Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Waterood performance evaluation in a chalk reservoir

with an ensemble of tools
C. Olsen a, C.S. Kabir b,n
a
b

Hess Denmark Aps, stergade 26B, DK-1100 Copenhagen K, Denmark

Hess Corporation, 1501 McKinney Street, Houston, TX 77010, United States

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 14 August 2013
Accepted 30 September 2014
Available online 28 October 2014

Good waterood performance management requires an understanding of injectorproducer connectivity. In this context, chalk reservoirs present unique challenges. Reservoir compaction, ow in long
horizontal wells with transverse fractures, fracturing above the parting pressure, and water shortcircuiting along the fault planes may not guarantee the expected uid displacement. These reservoir
attributes collectively contribute to ood management challenges.
Real-time surveillance data form the basis of ongoing ood monitoring. This data interpretation
improves the estimates for ultimate recovery by way of on-time well intervention. The data also helps to
better dene the future eld development plan. Besides gathering real-time rate and bottomhole
pressure (BHP) data, this study shows how time-lapse tracer, production logs, and 4D seismic data assists
in gaining a credible history match with numerical-ow simulations.
Before numerical modeling, this study used an array of analytical tools. These computationally
inexpensive tools include both diagnosis and analysis. Amongst the diagnostic tools, the reciprocalproductivity index (RPI) provided crucial information on the degree of pressure support felt at a
producer; the wateroil ratio (WOR) plot gave the clue on uid displacement; and the modied-Hall plot
helped understand matrix injection or the lack thereof. Combined rate/pressure data analysis with the
capacitanceresistance model (CRM) provided quantitative measures of injectorproducer connectivity.
Where feasible, the rate-transient analysis (RTA) provided evolving reservoir pressure and the connected
pore-volume information. The traditional decline-curve analysis (DCA) showed variability of the decline
trend based upon the pressure-support and uid-displacement scenarios.
This study underscores the importance of both real-time and time-lapse measurements in managing
a waterood in a challenging reservoir environment. The proposed workow emphasizes learning from
data diagnosis and analysis with analytical tools before embarking on history matching with numericalow simulations in the South Arne eld, located in the Danish North Sea.
& 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Waterood performance
4D seismic
Tracer surveys
Capacitanceresistance modeling
Rate-transient analysis
Numerical ow simulations

1. Introduction
Real-time monitoring of pressure and rate data has paved the
way to understanding a reservoir's behavior, leading to on-time
management by way of frequent updates to a grid-based model.
Some of the technical benets of surveillance were suggested by
Horne (2007). Many authors reported integrating surveillance data
with full-eld simulation studies. Some of these studies include
those of Hustedt and Snippe (2010), Langaas et al. (2007), Bahar
et al. (2005), and King et al. (2002), among others over the last
decade.

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Christian.Olsen@hess.com (C. Olsen),
skabir@hess.com (C.S. Kabir).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2014.09.031
0920-4105/& 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In chalk reservoirs, such as the one presented here, compaction

poses additional challenges. Rapid decline in pore pressure and the
consequent well failure necessitate on-time action. Early studies by
Cook and Jewell (1996) in the Valhall eld suggested that the
compaction drive yielded over 50% of the oil recovery. More recently,
Pettersen and Kristiansen (2009) reported novel coupling of the rock
mechanics and ow simulation by way of a pseudomodel in order to
speed up computations signicantly for the Valhall eld. The benets
of chemical tracers and pulse testing in understanding reservoir
connectivity cannot be overstated. To that end, Cheng et al. (2012)
documented a comprehensive study in a surfactant eld trial. The
use of 4D seismic in reservoir-ow modeling is emphasized by
studies of King et al. (2002), Govan et al. (2006), Mikkelsen et al.
(2008), and Jin et al. (2012), among many others.
Most of the studies cited above use snapshots of dynamic data,
such as pressure-transient analysis (PTA) and production logs.

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Although useful, a time-lapse approach may be insufcient to

understand the evolving nature of a ood with dynamic analytical
tools complementing numerical modeling. More recently, Kabir
and Boundy (2011) showed the benets of integrating various
analytical tools to understanding the nuances of reservoir behavior
during history matching with a grid-based model. The use of rate
transients often provides important clues about a reservoir's
performance. In fact, the notion of reservoir management can
revolve around many elements of RTA, as discussed by Kabir et al.
(2011a), among others. Stated differently, possibly the full strength
of multiple analytical tools has remained unexplored.
The ensemble of tools used in this study includes a numerical
simulation model and a number of analytical methods to complement
learning. These analytical tools include, among others, a CRM analysis
(Sayarpour et al., 2009a, 2009b) for injector/producer connectivity, a
RPI plot (Kumar, 1977) for assessing degree of pressure support or lack
thereof, a WOR plot (Yortsos et al., 1999) for understanding displacement, a modied-Hall analysis (Izgec-Kabir, 2009) for discerning
matrix injection from waterood-induced fracturing, a RTA to estimate
connected pore-volume, and a DCA to obtain an independent understanding of reserves recovery. Results of these analyses were augmented by both 4D seismic and tracer testing. Given that even a good
history-matched model may forecast less than satisfactorily because of
inherent uncertainty rooted in history matching (Tavassoli et al.,
2004), new approaches must be explored to improve our understanding of physical mechanisms governing uid ow. Fig. 1 captures
the workow used in this study.

challenge is to inject high-volume water into the matrix without water

short-circuiting into the nearby producers.
The South Arne eld has been in production since 1999. Water
injection started in 2001. The eld is presently developed with 25
wells, 16 producers, and 9 injectors in a line-drive pattern. The eld
has been developed with horizontal producers and injectors, each
completed with a number of transverse hydraulic fractures. Water
injection occurs directly into the oil zone and the mobility ratio is
favorable for a waterood. Fit-for-purpose tools are brought to bear
to address specic issues. To focus on typical issues encountered in
this eld, this study evaluates the water injection performance of
one area, as shown in Fig. 2. Two producers, SA-5 and SA-16, which

2. Background
Understanding and managing waterood performance is key to
optimizing production and maximizing reserves. Water injection into
chalk has a long and successful track record; good recovery from
this type of rock has been reported (Hallenbeck et al., 1991, Ovens et
al., 1998, Austad et al., 2008). Water injection in low-permeability
chalk generally occurs above the fracture-propagation pressure. The

61

Fig. 2. Well locations in the study area.

Fig. 1. Flow chart for surveillance and analysis workow.

62

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

are supported by the SA-8 up-ank injector and the SA-11 downank injector, are identied in Fig. 2.
The following sections discuss the well performance. These sections include (1) performance diagnosis of production data with
analytical tools, (2) analysis of measurements, such as tracers, production logs, and 4D seismic, and, (3) modeling with decline curves, RTA,
CRM, and numerical-ow simulations. Appendix A summarizes the
attributes of various analytical tools used in this study.

3. Performance diagnosis with analytical tools

The study area is being drained by the producers SA-5 and SA16 with water-injection support from the two injectors, SA-8 and
SA-11. In general, changes in well performance are controlled by
three main groups of events: changes in pressure support, scale
buildup in wells, and well interventions. However, changes in well
performance due to changes in pressure support and nearwellbore effects are not readily apparent from production performance data alone. This is why diagnostic plots are useful and aid
history matching with numerical models.
Fig. 3 depicts the SA-5 well's production performance. The
initial production period is pure depletion, as evident by the
rapidly declining oil rate and increasing GOR, without any water
production. The early water injection period is characterized by
increasing oil production, rapidly declining GOR and slowly
increasing watercut. Thereafter, the declining oil rate with increasing watercut is readily apparent, and the at GOR performance
suggests good overall pressure maintenance. However, to learn the
performance subtleties, diagnoses are needed. Fig. 4 depicts the
RPI plot that shows the chronological events of depletion drive at
the start (with positive slope), followed by overinjection (sharply
dipping negative slope), nally leading to a gently increasing
positive slope, signifying a void replacement of less than one.
Both of the injectors' performances are shown in Fig. 4 to gain
insights into the overall RPI response.

Judging by the SA-5 well's WOR response, interaction with

neighboring producer SA-16 becomes readily apparent. As Fig. 5
shows, when the SA-16 well starts producing, the WOR response
drops markedly because a fraction of water begins to support the
void created by the new producer. However, one observes an
increasing WOR trend at a steeper slope, thereby suggesting a
different ow path in redistribution of the energy support.
Reassuringly, matrix injection is suggested by a greater-than-theunit-slope-line response in all cases. The unit-slope line is indicated by the magenta line in Fig. 5.
Fig. 6 shows the production history of the SA-16 well. The
watercut development is signicantly different from the SA-5 well.
However, the increase in GOR is probably related more to the
wrong allocation of the gas-lift gas than to the breakout of gas in
the formation around the well. Given the signicant rise in the
watercut response with the precipitous decline in oil rate, water
injection appears to be the main reason for this behavior. The
increase in WOR could be related to a reduction in SA-8 water
injection starting in mid-2007.
The ever-increasing slope in the RPI plot (Fig. 7) that includes
both the total liquid and the oil clearly demonstrates the lack of
pressure support. This point is further corroborated by the WOR
response, shown in Fig. 8. The unit-slope response suggests a lack
of oil bank displacement by the injected water. Collectively, Fig. 5
through 7 suggest that the interaction between the SA-16 and
SA-5 producers and the injectors evolves dramatically when the
production begins in the SA-16 well. To arrest the precipitous
decline in oil rate with an increasing watercut, a plug is placed at
the toe of the SA-16 well. The benet of this action is demonstrated in the WOR response when the steep slope develops,
indicating oil displacement rather than water circulation. However, benets of this successful well intervention appeared short
lived when the injection rate at the SA-8 well was reduced after
about six months. The WOR response began to atten and the oil-

Fig. 3. SA-5 well's production performance.

Fig. 5. SA-5 well's WOR response suggests a redistribution of the injectors' energy
support.

Fig. 4. SA-5 well's RPI provides an evolution of pressure support.

Fig. 6. SA-16 well's production performance.

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

63

Fig. 10. Changing decline in the SA-16 well.

Fig. 7. SA-16 well's total liquids RPI provides evidence of the lack of pressure
support.

Fig. 8. SA-16 well's WOR response suggests the lack of oil displacement for about
1000 days.

Fig. 9. Changing decline in the SA-5 well.

PI began to decline. These wells illustrate the complexity of

producer-producer and producerinjector interactions, which we
will discuss in the context of CRM analysis.
We observed the oil-cut semilog graph to be a useful discriminating tool. The change in the decline trend in the oil-cut plot in
Fig. 9 is probably related to the injection rate reduction at the SA-8
well as shown in Fig. 4, and its strong connectivity with the SA-5
producer. Stated differently, when injection is reduced, proportionally more water appears to go into the short-circuit mode,
thereby reducing the amount of oil being swept. The injector/
producer connectivity was learned through the CRM study, as
discussed in the context of DCA. Fig. 4 also suggests that the
injection rate at the SA-11 well was relatively stable and, therefore,
its effect is not readily apparent on the decline plot.
Fig. 10 suggests that a shift on the oil-cut plot in the exponential or log-linear trend occurs when injection at the SA-8 well is
reduced. In addition, another shift in the decline trend occurs
when the plug is placed at the toe of the SA-16 well, which

Fig. 11. Modied-Hall plot shows increasing injection difculty in the SA-8 well.

reduces the water short circuit. Later, when the watercut exceeds
90%, the decline trend becomes hyperbolic, as discussed in the
next section. Initially, a water short circuit dominates the watercut
development, meaning that water ows separately from the oil.
However, at a later stage, matrix breakthrough occurs and the
fractional-ow curves begin to inuence the decline. Deviation
from the exponential decline is observed.
Perhaps the modied-Hall plot of the SA-8 injector sheds some
useful perspective, as shown in Fig. 11. The initial cumulative
injection of 15 MMSTB appears event free, as indicated by the Hallintegral derivative overlaying on the integral curve. Subsequently,
the ever-increasing ow impediment is indicated by the continuous separation of those two curves; the attendant declining
owing-BHP trace simply reafrms that notion. In particular, the
reduced injection around 60 MMSTB cumulative injection coincides with reduced performance of the producers, as shown in
both Figs. 8 and 9.

4. Analysis of tracer, production logs, and 4D seismic data

To gain further insights into the well behavior, both tracer tests
and production logs were run. Tracer campaigns have been
conducted several times over the eld life at a frequency of every
three to four years. In a typical operation, chemical tracers are
pumped into the injectors and the response is monitored at the
producers. Historically, a wide range of responses has been
observed in producing wells. Overall, the total recovery of tracer
is low because of high imbibition potential of water-wet chalk, as
expected in this type of reservoirs. Nonetheless, for this study the
tracer tests added invaluable information regarding the connectivity of producerinjector pairs through short circuits and to
some degree its strength, as reected in the breakthrough time.
Fig. 12 shows very early tracer breakthrough times of two to six
days for the wells. Note that these breakthrough times are not

64

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Fig. 12. Depiction of tracer breakthrough times for the injectorproducer pairs.
Fig. 13. Shut-in (a) and owing (b) log passes show contrasting behavior of
water ow.

intuitive given the physical distances between the wells. For

example, tracer breakthrough from the SA-8 injector to the SA16 producer occurred in two days, whereas tracer breakthrough
from the SA-8 injector to the SA-5 producer occurred in ve days,
even though the tracers had to travel a larger distance for the
former pair.
Production logs run in the SA-16 well in March 2005 showed that
most of the water was being produced from the toe. Fig. 13a showing
the shut-in pass indicated signicant crossow in the well, with
water inux originating from a high-pressure zone at the toe. In June
2009, a production log in the SA-5 well showed that the bulk of the
water was being produced from the three toe zones closest to the
fault, as shown in Fig. 13b. These PLT observations are largely
supported by those from 4D seismic, as discussed next.
Two 4D seismic surveys conducted in 2005 and 2011 provided
considerable insights into the uid ow directions in. As shown in
Fig. 14, the normalized root mean square (NRMS) maps can be
construed as a qualitative analog for the saturation changes in the
reservoir due to water injection. These surveys indicate that a
conductive ow path exists between the SA-8 injector and the toe
area of the SA-5 producer, and follows the fault system to the toe
of the SA-16 producer. When the SA-16 well starts producing, it
deprives the SA-5 well of water in the short term by connecting to
the fault system. However, when the SA-16 well continues
production, fault/fracture system depressurization occurs. As a
consequence, water appears to short-circuit from the SA-8 injector
to the SA-5 producer, thereby explaining the more rapid increase
in watercut than before. These observations align with those
discussed earlier regarding the interpretation of tracer and
production-log data.
Fig. 15 displaying the difference map shows the saturation
changes that occurred between 2005 and 2011, indicating that
water production in the SA-16 well continued during this period at
the heel of the well. In other words, the fault system transmitted
signicant amounts of injection water from the SA-8 well to the
SA-16 producer.

5. Well performance analysis

In this section, the study analyzes production and injection
data to understand reservoir performance, leading to recovery
potential. This section discusses the traditional DCA and RTA
before introducing the CRM and numerical-ow simulation
results. The objective is to seek consistency in solutions with
different tools.
5.1. Rate-transient and decline-curve analyses
Fig. 16 suggests that the SA-5 well undergoes variable-pressure
and variable-rate production history. The initial primary depletion,
followed by injection support and the two-phase production
dominate the performance. An approximate history matching of
the injection period considering a closed system suggests an
acceptable match. The intrinsic idea was to get a glimpse of the
overall reservoir performance. In this context, let us point out that
the precipitous decline in both rate and pressure during the rst
1000 days or so signify compaction of the chalk formation. For
simplicity we avoided this ow period to minimize modeling
hurdle with analytical tools.
To get a perspective on well behavior before signicant water
production occurred, we plotted the integral of reciprocalproductivity index and its derivative against material-balance
time, as shown in Fig. 17. Understanding the ow regimes was
important in that 12 stages of propped transverse fractures were
created in this 5500-ft horizontal well. The designed half-lengths
of the propped fractures vary from 200 to 400 ft, and the
estimated formation permeability along the well length ranges
from 3 to 14 md. Given this completion scenario, we observe linear
ow, followed by the unit-slope response. The duration of linear
ow is governed by the fracture spacing, whereas the unit-slope
response signies the stimulated-reservoir volume (SRV). Interestingly enough the overall response is akin to those observed in
unconventional wells, as shown by Kabir et al. (2011b) and

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

65

Fig. 14. Saturation changes support the notion of well connectivity and ow through conductive paths.

Fig. 16. Approximate history matching of the SA-5 well's late-time performance.
Fig. 15. Saturation changes demonstrate the conductive ow path between the SA8 injector and the SA-16 producer.

Freeman et al. (2009), among others. Note that the SRV does not
imply reservoir boundary; rather, the imaginary ellipsoidal ow
geometry, which is a manifestation of fracture stimulation. This
volumetric-SRV response appears to suggest that the water production occurs over limited well length, thereby raising questions
about the volumetric sweep efciency. In fact, this volumetric
response is in harmony with the Arps model where the b value of
zero is calculated, indicating exponential decline behavior.
By considering the rst 3.5-year history, the late-time cumulative
match results in harmonic decline behavior as characterized by the

Arps exponent b of 1.0, as Fig. 18 illustrates. However, an exponential

decline (b0) sets in toward the end as ood maturity occurs
beyond eight years, as the right side of Fig. 18 shows. This change
in performance characteristics reveals the extrapolation limits of
decline curves due to continuous changes in saturation and pressure
that occur in most waterood operations. However, this study did
not pursue the conventional RTA due to the complicated production
history with rapidly changing saturation as signied by increasing
watercut. Modeling both the saturation and pressure changes is best
done with a numerical-ow simulator, which is discussed later. The
validity of the Arps model in mature wateroods has been shown
recently by Can and Kabir (2014).

66

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Unlike the SA-5 well, the SA-16 well lent itself to an improved
RTA because the water production was not tied to uid displacement, but channeled along a fault plane. Fig. 19 presents RTA of the
SA-16 well's production analysis, except for the very early part
containing 1.7 year's material-balance time. The primary reason
for neglecting the early data originated from the notion of doing
DCA for the stable owing-BHP period. That way the study could
compare and contrast the RTA and DCA solutions. Another
motivation for avoiding the early-time data for about 500 days
stemmed from the sharp decline of both pressure and rate in
Fig. 19 is attributed to compaction. This point was made earlier
while discussing SA-5 well's response in Fig. 16. The DCA in Fig. 20
indicates an exponential decline with b of 0.0 at late times.
Producer SA-16 was completed with nine transverse-fracture
stages in a 2500-ft lateral. This well is in inferior section of the
reservoir with an estimated formation permeability not exceeding
1 md. As Fig. 21 suggests, the SA-16 well exhibits ow regimes that
are similar to that of the SA-5 well. The unit-slope response
signifying the SRV response indicates lack of oil displacement or
volumetric behavior, a point made earlier by Fig. 8. We surmise
that severe water short-circuiting precipitated this volumetric
response.

(Parekh and Kabir, 2013) and strong aquifer inux in a sandstone

reservoir (Izgec and Kabir, 2010), among others. Here, the study's
main objective was to obtain a connectivity map or fractional ow
between the injectors and producers and corroborate the results
with tracer and other measurements. The secondary objective was
to obtain a general agreement of the tracer breakthrough time
with the time constant associated with each injector in the CRM.

5.2. Capacitanceresistance modeling

The CRM captures injectorproducer connectivity in a multiwall system using ow rates and the owing BHP, if available.
Many studies have reported CRM's successful application in a wide
array of reservoirs of different degrees of complexity. Some of
these examples include horizontal wells in a naturally fractured
sandstone reservoir (Kabir and Boundy, 2011), water and CO2
oods in carbonate reservoirs (Sayarpour et al., 2009b), interand intra-reservoir connectivity in a complex sets of reservoirs

Fig. 19. RTA of the SA-16 well suggests a decent overall match after the initial
period.

Fig. 17. SA-5 well's ow regimes mimic those in unconventional formations.

Fig. 18. DCA of the SA-5 well.

Fig. 20. DCA of the SA-16 well.

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Fig. 22 shows a quality history match of the total reservoir

liquids (oil and water) on the left and a less-than-satisfactory
match of the oil rate prole on the right. Because the material
balance is based upon the total uid, a good match is expected.
However, the early time oil match suffers because of the use of an
empirical power-law model to split the two phases, as shown by
Sayarpour et al. (2009a,b). The oil-rate match improves with
increasing water-cut because the power-law model works best
when the water-cut exceeds 50%.
Table 1 shows the well connectivity in terms the water's
fractional ow from an injector to the relevant producers. For
example, the SA-5 producer receives either 40% of the injection
support from each of SA-11 and SA-8 injectors, or 80% of the
total. This fact implies that void replacement is less than ideal.
By contrast, the SA-16 producer receives only a total of 10% of
the injected water from the SA-8 injector. As discussed earlier,
most of this water production at the SA-16 producer occurred
through a conductive ow path. Although most of the individual injectors' total contributions were accounted for, SA-11
was exception to this rule, meaning about 20% of the injected
water went outside the control volume. While fractional-water
injections toward each producer (or f ij's) in Table 1 are useful in
understanding ow direction, the other parameter, time constant , can shed light on the breakthrough time. The comparison of breakthrough time with tracer survey is generally
favorable, but a large discrepancy surfaces for the SA-11/SA-5
pair. Although the tracer was detected after 14 days, the
connection appeared weak compared to other wells. Because
the CRM formulation is predicated upon signal analysis
between the injector/producer pairs, the SA-11/SA-5 short
circuit is too weak to be detected by the CRM, thereby explaining the large discrepancy. Our general observation is that when
the CRM and tracer results are in agreement, the water short
circuit is signicant; otherwise, the effect of the short circuit is
limited.

67

5.3. Reservoir-ow simulation

A full-eld, numerical-ow simulation model was used to
understand the overall eld performance. The ow-simulation
model is a black-oil, single-porosity model with approximately
600,000 cells. The areal dimensions of the grid cells are
25  75 m2, and the 25 m cell dimension is dominant from injector
to producer. At a typical well spacing of 300 m, this cell is
sufcient to trace the main waterfront moving from an injector
toward a producer. The uid system is modeled with a single PVT
table, which appears sufcient in matching production performance. Compartmentalization is not considered an issue because
all producers appear to be impacted by the neighboring injector.
Saturations and matrix permeability are closely related to porosity
and are modeled as such. The model is computationally efcient
and is able to capture the overall reservoir performance quite well.
However, local features with signicantly different ow properties
than the eld will, in some cases, dominate individual well
behavior. Incorporating those features directly in the simulation
grid will make the model computationally inefcient. Besides, the
properties of these features cannot be measured directly, but can
only be inferred indirectly, for example by tracer surveys.
The reservoir was modeled as a single-porosity system because
the fractures appear limited in areal extent and are related to
specic geological features. This strategy allowed local enhancement of permeability to model the fracture system, thereby
nessing the eld-wide dual-porosity modeling. Overall, the
individual well performance was well matched. However, modeling of the water short circuits presented a challenge. As Fig. 23
illustrates, those short circuits were modeled by positioning a
completion from the injection well in close proximity to a
producer. This approach turned out to be computationally efcient
in matching the watercut performance, but at the expense of BHP
and GOR matches. The reasons for the unsatisfactory matches are
two-fold: rstly, the injectors were in close proximity to the
producers; secondly, the pressure-drop along the fault/fracture
zone, responsible for creating the water short circuits, was
neglected. The SA-16 producer experienced signicant short
circuiting and, consequently, both the BHP and GOR matches
suffered, as Fig. 24 illustrates. In contrast, Fig. 25, showing the
SA-5 well match of both BHP and GOR, is signicantly better
because of the water short circuits marginal impact.
Table 1
Injectorproducer connectivity and breakthrough times of CRM compared with
those of tracers.

Fig. 21. SA-16 well's ow regimes suggest volumetric behavior beyond 1000
material-balance days.

Well Pair

fij

Tracer 2004 days

CRM 2004 days

SA8Z SA5
SA11 ZSA5
SA8Z SA16
SA11 ZSA16

0.4
0.4
0.1
0.3

5
14
1
Not detected

3
300
1
180

Fig. 22. CRM analysis shows a good overall match and an acceptable oil-rate match at high water-cuts.

68

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Fig. 23. Depicting water short-circuits near the SA-16 and SA-5 producers on a saturation map.

Fig. 24. SA-16 well performance matching with numerical-ow simulations.

Fig. 25. SA-5 well performance matching with numerical-ow simulations.

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Obtaining a good match on a well with a high degree of short

circuiting presented a challenge. The methodology used here did not
provide a perfect representation of the physical process in the
reservoir, as seen from the match of BHP and GOR in the SA-16
producer. This approach worked reasonably well in the case of
moderate water short-circuiting. However, complicated methods
are hard to develop given the lack of specic information on the
ow characteristic of water short-circuits. One such possibility is the
injectorproducer connectivity of high-permeable grid cells, but that
approach did not necessarily produce a better match or more robust
predictions of development in the watercut trend and future
performance.

6. Discussion
In traditional methods for evaluating waterood performance,
such as with the 1D BuckleyLeverett model and the 3D numericalow simulator, sweep efciency and breakthrough time are mainly
controlled by the fractional-ow curves, encompassing relative
permeability and uid viscosities. However, in a chalk reservoir
with water injection above the fracture propagation pressure in a
natural fault/fracture system, the extension and connectivity of the
hydraulic and natural fractures control the initial response to water
injection. Only when the waterood reaches a mature state and
matrix breakthrough occurs that the fractional-ow curves begin to
inuence a ood's performance. Therefore, ongoing surveillance
and data interpretation becomes crucial to understanding well
response and on-time reservoir management.
As outlined in this paper, a number of methods are available for
evaluating and optimizing a waterood. Each method has its
relative advantage; however, when used in combination, they can
provide a consistent understanding of the physical mechanisms
controlling a waterood. All the analytical tools are computationally
inexpensive and, therefore, allow for frequent performance updates.
Diagnostic plots, CRM, and DCA belong to this category. Generally,
these tools are good at detecting changes in well performance.
However, understanding the underlying reasons behind those
observations can be difcult. In this context, physical measurements
such as tracers and production logs are expensive, but they add
additional details on what is happening in specic wells and guide
appropriate well interventions. In this context, we explored the
possibility of applying some of Yang's (2012) diagnostic tools. But,
they did not perform well in light of minimal displacement process
that underpins some of the wells discussed here.
Although 4D seismic and tracers have a low-sampling frequency,
they illuminate the interaction between wells. In particular, 4D seismic
corroborates the underlying physical mechanisms for the observations
made from the diagnostic plots and decline curves, thereby enhancing
the value of those diagnoses. Contrary to expectation, grid-based
models are not well suited to predict water breakthrough in these
reservoirs. Although matching the general well behavior is feasible,
efcient methods for ascertaining water short circuits are needed.
Overall, the combination of analytical tools and grid-based models, as
well as periodic surveillance with 4D seismic, has collectively helped
create an understanding of waterood performance. In this regard, it is
a new nding that faults can act as ow conduits for the injection
water and distribute water over large distances. Geomechanics-based
ow simulations with ne grids may be needed to bridge this gap, as
demonstrated by Pettersen and Kristiansen (2009).
The insights gained will guide future development and implementation of water injection in the eld with regard to the positioning of
hydraulic fractures in the future injectors by keeping a safe distance
from the faults. This step potentially minimizes the risk of connecting
an injector directly with a producer, thereby mitigating the water
short-circuiting and increasing the intrinsic value of water injection.

69

Furthermore, interventions are being considered for the existing wells

for improving the volumetric sweep by way of shifting the sliding
side-doors based on the improved understanding of reservoir
dynamics discussed in this study.

7. Conclusions
(1) The complexity of uid ow in a chalk reservoir can be
better understood by on-time interpretation of real-time rate/
pressure surveillance data, with support derived from periodic
tracer tests, production logs, and 4D seismic surveys.
(2) This study underscores the importance of the use of
analytical tools, such as RTA, CRM, and DCA for holistic analysis,
with appropriate support derived from diagnostic tools, such as
RPI, WOR, and modied-Hall plots.
(3) Although numerical-ow simulations provide an understanding of the overall reservoir performance, nuances, such as
water short-circuits through the fault planes, must be learned
about independently with surveillance data. In this regard, a
satisfactory history match of watercut, GOR, and BHP remained
elusive on an individual-well basis.

Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to the partners of South
Arne (DONG Energy and Danoil Exploration A/S) and the Hess
management for permission to publish this study.

Appendix A. Summary of various analytical tools

RPI plot. Kumar (1977) developed an analytical model to show
that the reciprocal-productivity index (RPI) plot is useful in
understanding the degree of pressure support, either from an
aquifer or from an injector. His formulation in dimensionless
variables is given as



1
4A
pD ln
4f 2 1  f t DA
A  1
2
1:781 C A r 2w
where
pD


kh
p  pwf
141:3qB i

A  2

0:000264kt
141:3qB

A  3

and
t DA

Eq. (A-1) with real variables suggests that a plot of (pi  pwf)/q
versus producing time t yields a straight-line relationship with a
slope of (1 f), where f denotes the degree of pressure support.
When performances of different producers are plotted together, this
tool readily provides clues about the degree of pressure support
received at each producer. This tool has been used with good degree
of success in understanding wateroods, such as that discussed by
Parekh and Kabir (2013), among others. Given its analytical roots, it
appears quite robust and no known limitations have been encountered so long the bottomhole pressure is available.
WOR plot. Yortsos et al. (1999) identied four ow regimes on
the loglog plot of wateroil ratio (W) versus producing time (t), as
shown in Fig. A-1. Depending on reservoir heterogeneity, the rst
ow period (i) may show slow increase in the wateroil ratio, W.
Following the water breakthrough, steep increase in W occurs
during the second ow period (ii), exceeding the unit-slope line.
Ordinarily, the unit-slope line signies very inefcient displacement of oil by water, meaning a high-permeability streak conducts

70

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Fig. A-1. Wateroil ratio vs time diagnostic plot for understanding frontal displacement or lack thereof.

preferential water ow. The ow behavior during the third period

(iii) suggests that the slope will always be less than one because
the slope is N/(N 2), where N reects characteristic of the well
pattern or polarity. Finally, during the late-time period (iv), the
nal asymptotic behavior of a bounded system is reected and is
represented by a straight line, which may written as
log W 

b
log t H
b 1

A  4

where b is the exponent of the power-law method, and H is a

constant.
This tool has been used with good success in many documented studies, Kabir and Young (2004), for example. In particular, the
lack of frontal displacement manifests in terms of unit-slope
response, which allows one to search for probable cause. Despite
its semianalytical roots, no known limitation of this tool has
surfaced.
Modied-Hall plot. The modied-Hall plot helps diagnose
matrix injection or lack thereof using both the Hall integral and
its derivative. The expression for the Hall integral (Izgec and Kabir,
2009) is given by


Z


141:2W i B
re
pwf  pe dt
ln 0:5 sn
A  5
kh
rw
where pwf is the owing bottomhole pressure and pe is oil/water
interface pressure of the moving front and is written as
"
#


iw B
r 2o
r
1 r 2 r 2w

ln e   e
sn
pe pwf 
A  6
2 kh r 2o r 2w
r w 2 r 2o r 2w
The analytical derivative of the Hall integral is given by




A  7
DHI 1 W i ln r e =r w sn
This tool was intended for vertical wells. Therefore, the notion
of water/oil interface pressure at the moving boundary pe is invalid
for horizontal wells. Nonetheless, this diagnostic tool is quite
useful because only the quality of injected water is being diagnosed with indication of progressive plugging in this situation.
Decline-curve analysis. The decline-curve analysis is a cornerstone of reservoir-performance prediction tool. Rooted in Arps
relation and shown recently about the tool's effectiveness in
predicting performance in wateroods (Can and Kabir 2014), the
hyperbolic relation is given as
qo

qoi
1 bDi t

1=b

A  8

where qo is the time-variant oil rate, qoi is the rate parameter, t is

time, Di is the initial loss ratio, and b is the decline parameter,
which varies between zero and one. This tool is used here to get an
indication of ood's effectiveness, rather than seeking the customary expected oil recovery. To that end, the late-time exponential behavior provided the necessary clues about the boundary

condition of the stimulated-reservoir volume, as observed on the

loglog plot of rate-transient analysis.
Rate-transient analysis. Rate-transient analysis (RTA) provides
evolving reservoir pressure and the connected pore-volume information. The loglog diagnostic plot entails graphing ratenormalized pressure difference; that is, (pi  pwf)/q versus the
material-balance time, Np/q. When combined with the derivative
of rate-normalized pressure difference, the two curves provide the
necessary ingredients for understanding the overall system
response. This formulation permits system diagnosis in terms of
transient-pressure analysis. In general terms, in this horizontal
well conguration with transverse fractures, both the half-slope
(signifying linear ow) and unit-slope (suggesting stimulatedreservoir volume) responses are expected to develop, as Figs. 17
and 21 suggest.
Capacitanceresistance modeling. Combined rate/pressure data
analysis with the capacitanceresistance model (CRM) provides
quantitative measures of injectorproducer connectivity. Premised
in material-balance and signal analysis, the CRM has been used for
about a decade in the context of injector/producer connectivity for
understanding waterood performance. Yousef et al. (2006),
Sayarpour et al. (2009a), and Weber et al. (2009) have provided
foundation to this CRM tool, whereas other authors have shown
practical applications in various settings for wateroods (Kaviani
et al., 2012; Izgec, 2012, Parekh and Kabir, 2013), CO2 oods
(Sayarpour et al., 2009b, 2011), and beyond (Izgec and Kabir
2010), among others.
For a pattern of Ni number of injectors and Np number of
producers, the governing differential equation for this capacitance
model is written as (Sayarpour et al., 2009a:
dqj t 1
dpwf ;j
1 Ni
qj t
f i t  J j
dt
j
j i 1 ij i
dt
where the producer j's time constant,


cV
j t p
J
j

A  9

j, is dened as
A  10

If we assume linear changes between two consecutive injection

rate and BHP during time intervals tk (tk  1 to tk), at time tn, the
total production rate of producer j can be written as:
 

t t
t t
Ni
 n 0
 n 0
j
j
f ij ii t n  e
ii t 0
qj t n qj t 0 e
n

k1

j e

i1

tn  t

 k
j

j 1; 2; :::; N p

"
#)

t
Ni
ik pkwf ;j
 k
1  e j
f ij i J j
t k
t k
i1
A  11

represent change in injection rate

In Eq. (A-11), ii k and pk
wf ;j
of injector i and BHP of producer j during time interval tk  1 to tk,,
respectively. Stated simply, the solution of Eq. (A-11) can be sought
in spreadsheets by minimizing an objective function that contains
error between the model and rate data by constraining model
parameters, fij and j.
Although many successful eld cases have been reported, the
solution quality suffers when production and/or injection rates do
not contain sufcient signal quality; that is, relatively at rates
without much variations. As expected, the uncertainty in rate
allocations to individual wells may also cloud the solution
outcome.
References
Austad, T., et al., 2008. Seawater in chalk: an EOR and compaction uid. SPE Reserv.
Eval. Eng. 11 (4), 648654.
Bahar, A., et al., 2005. An innovative approach to integrate fracture, well-test, and
production data into reservoir models. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 8 (4), 325336.

C. Olsen, C.S. Kabir / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 124 (2014) 6071

Can, B., Kabir, C.S., 2014. Simple tools for forecasting waterood performance. J. Pet.
Sci. Eng. 120, 111118 (http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.petrol.2014.05.028).
Cheng, H., Shook, G.M., Taimur, M., Dwarakanath, V., Smith, B.R., 2012. Interwell
tracer tests to optimize operating conditions for a surfactant eld trial: design,
evaluation, and implications. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 15 (2), 229242.
Cook, C.C., Jewell, S., 1996. Simulation of a North Sea eld experiencing signicant
compaction drive. SPE Reserv. Eng. 11 (1), 4853.
Freeman, C.M., Moridis, G., Ilk, D., Blasingame, T.A., 2009. A numerical study of
performance for tight gas and shale gas reservoir systems. Paper SPE 124961
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, 47 October.
Govan, A., et al., 2006. Reservoir management in a deepwater subsea eldthe
Schiehallion experience. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 9 (4), 382390.
Hallenbeck, L.D., Sylte, J.E., Ebbs, D.J., Thomas, L.K., 1991. Implementation of the
Ekosk eld waterood. SPE Form. Eval. 6 (3), 284290.
Horne, R.N., 2007. Listening to the reservoirinterpreting data from permanent
downhole gauges. J. Pet. Technol. 59 (12), 7886.
Hustedt, B., Snippe, J.R., 2010. Integrated data analysis and dynamic fracture
modeling key to understanding complex wateroods: case study of the Pierce
eld, North Sea. . SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 13 (1), 8294.
Izgec, B., Kabir, C.S., 2009. Real-time performance analysis of water-injection wells.
SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 12 (1), 116123.
Izgec, O., Kabir, C.S., 2010. Quantifying nonuniform aquifer strength at individual
wells. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 13 (2), 296305.
Izgec, O., 2012. Understanding waterood performance with modern analytical
techniques. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 81 (January), 100111.
Jin, L., et al., 2012. A comparison of stochastic data-integration algorithms for the
joint history matching of production and time-lapse-seismic data. SPE Reserv.
Eval. Eng. 15 (4), 498512.
Kabir, C.S., Young, N.J., 2004. Handling production-data uncertainty in history
matching: the Meren reservoir case study. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 7 (2), 123131.
Kabir, C.S., Boundy, F., 2011. Analytical tools aid understanding of history-matching
effort in a fractured reservoir. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 78 (2), 274282.
Kabir, C.S., Ismadi, D., Fountain, S., 2011a. Estimating in-place volume and reservoir
connectivity with real-time and periodic surveillance data. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 78
(2), 258266.
Kabir, C.S., Rasdi, F., Igboalisi, B., 2011b. Analyzing production data from tight-oil
wells. J. Can. Pet. Technol. 50 (5), 4858.
Kaviani, D., Jensen, J.L., Lake, L.W., 2012. Estimation of interwell connectivity in the
case of unmeasured uctuating bottomhole pressures. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 9091
(July), 7995.

71

King, G.R., et al., 2002. Takula eld: data acquisition, interpretation, and integration
for improved simulation and reservoir management. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 5
(2), 135145.
Kumar, A., 1977. Strength of water drive or uid injection from transient well test
data. J. Pet. Technol. 29 (11), 14971508.
Langaas, et al., 2007. Understanding a Teenager: Surveillance of the Draugen Field.
Offshore Europe, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K (47 September 2007).
Mikkelsen, P.L., Guderian, K., du Plessis, G., 2008. Improved reservoir management
through integration of 4D-seismic interpretation, Draugen eld, Norway. SPE
Reserv. Eval. Eng. 11 (1), 917.
Ovens, J.E.V., Larsen, F.P., Cowie, D.R., 1998. Making sense of water injection
fractures in the Dan eld. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 1 (6), 556566.
Parekh, B., Kabir, C.S., 2013. A case study of improved understanding of reservoir
connectivity in an evolving waterood with Surveillance data. J. Pet Sci. Eng. 78
(2), 274282.
Pettersen, O., Kristiansen, T.G., 2009. Improved compaction modeling in reservoir
simulation and coupled rock mechanics-ow simulation, with examples from
the Valhall eld. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 12 (2), 329340.
Sayarpour, M., Zuluaga, E., Kabir, C.S., Lake, L.W., 2009a. The use of capacitanceresistance models for rapid estimation of waterood performance and optimization. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 69 (34), 227238.
Sayarpour, M., Kabir, C.S., Lake, L.W., 2009b. Field applications of capacitance
resistance models in wateroods. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 12 (6), 853864.
Sayarpour, M., Kabir, C.S., Sepehrnoori, K., Lake, L.W., 2011. Probabilistic history
matching with the capacitanceresistance model in wateroods: a precursor to
numerical modeling. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 78 (July), 96108.
Tavassoli, Z., Carter, J.N., King, P.R., 2004. Errors in history matching. SPE J. 9 (3),
352361.
Yang, Z., 2012. Production-performance diagnostics using eld-production data and
analytical models: method and case study for the hydraulically fractured South
Belridge diatomite. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng. 15 (6), 712724.
Yortsos, Y.C., Choi, Y., Yang, Z., Shah, P.C., 1999. Analysis and interpretation of water/
oil ratio in wateroods. SPE J. 4 (4), 413424.
Yousef, A.A., Gentil, P.H., Jensen, J.L., Lake, L.W., 2006. A capacitance model to infer
interwell connectivity form production- and injection-rate uctuations. SPE
Reserv. Eval. Eng. 9 (5), 630646.
Weber, D., Edgar, T.F., Lake, L.W., Lasdon, L.S., et al. 2009. Improvements in
capacitanceresistive modeling and optimization of large scale reservoirs.
Paper SPE 121299-MS Presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting San
Jose, California, USA, 2426 March.