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Coulombs Law
Coulombs Law
2.1 Electric Charge
There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklins experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).
The smallest unit of free charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of
e 1.602 10
19
(2.1.1)
k
e
q1q2
r
2r
in vacuum.
(2.2.1)
(a)
Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges
Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
(b)
is given by
ke
1
40
where
8.987510 N m / C
12
2
2
C N m
0
4
(2.2.2)
(2.2.3)
is known as the permittivity of free space. Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.
As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r 5.31011 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately F k e2 / r 2 8.2 108 N . On the other hand, one may show
e
that the gravitational force is only F 3.61047 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
g
Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
stresses transmitted by electric fields. We use both the grass seeds representation
and the field lines representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.
The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have
the small sphere bounce off of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.
Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulombs law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
bounce off of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.
The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not action at a distance. Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct contact from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.
Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing lines of force or field lines was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.
2.3 Principle of Superposition
Coulombs law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be
(2.3.1)
F3 F13 F23
The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.
Example 2.1: Three Charges
Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming
that
2
a 2.0 10 m
.
q1 6.0 10 C
,
q2 q1 6.0 10 6 C ,
q3 3.0 10
C
and
13
23
1 q1q3
r
4 r 2
13
0 13
q2 q3
r
23
r2
23
In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r13 and do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
r23
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.
From the figure, we see that the unit vector r13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
r13
13
0
13
1 q1q3
2
( i j)
2
cosi
sin j
q2 q3
r
r 2
23
2
(q )q
1 q1q
( i j) 1 3 i
3
23
( 2a)
4 2
2
a
2
0
2 1i 2 j
4
4
a2
upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by
F
q 1q 3
3
4 a12
4
0
2 1 2
2
2
4
6
6
9
2
2 (6.0 10 C)(3.0 10 C)
(9.0 10 N m / C )
(0.74) 3.0 N
2
2
(2.0 10 m)
1
The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is
3, y
tan 1F tan 1
F3, x
151.3
2/4
2/
4
Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution 28.7 is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive and negative j components.
i
For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be
N
Fj Fij
(2.3.2)
i1
i
j
where F denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
ij
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.
2.4 Electric Field
The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.
An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of
the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive test charge q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:
E = lim
q0 0
Fe
q0
(2.4.1)
We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
source charges. The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 0
Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .
From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe q0E on a test charge q0 .
Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulombs law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by
E
(2.4.2)
q
40
r
r2
Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:
E E i 4
qi
r
r2
0
(2.4.3)
Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.
(a)
Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.
Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.
Qi
(4) Null point: This is a point at which E 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.
(b)
The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.
The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.
The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).
The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.
j ,
Ey 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
with
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force
Fe qE
(2.6.1)
Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newtons third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the source charges only.
According to Newtons second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration
Fe
qE
qE y
(2.6.2)
Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is
vy 2| ay | y
2 yqEy
m
(2.6.3)
where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is
K
1
2
mv qE y
y
(2.6.4)
to
q
(2.7.1)
The magnitude of the electric dipole is p 2qa , where q 0 . For an overall chargeneutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as
iN
p qiri
(2.7.2)
i1
where
r is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole
What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is
q cos cos q
x
4 r
4
2
r2
x
where
(2.7.3)
2 3/
( y
a)
3/ 2
x ( y a)
r r a 2ra cos x ( y
2
a)
2
(2.7.4)
q sin sin q
y
4
2 4
r2
r
y a
(2.7.5)
y a
22
2 3/
( y
a)
3/ 2
x ( y a)
In the point-dipole limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem
2.13.4) the above expressions reduce to
3p
(2.7.6)
sincos
3
0
an
d
4
E
y
(2.7.7)
3cos
1
p
4 0 r
where sin x / r and cos y / r . With 3 pr cos 3p r and some algebra, the
electric field may be written as
E(r)
1
p
4
0
(2.7.8)
3(p r)r
r5
r xi yj zk .
The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r ,
unlike the 1/ r behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
2
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r at large distance. The
2
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.
Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole
Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
grass seeds representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.
Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field
What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E E i , with
p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see
the dipole moment vector
that the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos i sin j . Thus, we have
p 2qa(cos i sin
j)
(2.8.1)
r
F
(a cos i a sin j)
(F
i) (a cos i a sin j)
(F
a sin F (k ) a sin F (k )
i)
(2.8.2)
2aF sin (k )
where we have used F F F . The direction of the torque is k , or into the page.
The effect of the torque is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as
(2.8.3)
Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle d is
dW d pE sin
d
(2.8.4)
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in. Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle 0 to is
(2.8.5)
The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos cos . The
0
change in potential energy U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:
U U U 0 W pE coscos0
(2.8.6)
where U0 PE
is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
cos0
reference point to be0
2 so that the potential energy is zero there,U0 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy
U pE cos p
E
(2.8.7)
A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
Umin pE . On the other hand, when p and
E
maximum and the system is unstable.
is a
If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field Eat q differs from
the electric field E at q .
E (x a) E(x) a
dE
,
dx
E (x a) E(x) a
dE
dx
(2.8.8)
dE
dE
i
p
i
Fe q(E E ) 2qa dx
(2.8.9)
An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).
charges within the volume element V are much smaller than compared to r, the
i
distance between
Vi
(r
)
lim
qi
(2.9
.1)
dq
Vi dV
3
is charge/unit volume (C/m ) in SI units. The total amount of
Vi 0
The dimension of (
)
r
charge within the entire volume V is
Q q ( )
i
dV
r
i
(2.9.2)
The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density m (r) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by
M ( ) dV
V
m r
(2.9.3)
( )
r
dq
(2.9.4)
dA
The dimension of is charge/unit area (C/m ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:
2
Q ( ) dA
r
S
(2.9.5)
( )
r
dq
(2.9.6)
df
where the dimension of is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:
Q (r) df
line
(2.9.7)
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( , or ) then
become uniform.
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions
The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulombs law:
dE
dq r
2
(2.10.1)
40 r
where r is the distance from dq to and is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
P
r
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:
E
1
4
dq
(2.10.2)
0 V
This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod
A non-conducting rod of length f with a uniform positive charge density and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.
Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire
Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.
Solution:
The linear charge density is uniform and is given by Q / f . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dxis dq dx.
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is r i . The
contribution to the electric field due to dq is
dE
dq
1 dx
1 Qdx
(i)
2 r
2 i
4 r
4
x2
4 f x
1
40 f x0 x
40 f
40 x0 (f x0 )
x0 f
x0
(2.10.3)
Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 f , and the above expression
becomes
E 1
(2.10.4)
Q
i
4 0 x0
The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector
A non-conducting rod of length f with a uniform charge density and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.2. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.
Figure 2.10.2
Solution:
We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dxcarrying charge dq dxis
1
dE 4
(2.10.5)
dx
1
dq2
r 4
x y
Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x component of the electric field vanishes.
dx
dE
cos
40 x2 y 2
x y
2
(2.10.6)
y dx
4 (x2 y 2 )3/
0
2
By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is
E
dE
y
f /2
f /2
ydx
(x y )
2
2 3/
dx
f /2
f /2
f /2
2
y sec
d
dx
f /2
(x y )
2
2 3/
2 3/
2
0
(2.10.7)
(x y )
dxy sec d,
the
2
sec
1
2
3/
2
2
3/
3
y (sec 1) y
(tan 1) y2
2
2
1
2
sec d
sec
3
(2.10.8)
d
2
y
y2
sec
cosd
2 sin
y2
which gives
1
E y 4
0
2sin
2
4 y
f /2
(f / 2)
(2.10.9)
In the limit where y f , the above expression reduces to the point-charge limit:
E
2 f / 2
Q
4
y
4 y
y
0
(2.10.10)
1
4 y
(2.10.11)
40 y
In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gausss law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as2 we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of Ey / E0 (with E0 Q / 40f ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.
f
Solution:
Consider a small length element dfon the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq d fR d . Its contribution to the electric field at P is
dq
1
dE 4
r2
(2.10.12)
1 R
d
4
r2
Figure 2.10.6
Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the z direction.
dEz
dE
cos
R
40 d R 2
1
Rz d
2
2
40 (R 2 z 2 )3/
R z
(2.10.13)
Rz
(R 2 z 2 )3/ 2
f:
2Rz
d 4
Qz
(R 2 2 z 2 )3/ 4
0
(2.10.14)
(R 2 2 z 2 )3/
0
where the total charge is Q (2R) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.
Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
2
radius R, with
Q /
R .
E
4
0
Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.
zdq
z )
4 (r
2
2
2 3/
z (2r dr
(r z )
(2.10.15)
2 3/ 2
z 1
u1/ 2
1
z
(1/ 2)
2
0
2
R z
R z
2
z|
0
z2
2
R z
(2.10.16)
z
1
2
0
zE
1
2
2
z R
,
z
z0
(2.10.17)
z R
2
z 0
( E0 / 20 ) as a
function of
z
1
z2
1
1
R2
1/ 2
R2
1 R2
2 1
R
11
.
2
z2
2 z
(2.10.18)
2z
This gives
Ez
R2
1 R 1
2 0 2z 2 4 0 z 2
2
4z
Q
0
(2.10.19)
which is indeed the expected point-charge result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or
the field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this
limit becomes, in unit-vector notation,
k
,
E k
20 ,
z 0
z
0
(2.10.20)
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.
Ez
Ez
Ez
20 2 0 0
(2.10.21)
As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density, then the
normal component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a
discontinuity with
En / 0 .
2.11Summary
where
q1q2
40 r2 r
r2
ke
k q1q2
9
2
2
1
4 8.99 10 N m / C
0
The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :
E = lim
Fe
q0 0
q0
1
40
q
r
r2
Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is
qi
E 1
2 r
40 i ri
An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector ppoints from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude
p 2aq
dq
40 2r r
At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the point-charge limit.
2.12
Problem-Solving Strategies
In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:
qi
E 1
2 r
40
i ri
For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral
E
1
40
dq
r
2r
where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and is the corresponding unit
r
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:
Start with dE
1 dq
40 r2 r
df
dq
dA
dV
(length)
(area)
(volume)
dl
Cartesian (x, y, z)
dx, dy, dz
Cylindrical (, , z)
d , d , dz
Spherical (r, , )
dr, r d, r sin d
dA
dx dy, dy dz, dz dx
d dz, ddz, dd
r dr d, r sindr d, r sindd
dV
dx dy dz
d ddz
r sindr dd
Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates
(5) Rewrite dE
in terms of the
integration
variable(s), and
apply symmetry
argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.
(6) Complete the integration to obtain E .
In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to
compute the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly
charged disk.
Line charge
Figure
dq dx
dq d f
dx
dE k
e r 2
dE k dl
e r 2
dx
cos
y
r
rx2 y 2
d f R d
z
cos
r
dA
z
r R 2 z 2
dE
2
Rz
d
E k
ze
2
22 f
3/
f /2
(R z
): E
dx
z
E k
y
ye f/2 (x2 y2 )3/ 2
(2R )z
k
(6) Integrate to get E
2
2 3/)2
(Re z
2k f/2
e
Qz
y (f / 2)2 y2
(R z )
ke 2 2 3/ 2
2.13
Solved Problems
2.13.1
Hydrogen Atom
In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
10
a radius of r 0.5310 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e 1.6 10
19
C.
(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?
(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?
(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?
(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.
Solutions:
(a) The magnitude of the force is given by
Fe
1 e
40 r
Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is
Fe (9.0 109 N m2 / C2 )(1.6 1019
2
C) (5.310
11
m)
8.2 10 N
(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by
(c)
4 0 r
(0.510
m p 1.7 10
27
(9.0 10 N m / C )(1.6 10
10
m)
9.110
31
19
C)
11
5.7610 N / C
force is given by
4
0
40
m p me
Gmp me
G
10
(9.0 10 N m / C )(1.6 10
9
11
(6.67
N
m
/
)(1.7
kg 10
19
C)
27
2.2 1039
2
31
kg)(9.110
kg)
r2
which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.
(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
24
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of10 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.
2.13.2
oil
8.5110 kg m
is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg mg mg on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
j
Fe qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when
5
E Ey j (1.9210 N C) j , with y 1.92105 N C .
E
force,
the
electric
field
19
C?
is
(a) The mass density oil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of the
oil drop,
M V
oil
4 3
r
3
oil
Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,
kg
oil
r3
(8.5110 kg m )
2
4
6
14
3
(1.6410 m) 1.57 10
(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg Fe 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have
0 mg qE
mg qEy
With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector j to point upward. We
can solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:
14
(1.57 10 kg)(9.80 m / s )
19
q
8.0310 C
5
Ey
1.92 10 N C
mg
q
e
19
8.02 10
1.6 10
19
19
You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!
2.13.3
Figur
e
v0
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?
(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?
(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?
(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?
(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?
(f) What angle 1 does the electron make 1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?
(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time t2 .
What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?
Solutions:
(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q e , the force on the electron is
F e qE eE (e)(Ey )j eE j
where the electric field is written as E Ey j , with
E
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.
(b) The acceleration of the electron is
qE
a
and its direction is upward.
qE
eEy
j
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.
v v i . Since the acceleration of the
0
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by
i
j
v v v v
x
i a j =
j =
i
i eE y L1 j
t
v
v
eEy
0
y 1
0
t 1
0
m
mv0
(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L in the time
1
t1
v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement
L1
2
1 eE y L1
y 1 a t
m
2
2
v0
1
2
y 1
(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle 1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,
v y (eE / m)(L / v ) eE L
tan
y
1
0
y 1
mv 2
v
v
x
(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is
y L tan
2
eE L L
1
1 2
2
mv0
y 1 1
L
L
1 eEy L212 eE y L12L2
2
eE
2 mv mv
mv
1
2
2
L
0
0
0
2.13.4
Ex
3p 3
4 r sincos
,
p
E y 4 r 3 3cos2 1
where
2p
Er cos,3
4 r
0
p sin
E 4 r3
0
Solutions:
(a) Lets compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates (x, y, 0)
is given by
q
cos
cos
Ex
4 r
4
2
r2
x
2 3/
( y
a)
3/ 2
x ( y a)
where
r r a 2ra cos x ( y a)
2
sin q
sin
E y q
4
2 4
r2
r
y a
22
2 3/
0x
y a
3/ 2
( y a)
( y a)
We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
3
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r and ignore terms that
5
2
2 12
are proportional to 1/ r , where r (x y ) .
We begin with
2 3 /
[x ( y a) ]
2
[x y a 2ay]
2
3 /
3/ 2
r a 2
2a
1
y
r2
3/ 2
3
15 2
1 s s ...
2
8
and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes
Ex
and
6xya
40 r 5
...
q 2a 6 y 2 a
E y 4 3
...
5
r
r
0
where we have neglected the O(s ) terms. The electric field can then be written as
E
E
i E y j 4
2a
6
ya
r 3 r5 (x i y
j
j)
2
p 3
3y
yx
1 j
4 r3 i
2
2
r
r
0
where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p 2aq .
In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin x r and cos y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:
3p
p
E x sincos
E y
3cos2 1
r3
r3
4
4
0
0
(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:
E(r,)
4r
0
4r
sin i
p 2
4 r3
cos
0
osj
sin cosiin
j
2 cos r sin
4
0 r
3
2 1/ 2
p
40 r
3cos 11/ 2
2
dq d f R d .
1 dq r
sincos
j
i
dE
1
40 r
40
R
d
40
cos i sin j
4 R
d cos i
sin j
sin i + cos j
4
R
2sin 0
1
4
R
0
We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit 0 , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
and we recover the point-charge limit:
small0 , sin0
0
E 1
4
2 0
1
0
2 0 R
i
4
Q
i
4 R
Figure 2.13.3
Solution:
The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq
dx.
Figure 2.13.4
The electric field at P produced by this element is
1
dE
dq
40 r
dx
40 x y
sin i cos j
where the unit vector r has been written in Cartesian coordinates: r sin i
cos j . In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and ycomponents. The x- component of the electric field is
dE
dx sin
2
2
x y
dx
2
2
4 x y
4
0
xdx
12
y
2
(x y )
2
2 3/2
xx2 , we have
x2
xdx
x y
Integrating from xx
1
to
2 3/ 2
du
x2
2
1/
x2 y 2
x2 y2
(x y
4 2
u
0
3/ 2
1
x y
0
4 x y
2
40 y
4y
x y
x y
2
2
x y
1
cos2 cos1
Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is
dE
4
2 dx2
1 2 dx2
x y cos
4 x y
1
0
x y
dx
x2
y 1
y
2
2 3/ 2
40 1(x y
40 y
2ydx
2 3 / 2
(x y )
1
4
cosd
sin
sin
40 y
where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.
In the infinite length limit where x
y
x2
, with xi
, the
1
tani
and
2
40 y
1
Fg
Gm1m2
/r .
2.
3.
Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.
/
2
r
, and
The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?
4.
How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?
5.
An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?
Figure 2.15.2
What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.
2.15.3 Four Point Charges
Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.
Figure 2.15.4
40
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by 0 cos .
(a) What is the relationship between 0 , R and Q?
(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?
2.15.5 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the x direction is displaced by a small angle from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.
Figure 2.15.5
The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder
(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)
(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls
Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from nonconducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that is so small that tan sin.
Figure 2.15.9
(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is
13
q2f
r
mg
0
x 5.0 cm , what is q ?
19
C ),
separated by a distance d 10 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
shown in Figure 2.15.10.
Figure 2.15.10
2
2
rdr
R z du
2
2 3/ 2
z2
0 (r z ) z4
z2 z u 3/ 2