
The insulation system of a transformer is rated in degrees Celsius at its maximum temperature rating:
The class number = the maximum C of the transformer insulation
NEMA (National Manufacturers Association) has the following thermal or insulation classification as
regards transformers (dry type):
NEMA Insulation
Class

NEMA Letter
Designation

105

Ambient
Temperature

Maximum Allowable
Temperature Rise

Maximum Allowable
Operating Temperature

50

122

105

221

130

80

176

130

226

155

105

221

155

311

180

125

257

180

356

220

150

302

220

428

40C

Note that a transformer with a Class 220 insulation system can be designed for a maximum temperature
rise that is lower than the standard 150C . It can be designed for either 125 or 80C rise. Also, a Class
180 insulation transformer can be designed with 80C rise. Class 155 and 105 transformers are not
typically designed for other than their standard temperature rise
The maximum operating temperature is determined by by adding the rated ambient temperature of the
device which is normally 40C, the maximum temperature rise, and a 10C hot-spot allowance:
Maximum operating Temperature
= Ambient Temperature + Maximum Temperature Rise + 10C hot-spot allowance.

Basics of Transformer Ratings

Transformers are rated using several methods. Two common ratings of transformers include the:
(a) KVA rating
(b) Impedance rating
KVA Rating
KVA ratings of transformers are obtained by simply multiplying the current times the voltage. The result
is a rating in VA or volt amperes. Small transformers are rated in VA. As size increases, the ratings are
adjusted accordingly to KVA (kilovolt amperes) or MVA (megavolt amperes)
1KVA = 1,000VA or volt amperes
1MVA = 1,000,000VA
Power transformers are defined as transformers rated 500 kVA and larger. Transformers smaller than 500
kVA are generally called distribution transformers.

Impedance Rating
The impedance of a transformer is the total opposition offered to an alternating current. When referring
to impedance of a transformer, it is the equivalent impedance that is meant. To determine the equivalent
impedance of a transformer, one of the windings, usually the low voltage winding is short circuited
while just enough voltage is applied to the other winding to create full load current in the short circuited
winding. This voltage is known as the impedance voltage.
Impedance rating is a characteristic of large power and distribution transformers. The transformer
impedance value is often given in percent on the nameplate
It means that the voltage drop due to the impedance is expressed as a percent of rated voltage.
For example, suppose the impedance rating of a 2400V/240V transformer with full load current of 90
amps is given as 3%.
Voltage drop due to impedance with low voltage winding short circuited
= 0.03 X 2400 = 72volts
This means there would be a 72-volt drop in the high-voltage winding at full load due to losses in the
windings and core. Only 1 or 2% of the losses are due to the core; about 98% are due to the winding
impedance.

We can also calculate the actual impedance value on the high voltage side in ohms:

Where:
Z = impedance in ohms
V = impedance voltage drop
I = Rated full load current in the primary of transformer
Now V = 72V, I = 90Amp
Therefore Z = 72/90 = 0.8

How a Voltage Transformer Works

Transformer function is based on the principle that electrical energy is transferred efficiently by
magnetic induction from one circuit to another. Basically, a transformer consists of two or more
windings placed on the same magnetic path. The winding being fed electrical energy is called the
primary winding while the winding where the load is connected is called the secondary winding. A
typical two winding transformer action is shown below:

Transformer Action
When the primary winding of a transformer is energized from an alternating current (AC) source, an
alternating magnetic field is established in the transformer core. Alternating magnetic lines of force,
called flux, circulate through the core. With a second (secondary) winding around the same core, a
voltage is induced by the alternating flux lines. A load, connected to the terminals of the secondary
winding, results in current flow.
Parts of A Transformer
A transformer is made up of two basic non-moving parts:
(a) A laminated iron core
(b) Windings (primary & secondary)
Laminated Iron core
The iron core of a transformer is made up of sheets of rolled iron. This iron is treated so that it has a high
magnetic conducting quality (high permeability) throughout the length of the core. Permeability is the
term used to express the case with which a material will conduct magnetic lines of force.
The iron also has a high ohmic resistance across the plates (through the thickness of the core). It is
necessary to laminate the iron sheets to reduce heating of the core. There are two common types of
transformer cores:
(a) Core type
(b) Shell type

Core and Shell type transformers

In the core-type (core form) transformer, the windings surround the core. In a shell-type (shell form)
transformer, the steel magnetic circuit (core) forms a shell surrounding the windings. In a core form, the
windings are on the outside; in a shell form, the windings are on the inside.
Windings
A transformer has two windings; the primary winding and the secondary winding.
The primary winding is the coil which receives the energy. It is formed, wound and fitted over the iron
core. The secondary winding is the coil, which discharges the energy at a transformed or changed
voltage.
Types of Transformers
Transformers are classified according to different criteria. However here is a list of the more common
generic types of transformers:
(a) Single phase transformers
(b) Three phase transformers
(c) Potential or voltage transformers
(d) Autotransformers
(e) Current transformers
(f) Power transformers
Voltage Ratio of a Transformer
The voltage on the windings of a transformer is directly proportional to the number of turns on the coils
of the windings. This relationship is expressed by the formula:

Voltage ratio of a transformer

Where:
Vp = voltage on primary coils, V
Vs = voltage on secondary coils, V
Np = number of turns on primary coils
Ns = number of turns on secondary coils
The ratio Vp / Vs is called the voltage ratio (VR). The ratio Np / Ns is called the turns ratio (TR).
A voltage ratio of 1:4 (read as 1 to 4) means that for each volt on the transformer primary, there is 4V on
the secondary. When the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage, the transformer is called
a step-up transformer.
A voltage ratio of 4:1 means that for each 4V on the primary, there is only 1V on the secondary. When
the secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage, the transformer is called a step-down transformer.
Current Ratio
The current in the coils of a transformer is inversely proportional to the voltage in the coils. This
relationship is expressed by the equation:

current ratio of a transformer

Where:
Ip = current in primary coil, A
Is = current in secondary coil, A

In the equation above we may substitute Np / Ns for Vp / Vs so we have:

Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the power output of the secondary winding to the
power input to the primary winding.
An ideal transformer is 100 percent efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives.
However, because of core and copper losses, the efficiency of even the best practical transformer is less
than 100 percent. Expressed as an equation:

Transformer Efficiency
Where:
Eff = efficiency
Ps = power output from secondary = Input power core losses Copper losses
Pp = power input to primary
Efficiencies of well-designed transformers are very high, averaging over 98 percent (%) for power
transformers. The only losses, in a transformer, are due to core losses which go to maintaining the
alternating magnetic field, resistance losses in the coils, and power used for cooling for large
transformers requiring cooling.
The main reason for high efficiencies of transformers, compared to other equipment, is the absence of
moving parts. Transformers are called static AC machines.

Basics of Inductors and Inductance

Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance. Inductance is the ability to store energy in
the form of a magnetic field. Inductance is symbolized by the capital letter L and is measured in the unit
of the Henry (H). Some of the symbols for an inductor in an electric circuit are:

Circuit symbols for inductors

Inductance is a non-dissipative quantity. Unlike resistance, a pure inductance does not dissipate energy
in the form of heat; rather, it stores and releases energy from and to the rest of the circuit.
Inductors are devices expressly designed and manufactured to possess inductance. They are typically
constructed of a wire coil wound around a ferromagnetic core material. Inductors have current ratings as
well as inductance ratings. Due to the effect of magnetic saturation, inductance tends to decrease as
current approaches the rated maximum value in an iron-core inductor.
Inductance of an Inductor

Concept of Inductance in a Coil

An inductors inductance depends on the magnetic permeability of the core material (), the number of
turns in the wire coil (N), the cross-sectional area of the coil (A), and the length of the coil (l):
L= N2A/L
We can deduce the following from the above formula:
(a) Inductance (L) increases as the relative permeability r of the core material increases.
(b) Inductance increases as the square of the number of turns N of wire around the core increases.
(c) Inductance increases as the area A enclosed by each turn increases. Since the area is a function of the
square of the diameter of the coil, inductance increases as the square of the diameter.
(d) Inductance decreases as the length l of the coil increases (assuming the number of turns remains the
constant)
Inductors in Series and Parallel Connection

Inductance adds when inductors are connected in series. It diminishes when inductors are connected in
parallel:
L(series) = L1 + L2 + .+ Ln
L(parallel) = 1/[1/L1 + L2 + +1/Ln]
Flow of DC Current through an Inductor
When DC source is connected across a pure inductor, the flow of current creates a magnetic field which
acts in such a manner as to oppose the change in current. The relationship between voltage and current
for an inductor is given by:
V = LdI/dt
Inductors oppose changes in current over time by dropping a voltage. This behavior makes inductors
useful for stabilizing current in DC circuits. One way to think of an inductor in a DC circuit is as a
temporary current source, always wanting to maintain current through its coil at the same value.
Energy Stored in an Inductor
When DC current flows through an inductor, it stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. This stored
energy is given by the formula:
E = 1/2LI2
Where:
E = Energy stored
L = Inductance of inductor
I = Current flowing through inductor
Flow of Alternating Current (AC) through an Inductor.
When AC current flows through an inductor, it creates a magnetic field which varies continuously. In
fact, the magnetic field will expand and contract as the current increases and decreases. The changing
magnetic field will induce a voltage and a current in the inductor. This induced voltage is in a direction
so as to oppose the supply voltage and is called a counter-EMF or back-EMF.
The net effect of this back-EMF is to oppose the change of current due to the alternating voltage. This
opposition to current flow causes the voltage to lead the current by 90as indicated in the waveform
below:

Inductive Reactance
Inductive reactance, is the opposition to AC current due to the inductance in the circuit. The unit of
inductive reactance is the ohm. The formula for inductive reactance is given by:
XL = 2fL
Where:
XL = Inductive reactance
f = frequency
L = Inductance

Basics of the Electrical Capacitor

Capacitors are electrical devices manufactured to possess capacitance. Capacitors oppose changes in
voltage over time by creating a current. This behavior makes capacitors useful for stabilizing voltage in
DC circuits. One way to think of a capacitor in a DC circuit is as a temporary voltage source, always
wanting to maintain voltage across its terminals at the same value. A typical capacitor is made up of
two parallel conductive plates separated by an insulator called a dielectric as shown below:

Parallel plate Capacitor

Capacitors have voltage ratings as well as capacitance ratings. The various symbols used to represent
capacitors in circuit diagrams are shown below:

Capacitor Symbols
Capacitance of a Capacitor
Electrically, the capacitance of a capacitor is its ability to store electrical charge. The bigger the
capacitance, the more the electrical charge stored. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given
by:
C = A/d
Where:
C = capacitance of capacitor in faradays (F). Units could be microfards (F) or picofarads (pF)
= electric permittivity of the dielectric material
A = Area of capacitor plates
d = Separation of the plates

The capacitance output of the capacitor will increase if a higher dielectric material is used or if the area
of the plates is increased or if the distance of separation between the plates is decreased.
Flow of DC Current through a capacitor:

The relationship between a voltage and current in a capacitor is given by:

I = CdV/dt.
When a capacitor that is initially uncharged is connected to a DC Voltage source, it tends to draw a large
current. During the charging process, the capacitor voltage rises and charging current decreases. After
the capacitor has received sufficient charge the capacitor voltage equals the applied voltage and the
current flow ceases. After the capacitor has charged, it looks like an open circuit in a DC circuit.
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by:
E = CV2 = 1/2QV
Capacitors in Series & Parallel
Capacitance adds when capacitors are connected in parallel. It diminishes when capacitors are connected
in series:
C(parallel) = C1+C2++Cn
C(series) = 1/[1/C1 + 1/C2+ .+1/Cn]
Flow of AC current through a Capacitor
If an AC voltage is applied to a pure capacitor, the current is at maximum when the voltage begins to
rise from zero, and the current is zero when the voltage across the capacitor is at maximum. The current
leads the applied voltage by 90as indicated by the waveform below:

Voltage-Current phasor of Capacitor with AC current through it.

Capacitive Reactance
This is the opposition to AC current flow in a purely capacitive circuit, measured in ohms. Capacitive
reactance is given by the formula:
Xc = 1/2fC
Where:
Xc = capacitive reactance
f = frequency
C = capacitance

Power Factor Improvement With Capacitors

As we have already seen in the basics of power factor in electrical distribution system, most Industrial
loads require both Real power and Reactive power to produce useful work. Typically, inductive loads
(motors, transformers etc) require two kinds of power to operate:
(1) Active Power (KW) This actually performs the useful work
(2) Reactive Power(KVAR) This helps to maintain the electromagnetic field.
The vector sum of the active power and the reactive power gives total power often referred to as
apparent
power
in
KVA:
KVA
=
KW +
KVA (vector
sum)
Low power factor in an electrical system often occur when inductive loads are operated below their full
load capacity especially motors. Consistently operating electrical loads at low power factor will result in
higher utility bills because of the poor utilization of electrical energy. In fact, a higher power factor
means less KVA and KVAR components and a more efficient utilization of electrical energy while a low
power factor implies the presence of more KVA and reactive (KVAR) power components and less
efficient electrical energy utilization:

Power Factor Concept

Power Factor Formula
We have already defined power factor in the basics of power factor in electrical distribution system.
Here is the formula anyway:
P.F = KW/KVA
From the power factor triangle, we see that:
KVA2 = KW2 + KVAR2
Using this formula you can easily calculate the KVA and KVAR component of an electrical system
given the power factor (P.F) and the KW component.
Types of Electrical Loads and The Power Type They Consume

The various types of electrical loads and the type of power they consume are summarized in the table
below:
Types of Power

Common Names

Typical Load

KW - kilowatt (produces active current)

Active power
Kilowatt/Watt power
Real power
Resistive power

Resistors
Incandescent lights
Toasters

KVAR - Kilovolt Amperes Reactive (produces

reactive current)

Reactive power
Imaginary power
KVAR/VAR power
Inductive/Capacitive
power

Reactors/Inductors
Capacitors

Apparent power
Complex power
Total power
KVA/VA power

All industrial loads:

Motors
Variable Speed
Drive
Lighting loads
Welders

KVA - Kilovolt Amperes (KVA =vector sum of

Active and Reactive power)

Improving Power Factor with Capacitors

The reactive component (KVAR) of any electrical distribution system can easily be reduced in order to
improve power factor by using capacitors. Capacitors are basically reactive loads. They tend to generate
reactive power hence they find good use in power factor correction application. So instead of having the
utility company supply the reactive power that you will end up paying for, get a capacitor bank and have
them supply the reactive energy component as shown below:

Power Factor Improvement with Capacitors

As seen from the diagram above, at a power factor of 0.7, the KVA requirement for the loads is at
142KVA while the reactive power required is 100KVAR. With power factor improvement capacitors
installed and the power factor improved to 0.95, the KVA requirement drops to 105KVA while the
reactive required is now at 33KVAR, the balance of 67KVAR is now being supplied by the capacitor
with significant impact on utility bills.
Benefits of Improving Power Factor with Capacitors
When capacitors are used to improve power factor , the following benefits will accrue:
1. Reduced electrical power bills
2. Reduces I2R losses in electrical conductors
3. Reduces loading on transformers by releasing system capacity
4. Improves voltage on the electrical distribution system thereby allowing motors to run more efficiently
and cooler. This helps to prolong the operation and life to the motor.
Capacitors Reduce Utility Bills
As detailed below, improving power factor with capacitors will have significant impact on utility bills
over time as shown by a breakdown of the utility billing system in the table below:
Billing Type

Billing Concept

How Capacitors Reduce

Cost

KVA

Utility companies bill for

every amp of current both Capacitors reduce reactive
active and reactive. Bill is current and therefore peak
typically based on peak
current
current

KW demand with power factor

adjustment

Utility companies bill for

KW demand plus a
surcharge for low power
factor. For example, you
could pay for any power
factor below 0.85

Capacitors increase power

factor to the minimum
required eliminating
surcharge. Sometimes you
could get credit for high
power factor.

Utility companies bill for

KW demand plus a
KW demand with reactive demand charge
surcharge for excessive
reactive demand

Capacitors reduce reactive

demand thereby
eliminating surcharge

Power Factor Sample Calculations

Sample Problem:
A Factory is operating several induction motors plus other loads. Its power factor is 0.65 and it
consumes an average of 195KW for a given billing period. Calculate:
(a) The KVA consumption
(b) The reactive power, KVAR
(c) If it is required to improve power factor to 0.95, what size of capacitor in KVAR is required?
(d) Suppose the utility company supplying this factory electricity has the following billing regime:
1. Energy Rate = $3.6 per KWH
2. Demand Charge = $1.9 per KW
3. Power Factor penalty = $0.18 per KVARH
Calculate the total energy bill for the month and the savings when power factor improvement was made.
Assume a 30 day billing period.
Sample Solution:
(a) P.F = KW/KVA;
KVA = KW/P.F; now KW = 195, P.F = 0.65
Therefore KVA = 195/0.65 = 300KVA
(b) Now KVA2 = KW2 + KVAR2 ;
KVAR = SQRT[(300*300) (195*195)] = 227.98
(c) At P.F = 0.95, KVA = 195/0.95 = 205.26
KVAR = SQRT[(205.26*205.26) (195*195)] = 64.09
KVAR of capacitors required for power factor correction is
= 227.98 64.09 = 163.89
(d) Total hours per month = 30 x 24 = 720

With power factor of 0.65:

Energy charge per month = 195 x 720 x $3.6 = $505,440
Demand charge per month = 195 x $1.9 = $370.5
Power factor penalty charge per month = 227.98 x 720 x $0.18 = $29,546.2
Total bill for the month = $505,440 + $370.5 + $29,546.2 = $535,356.7
Now with power factor now improved to 0.95:
Energy charge per month is the same = $505,440
Demand charge is the same = $370.5
Power factor penalty charge per month = 64.09 x 720 x $0.18 = $8,306.06
Total bill for the month = $505,440 + $370.5 + $8,306.06 = $514,116.56
Savings in utility bills = $535,356.7 - $514,116.56 = $21,240.14

How to Test a Diode with a Fluke Multimeter

You are an electrician, a technician or an engineer and the diode in a circuit board gets bad. How do you
test this diode to confirm it is bad?
Well if you have a multimeter, it is a very simple exercise. Lets find out how to do this. The diode test
can be carried out in either forward or reverse bias.
Forward Bias Test
Good Diode
To begin the test in forward bias, switch the knob on the multimeter to the DIODE selection and test
as shown below:

Testing a Diode in Forward Bias

Connect the BLACK test lead from the multimeter to the diode cathode (This is a white or black band
on one side of one of the diode terminals). Connect the RED test lead of the multimeter to the anode.
If the diode is good, the readout should show between 0.400 to 0.600 along with a single audible beep
(beeping is a basic attribute of most multimeters).
Bad Diode:
If a diode is bad, you will hear a continuous beep tone from the multimeter with any of the following
observed:
(a) A readout of 0.00
(b) The readout will indicate any number value other than 0.400 to 0.600
(c) The readout will indicate OL
Reverse Bias Test:
Good Diode
To test in reverse bias with the knob still in the diode selection, connect the BLACK test lead of the
multimeter to the anode of the diode and the RED test lead to the cathode of the diode as shown below.
If the diode is good, the display should show OL

Testing a Diode in Reverse Bias

Bad Diode:
If the diode is bad, you will hear a continuous beep tone from the multimeter with any of the following
observed:
(a) A readout of 0.00
(b) A readout of any value other than 0.400 to 0.600
This is as simple the diode test with a multimeter can get.

Ampacity of a Conductor
Ampacity is the current carry capacity of a conductor. Ampacity calculation should take into account
natural variables such as solar warming, wind and air density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity.
Ampacity is a temperature rating. In order words, as temperature changes, the ampacity of a conductor
changes.
Increase in ambient/surrounding/medium temperature can significantly limit the current carrying
capacities of cables. As cable temperature increases, its resistance increases thereby reducing the amount
of current that can be carried.
According to the National Electrical Code, article 310.15(C), the ampacities of conductors can be
calculated by the following general formula:

Where:
TC = Conductor temperature in degree Celsius
TA = Ambient temperature in degree Celsius
TD = Dielectric loss temperature rise
RDC = DC resistance of conductor at temperature TC
YC = Component AC resistance resulting from skin effect and proximity effect
RCA = Effective thermal resistance between conductor and surrounding ambient.
The NEC specifies that the above formula can only be applied under engineering supervision.
The table below gives the ampacities for portable power cables at 90 degree Celsius insulation and under
an ambient temperature of 40 degrees Celsius.

AC Resistance of a Conductor
A conductor offers a greater resistance to the flow of alternating current(AC) than it does to direct
current(DC). The magnitude of the increase is usually expressed as an AC/DC ratio. The reasons for
the increase include:
1.
Skin effect,
2.

Proximity effect,

3.

Hysteresis and eddy current losses in nearby ferromagnetic materials, and

4.

Induced losses in short-circuited nearby non-ferromagnetic materials

Skin Effect
Skin Effect describes the phenomena of alternating current flowing more densely near the surface of a
conductor. The net effect is a reduction in effective area and an increase in the resistance. To calculate
skin effect in tubular conductors made of solid wire to an infinitely thin tube, the curves of Ewan are
used.
The parameter is:

The table below gives the factors for skin effect ratio R/R0 as a function of X, where R is the AC
resistance and R0 is the DC resistance. Note that from the table, R/R0 is the resistance ratio due to skin
effect. L/L0 is the inductance ratio due to skin effect. X is as defined by the formula above.

For conductors larger than 1,500,000 circular mils,other calculation formulas must be used for accuracy.
The non-uniform cross-sectional distribution of current also affects the inductance, the value of which is
less than if the current density were uniform. The table of skin effect ratios above, therefore, lists the
inductance ratio L/L0 where L is the inductance due to a non-uniform current density and L0 is the
inductance assuming uniform current density.
Proximity Effect:

Proximity effect is the distortion of the cross-sectional current distribution of the conductor due to
nearby currents. To calculate approximately the proximity effect, use the following formula:

Where:
fp
= The factor to account for proximity effect
GMR = The geometric mean radius of the equal conductors
GMD = Geometric mean spacing of the conductors
R/R0 = Skin effect ratio
After determining skin and proximity effect, the effective resistance of a conductor taking these two
factors into effect is then given by:

Where:
R/R0 = Skin effect ratio
fp = Factor accounting for proximity effect

DC Resistance of a Conductor
The DC resistance of a conductor or cable is that defined by ohms law. It is a function of many factors
including temperature which greatly affects the resistance of a given material. Copper and Aluminium
are the most widely used conductors. Their resistance (DC) increases with increasing temperature.
The DC resistance of copper wire at 20 degree Celsius(68 degree Fahrenheit) is given below:

The copper wire resistance in the above table are at 20 degree Celsius. To get the resistance at any other
temperature above this, we use the equation:

Actual values of depends on the composition of the material in addition to temperature. For copper
and aluminium, taking, = 0.0039 will give reasonable accuracy for most conductor calculations

American Wire Gauge (AWG)

Wire size is expressed in circular mils(CM). A mil is one-thousandth of an inch. In the United
States, the American Wire Gauge is used. It is a scale of even numbers that start with the
number 40 and descend. The cross-sectional area becomes larger as the numbers on this
scale get smaller.
For wires larger than No.2 wire, a scale of 1/0, 2/0, 3/0 and 4/0 is used. For even larger
wires, thousands of circular mils is used MCM or Kcmil
AWG Conversions
Copper conductor size conversions are determined using;
Circular mils = sq in. x 1,273,240 = sq mm x 1,973.5
For conductor cross-sectional forms other than circular, where S is the cross-sectional area in
square inches, the conversions are:

The table below shows a quick guide to AWG wire conversions:

Electrical Conductors
Electrical
The

most

Conductors:
popular

electrical

conductors

are

Copper

and

Aluminum.

Copper is the popular choice for power distribution and control circuits because of its excellent
ability to conduct electric current as well as other electrical and mechanical properties. Copper may
be coated with Tin, Nickel or Silver to ensure easier soldering and to retard corrosion
Aluminium is also used in power applications. Its principal advantages are its weight and lower
material
The

cost
main

when
disadvantages

compared
of

with
Aluminium

copper.
are

(a) It has a lower conductivity than Copper hence it will require larger wire and cable sizes than

Copper
(b) Aluminium oxidizes quickly when exposed to air. This oxidation acts as an insulator. This creates
additional

cost

with

regard

to

maintenance

and

testing

when

compared

to

Copper

Aluminium is widely used by the electric utilities in overhead lines primarily because of its light
weight

and

cost

Common

when

Terms

(a)

A wire is

compared

Used
a

to

copper.

with

single

length

Conductors:
of

metal

(b) A stranded wire is a group of small wires that are braided or twisted together to produce a single
conductor. The wires are not insulated from each other. A heavily insulated stranded wire is often
called a cord. The outer jacket of a cord protects the wiring from physical damage.
(c) A cable can either be a solid, stranded conductor or a combination of conductors insulated from
each other. This latter arrangement is called a multiconductor cable. In this cable, the wires may be
stranded,

may

or

may

not

have

common

insulation

covering

(d) A conductor carries electricity from generation equipment to utilization equipment. A conductor
may be solid or stranded. A solid conductor is usually reserved for smaller wire sizes and provides the
benefit of low weight and small diameter. A stranded conductor configuration is usually used for
larger-sized

wires

as

this

configuration

makes

the

cable

lighter

and

more

flexible.

(e) Insulators are non-conductors of electricity. However at a certain voltage known as the
breakdown voltage, an insulator breaks down and becomes a conductor. Hence insulators are rated
for

specific

voltage

which

should

not

be

exceeded.

(f) Insulation is the covering conductors are enclosed in. This insulation protects the wiring and
prevents the electrical energy being carried from leaking into other materials to possibly cause
damage

and

hazards

There are several insulating materials. The most commonly used are tabulated below along with
their

mechanical

and

electrical

properties:

Series of letters are popularly used to identify cable insulation types. Some of the letters used are:
(i)

MI

Mineral

Insulation

(ii)

Rubber

Insulation

(iii)

(iv)

(v)
This

X
lettering

Thermoplastic

system

Varnished
Cross-linked

is

Insulation

specified

by

Insulation

polymer
NEC

National

Insulation
Electrical

Code

The most popular amongst the above are thermoplastic and cross-linked polymer insulation
The ability of the insulation of the conductor material to withstand ambient conditions can be also
be

used

HH

to
Heat

resistant

Heat

W
UF

classify

resistant
-

For

use

cable

insulation

up
up

for

to

75

deg

to

90

deg

Moisture
in

underground

example:

direct

resistant
burial

applications

There are popular cable types in use today that we should know of. Some of them are tabulated
below:

In most industrial environment you are likely to see THHN/THWN and XHHW. They stand for:
CABLE

DESIGNATION

THHN

T - Thermoplastic insulation; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC ; N - Non-

metallic
sheathed
THWN

T - Thermoplastic insulation; H - Heat resistant up to 75 degC ; W - Moisture

resistant

XHHW

cable

Non-metallic

sheathed

cable

X - Cross-linked polymer insulation ; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC

W - Moisture resistant

What is a Diode?
The diode is fabricated of a semiconductor material, usually silicon, which is doped with two
impurities. One side is doped with a donor or n-type impurity which releases electrons into
the semiconductor lattice. These electrons are not bound and are free to move about.
Because there is no net charge in the donor impurity, the n-type semiconductor is
electrically neutral. The other side is doped with an acceptor or p-type impurity which
imparts free holes into the lattice. A hole is the absence of an electron which acts as a
positive charge. The p-type semiconductor is also electrically neutral because the acceptor
material adds no net charge. When a P-type semiconductor material is combined with an ntype semiconductor material, a p-n junction is formed. This p-n junction is called a diode.
Thus the diode has two terminals or electrodes (di-ode),that act like an on-off switch. When
the diode is on, it acts as a short circuit and passes all current. When it is off, it
behaves like an open circuit and passes no current. The two terminals are different and are
marked as plus(+) and minus(-) in the schematic below:

The positive electrode is called the Anode and the negative electrode is called the Cathode.
If the polarity of the applied voltage matches that of the diode (forward bias), then the
diode turns on. When the applied voltage polarity is opposite (reverse bias), it turns off.
This is just the theoretical behaviour of an ideal diode, but it can be seen as a good
approximation for a real diode which will have some reverse current when reverse biased.
Basic
Characteristics
of
the
Semiconductor
Diode
A
diode
has
the
following
basic
characteristics:
(1) When forward bias, the diode needs a small voltage to conduct electricity. This voltage is
maintained
across
the
diode
during
conduction
(2) The maximum forward current a diode can carry is limited by the heat dissipation
capacity
of
the
diode.

(3) There is a small reverse current flowing even when the diode is reversed bias
(4) Every diode has a maximum reverse voltage, called the breakdown voltage, which cannot
be
exceeded
without
damage
to
the
diode.
Technical
Specifications
of
a
Diode
There are four diode ratings that apply to one or other diodes used in various applications.
These
include:
Forward
Voltage
Drop
This is the forward-conducting junction voltage drop (0.7 V for Silicon diodes
and
0.3
V
for
Germanium
diodes).
Average
Forward
Current
This is the maximum amount of forward current that the diode can carry for an indefinite
period. If the average current exceeds this value, the diode will overheat and, eventually,
will
be
destroyed.
Peak
Reverse
Voltage
or
Reverse
Breakdown
Voltage
This is the largest amount of reverse-bias voltage the diodes junction can withstand for an
indefinite period of time. If a reverse voltage exceeds this level, the voltage will punch
through the depletion layer and allow current to flow backwards through the diode, which is
a
destructive
operation
(except
for
the
case
of
a
Zener
diode).
Maximum
Power
Dissipation
The actual diode power dissipation is determined by multiplying the forward voltage drop
and the forward current. Exceeding the maximum power dissipation will result in thermal
breakdown
of
the
diode.
In practical diode applications, excessive forward current and reverse breakdown voltage are
the most common causes of diode failure. In both cases the diode gets very hot, resulting in
the destruction of the p-n junction. Occasional peaks of voltage or current exceeding these
rates for very short times (few milliseconds) may not overheat the junction, but repeated
peaks
may
fatigue
the
junction.
When used in most applications, diodes are selected with ratings that exceed two or three
times the expected peaks in the circuit where they operate.

Ways to Improve the Power Factor of an

Electrical Distribution System

One of the most effect ways to improve the power factor of the electrical
distribution system is to install equipment that have the ability to decrease the
reactive component of the power supplied by the utility company. One of such
equipment is the Capacitor. Other equipment with the same ability to decrease
reactive power includes:
Capacitors
Synchronous motors
Synchronous generators
We can reduce reactive power and increase power factor in an electrical
distribution system by the following method:
Installing Capacitors
Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive power (KVAR), thus
increasing your power factor. A capacitor freely supplies the distribution system
with what is called a Leading reactive power compared to the Lagging
reactive power supplied by the utility company. With capacitors in the
electrical distribution system, the reactive powers cancel each other out
depending on the size of capacitor (in micro-farad) in use or at best reduces the
level of reactive power in the distribution system.
The presence of both a capacitor and inductor in the same circuit results in the
continuous alternating transfer of energy between the two. Thus, when the circuit
is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor.
In effect, a capacitor cancels out the effect of an inductive load.
Minimizing Operation of Idling or Lightly Loaded Motors
We have already established the fact that a major cause of low power factor in
most industrial premises is the prevalence of a large number of induction motors.
The problem of low power factor will be compounded if most of theses electric
motors are lightly loaded or left to idle away without any load. To prevent this
from happening, induction motors should be appropriately loaded and idling of
the motors should be discouraged.
Replacing Standard Motors as they Burn out with Energy-Efficient Motors
The rising cost of energy is leading us into an era where every device that
consumes energy need to be energy efficient. With energy-efficient motors, power
factor can be significantly improved but even with these kinds of electric motors,
power factor can be adversely affected by variations in load. A motor must
therefore be operated near its rated load in order to realize the benefits of a high
power factor design.

Avoid Operation of Equipment above its rated Voltage.

This is also another potential cause of low power factor. This should be avoided
within a facility.

Why You Need Power Factor

Improvement
In a typical industrial plant, AC induction motors constitute a large portion of the
equipment. Since induction motors are mainly inductive loads, they are likely to
lead to a low power factor. Some of the benefits of improving your power factor
include:
Lower Utility Fees
Inductive loads, which require reactive power, are the main cause of a low power
factor. This increase in required reactive power (KVAR) causes an increase in
required apparent power (KVA), which is what the utility company supplies to
your facility
So, a facilitys low power factor causes the electricity company to have to increase
its generation and transmission capacity in order to handle this extra demand. By
lowering your power factor, you use less KVAR. This results in less KW, which
equates to a dollar savings from the utility company. Also note that a utility
company will charge any consumer whose power factor is less than 0.95 an
additional fee. If you reduce power factor you can avoid this additional fee.
Increased System Capacity
By improving power factor, the KW capacity of the system is increased. This
implies that for a given KVA, as we improve power factor, the reactive power
component, KWAR, decreases and the KW component increases.
Reduced System Losses
As current flows through conductors, the conductors produce heat. This heating
is power loss. Power loss is proportional to current squared (P Loss =I2 R) and
current is proportional to the power factor. In any given electrical distribution
system, Conductor loss can account for as much as 2-5% of total load.
By improving your power factor, these losses can be reduced. With the current
rise in the cost of energy due to ever increasing fluctuations in the price of crude

oil, increased facility efficiency is very desirable. And with lower system losses,
you are also able to add additional load to your system.
Increased Voltage Level and Cooler and More Efficient Motors
Uncorrected power factor causes power system losses in the distribution system.
As power losses increase, voltage drops. Excessive voltage drops can cause
overheating and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment.
By improving the power factor of your plant, you will minimize these voltage
drops along feeder cables and avoid related problems. Your motors will run
cooler and be more efficient, with a slight increase in capacity and starting
torque. Also note that Severe over-correction (P.F. greater than 1) will cause a
voltage rise that can damage insulation & equipment; or result in utility
surcharges!

The Basics of Power Factor in Electrical

Distribution Systems
In AC circuits, power is utilized in two basic forms: Activeor Useful
power measured in KW and Reactive powermeasured in KWAR. Before we get
to understanding the concept of power factor, let us define the terms
measured above:
Active Power
This is the useful working Power (also called Actual Power or Real Power). It is
the power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful work. This
power is measured in KW.
Reactive Power
It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay) needs
to produce the magnetizing flux.
Apparent Power
It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW. It is measured in KVA. So
vectorially,
KVA = KW + KVAR

In summary, Reactive power is required to set up the magnetic field while

the Active power produces the useful work (shaft horsepower in the case of
electric motors). Total Power is the vector sum of the two and typically
represents what we pay for in electricity bills. Having understood the basic
concepts above, we now define power factor.
Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of working power to apparent power. This
is defined mathematically as:

Thus, for a given KVA:

The lower the ratio of KW to KVA, the lower the power factor

The higher the ratio of KW to KVA, the larger the power factor.
Power factor has a maximum value of 1.
The Power Triangle illustrates this relationship between KW, KVA, KVAR,
and Power Factor:

From this power triangle, we can deduce that a system with good power factor
will possess the following characteristics:
KVAR would be very small (approaching zero)
KW and KVA would be almost equal
The angle (formed between KW and KVA) would approach zero
Cosine would then approach one
Power Factor would approach one
In order to have an efficient system, we want power factor to be as close to
1.0 as possible. In practice however, our electrical distribution sometimes has a
power factor much less than 1.0. What then causes low power factor in the
electrical distribution system?
Causes of Low Power Factor
The cause of low power factor in the electrical distribution system especially in

an industrial complex is mainly Inductive Loads. Most plant loads are

Inductive and require a magnetic field to operate. The magnetic field is
necessary, but produces no useful work. Typical inductive loads found in a plant
are:
Transformers
Induction motors
Induction generators (wind mill generators)
High intensity discharge (HID) lighting
These inductive loads constitute a major portion of the power consumed
in industrial complexes. Reactive power (KVAR) required by inductive loads
increases the amount of apparent power (KVA) in the electrical distribution
system. This increase in reactive and apparent power results in a low power
factor.

Earthing Protection systems 1: common

terms used
Exposed conductive part

Any accessible metal parts of electrical equipment item other than the live parts
and which can accidentally become live.
Electrical fault
Accidental connection between two points at different potentials, such as
insulation fault.
Fault voltage
Voltage, in case of an insulation fault, across an exposed conductive part and
an earthing reference.
Direct contact
Contact of persons with the normally live parts of electrical equipment
Non direct contact
Contact of persons with exposed conductive parts accidentally live due to an
insulation fault.
Double insulation
Insulation including both:
Basic insulation required for protection against direct contact, and
Supplementary insulation required for protection against indirect contact in case of a
fault of the basic insulation.
Discrimination
Coordination of the automatic switching devices such that only opening of the
device cuts off the faulty part of the installation located immediately upstream
of the fault.
Protective conductor PE
Conductor used for protection against indirect contact and for interconnecting
exposed conductive parts to one another; to extraneous conductive parts and to earthing
electrodes or earthed parts.
Service voltage
The rated operating voltage of a system, which together with the rated current of the
system determines the load. For three-phase systems, it is the voltage between phases.
Residual current
In case of an insulation fault, the residual current is the leakage current returned to the
source through the earth and the protective conductor.
Residual operating current
Value of the residual current, which causes a residual current device to operate.
Shock protection device

This device must automatically separate from the source any part of the installation on
which there is a fault hazardous to life. Depending on the system earthing arrangement of
the installation, this device is either a residual current device, or an over-current device
(fuse or circuit breaker)

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS AND

INSULATORS
Electrical
The

Conductors:

most

popular

electrical

conductors

are

Copper

and

Aluminum.

Copper is the popular choice for power distribution and control circuits because of its excellent
ability to conduct electric current as well as other electrical and mechanical properties. Copper may
be coated with Tin, Nickel or Silver to ensure easier soldering and to retard corrosion
Aluminium is also used in power applications. Its principal advantages are its weight and lower
material
The

cost

when

main

compared

disadvantages

of

with

copper.

Aluminium

are

(a) It has a lower conductivity than Copper hence it will require larger wire and cable sizes than
Copper
(b) Aluminium oxidizes quickly when exposed to air. This oxidation acts as an insulator. This creates
additional

cost

with

regard

to

maintenance

and

testing

when

compared

to

Copper

Aluminium is widely used by the electric utilities in overhead lines primarily because of its light
weight

and

Common
(a)

cost

when

Terms
A wire is

compared

Used
a

to

with

single

length

copper.
Conductors:

of

metal

(b) A stranded wire is a group of small wires that are braided or twisted together to produce a single
conductor. The wires are not insulated from each other. A heavily insulated stranded wire is often
called a cord. The outer jacket of a cord protects the wiring from physical damage.
(c) A cable can either be a solid, stranded conductor or a combination of conductors insulated from
each other. This latter arrangement is called a multiconductor cable. In this cable, the wires may be
stranded,

may

or

may

not

have

common

insulation

covering

(d) A conductor carries electricity from generation equipment to utilization equipment. A conductor
may be solid or stranded. A solid conductor is usually reserved for smaller wire sizes and provides the
benefit of low weight and small diameter. A stranded conductor configuration is usually used for
larger-sized

wires

as

this

configuration

makes

the

cable

lighter

and

more

flexible.

(e) Insulators are non-conductors of electricity. However at a certain voltage known as the
breakdown voltage, an insulator breaks down and becomes a conductor. Hence insulators are rated
for

specific

voltage

which

should

not

be

exceeded.

(f) Insulation is the covering conductors are enclosed in. This insulation protects the wiring and
prevents the electrical energy being carried from leaking into other materials to possibly cause
damage

and

hazards

There are several insulating materials. The most commonly used are tabulated below along with
their

mechanical

and

electrical

properties:

Series of letters are popularly used to identify cable insulation types. Some of the letters used are:
(i)

MI

Mineral

Insulation

(ii)

Rubber

Insulation

(iii)

(iv)

(v)
This

X
lettering

Thermoplastic
-

system

Varnished
Cross-linked

is

Insulation

specified

by

Insulation

polymer
NEC

National

Insulation
Electrical

Code

The most popular amongst the above are thermoplastic and cross-linked polymer insulation
The ability of the insulation of the conductor material to withstand ambient conditions can be also
be

used

to
Heat

classify
resistant

cable
up

insulation
to

for
75

example:
deg

HH

Heat

W
UF

resistant

up

For

use

to

90

deg

Moisture
in

underground

direct

C
resistant

burial

applications

There are popular cable types in use today that we should know of. Some of them are tabulated
below:

In most industrial environment you are likely to see THHN/THWN and XHHW. They stand for:
CABLE

DESIGNATION

THHN

T - Thermoplastic insulation; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC ; N - Non-

metallic
sheathed
THWN

cable

T - Thermoplastic insulation; H - Heat resistant up to 75 degC ; W - Moisture

resistant

XHHW

Non-metallic

sheathed

cable

X - Cross-linked polymer insulation ; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC

W - Moisture resistant

CALCULATION OF CABLE RESISTANCE

Consider

an

example

using

the

reistance

formula:-

A copper conductor of length 500 meters is used to supply electrical energy to a lighting load of
1,000W. If the cross sectional area of the conductor is 10mmsq, calculate the resistance of the

conductor. If the copper conductor were replaced with an Aluminium conductor of the same length,
calculate

the

resistance

of

the

Aluminium

conductor.

Solution:
The

resistance

per

km

Length

of

22.5/10

conductor

resistance

of

copper

resistance

per

2.25

Ohms

500m

conductor

=500/1000

2.25

0.5

per

km

for

0.5km

=1.125

Ohms

Aluminium,
Aluminium

is

given

of

36/10

by:

36/S(c.s.a)

km

Again

by:

10mmsq

for

Length

given

Similarly

Hence

is

22.5/S(c.s.a)

Hence

The

copper

Here

Therefore

for

3.6

conductor

Therefore resistance of copper conductor = 3.6 x 0.5 = 1.8 Ohms

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

10mmsq

Ohms

per

km

0.5km

ELECTRICAL

RESISTANCE:

Electrical resistance is the opposition of a given material to the flow of electricity. The resistance of
a

an

electric

conductor

is

given

by

the

formula:

Where

L
A

Resistance
=

eL/A
Length

Cross

sectional

Resistivity

Resistivity

in

of

in

area
the

ohms

of

conductor

conductor

meters

in

(c.s.a)

ohms

meter

RA/L

If A = 1msq, then: resistivity is defined as the resistance per meter for a unit c.s.a
The two most popular conductors encountered in the electrical engineering field are Copper and
Aluminium
The

electrical

resistance

of

conductor

is

dependent

on

the

following

(a)

factors:

temperature

(b)

length

(c)

of

cross

conductor

sectional

area

material

(c.s.a) of

conductor

OHM'S

LAW:

Ohm's law states that the voltage applied across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
passing through the conductor provided the temperature and physical condition of the conductor
remains

constant.

This

implies

that:

Where

Voltage
Current

IR
applied

passing

across

through

Resistance

conductor

the

conductor

of

conductor

For direct current systems, resistance is the appropriate term to use. For alternating current
systems, impedance is the right term to use. Impedance is the opposition to the flow of alternating
current through a conductor. Impedance is as a result of resistive, capacitive and inductive effect of
alternating current on the conductor. For small sizes of conductor, the capacitive and inductive
effects due to alternating current is usually negligible and the term resistance could be used
Often in electrical works, there is the need to determine approximately the resistance of a
conductor.
Resistance
R

in
(22.5

ohms
Ohms

per
mmsq)/S(c.s.a)

km

is
per

given
km

for

by:
Copper

R
Inductive

(36
reactance is

Ohms
negligible

mmsq)/S(c.s.a)
for

conductors

of

for
c.s.a

less

Aluminium
than

This formula works pretty well for most design calculations of resistance less than 50mmsq

http://www.electricalengineeringtoolbox.com/

50mmsq