Foam Technology

Reduce or eliminate the use of water

Conserving or saving energy
Developed in the 1980s
Water is used in foam technology but in a much smaller quantity than

conventional coloration methods.

CAV- Critical Application Value. CAV of 40
Pick up (%) is around 20. We need the liquor to transfer the dye inside the

fiber interior. Not just on the surface!

Spraying or padding involves using the pure liquid but when using foam for
coloration, foam is just going to be the transfer medium.

Types of Foam:-

Solid foam (PU foam, PS insulation material etc.). Air is trapped inside in
bubbles. Another example includes cellular plastic where air cells are
entrapped inside the expanded plastic. Air is trapped inside in bubbles.
Other examples of solid foam include bread, meringue etc. which involves

the disperse phase being gas and the dispersed medium being solid.
Solid foams are used mainly in the preparation of insulation and in
upholstery and even found in pumice stone (lava; pumice stone being
used in garment washing (denim washing))

For textile use, we use Gaseous foam where the dispersed phase is
water and the dispersed medium is gas or air. E.g. of gaseous foams
include egg whites, whipped cream, beer. Here, Foam is a material of tiny
air bubbles separated by fine films. The mass of air bubbles are

separated by thin films, being dispersed in liquid medium.

Gaseous foams: Dispersed phase being gas and the continuous phase
being water. Gaseous foams serve as the transport medium or vehicle for

textile chemicals like dyes or finishing formulations to reach the substrate.

Foams are more used in textile finishing than dyeing.
Condensation Foams: This involves gas entrapment in a liquid. Eg. Soda
pops. Or when applying bicarbonate in a liquid, heating it to produce
carbonate and CO2 gas. This gas forms internally in the liquid being
entrapped or dispersed in the liquid. [Carbonated drinks].

Generation of gas within the liquid either by chemical action or by

physical by physical means. Eg. Changed in temperature and pressure.
*Remember, solubility increases with increasing temperature for a solid
but for a gas, solubility decreases with increasing temperature! So cool
temperatures give higher solubility.
Solid foams like PU foams are a kind of condensation foam. Eg.
-N=C=O + H2O -NH2 + CO2
Here the CO2 gas gets entrapped in the PU, creating the solid PU foam.

Dispersion Foams: These are produced by introducing and mixing a gas

in a liquid phase. E.g. whipped cream.

Foams are applied in textiles as a dispersion type in which the liquid phase

is water and the gaseous phase is air.

Due to buoyancy, just whisking isnt enough to create the dispersion. A
surfactant needs to be added to hold these two phases from separating.
This way the surfactant acts as a foaming agent. In textile foam
processing, this foam is always used.

Important Aspects of Foam Processing:

Reagent is applied to the fabric in the form of foam in contrast to

conventional processed impregnating the substrate in a solution of the
reagent. As air replaces water as the transfer medium for the reagents, the
following advantages are gotten:- Reduced heating and drying costs of the fabric
- Saving chemicals, water and energy
- Less water to treat in the effluent
- Less waste disposal
- Improved quality of the product

Nature of Foams [Structure and Characteristics] :

Foam is an agglomeration of gaseous bubbles (usually of air) dispersed in a

liquid and separated from each other by thin films or lamellae. It is these

films which carry the dye finishing chemicals or reagents.

There are two types of foams, spherical and polyhedral foams:-

Spherical Foam
Polyhedral Foam

Spherical foams consist of individual, independent bubbles. Their creation

doesnt require the use of a surfactant and their stability only depends on the
viscosity of the dispersion medium.

At high viscosity, the lifetime of the

foam is considerably lengthened.

Polyhedral foams only develop in the presence of surfactants.

Diagrammatic representation of foam structure:-

The

Spherical foams have 0.04 inch film thickness (1mm)

Polyhedral foams have 0.0004 inch film thickness. (0.01mm)

Spherical foams consist of a concentrated assembly of accumulation of

discrete spherical bubbles in a liquid spaced at distances greater than their
diameter.

Polyhedral foams (most used is hexahedral) are aggregations of closely

spaced polyhedral shaped bubbles which burst almost immediately after they
are formed.

Stable foams can be used in printing, sizing etc.

The bubbles vary in size from 50 mm to several millimeters. However for

foams used for textile purposes, size ranges from 50 100 m.

Bubbles MUST break up during application.

Properties of Foam:1) Foaming Degree

-

Gives a measure of the extent of foaming. Its an indication of the volume

of foam produced from one liter (1 L) of liquor. Liquor is not just water. It

consists of water + dyestuff + auxiliaries or finishing formulation.

Foaming degree is usually expressed in terms of foam density (g/L).
Foam density lies from (0.07 0.14 g/L) for Foam Finishing.
Foam density lies from (0.20 0.33 g/L) for Foam Printing.

Another expression for Foaming Degree is Blow ratio or Expansion

ratio.
Blow ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of a given
volume of liquid before foaming to the mass of the
same volume of foam.

Eg.

For example, if 100ml of a foam weighs 10g and

100ml of the liquid weights 100g-

For textile purposes, the blow ratio is 10:1 12:1

2) Foam Stability
-

Change in density of the foam per unit time.

Foam stability is a measure of the time taken for a foam to maintain its

initial properties (foam density, blow ratio etc.) after being generated.
Foams that are very stable are difficult to collapse or rupture cause poor
penetration of formulation into the fabric.

Similarly foams that are relatively unstable collapses before printing

applications can begin, resulting in uneven distribution of chemicals on

the substrate surface.

Half-life of foam:Foam stability can be expressed in terms of half-life t 1/2
Half life of foam is the time required for half the volume of the liquid
contained in the foam to drain to the bulk-liquid phase.

Shorter the half-life lower the stability of the foam.

Half-life of foam in other words can be defined as the time taken for half
the contained liquid in the foam to drain down to the bulk-liquid phase.

Too high a stability of the foam and an anti-foaming agent is required.

Foams half-life range:

Foams half-life range according to the type of process making use of foam
technology:

3) Foam Viscosity
-

Measure of the foams resistance to flow.

Foam viscosity is an important parameter as it influences foam
performance. Eg. In coating application, ease with which it can be

handled, processed or used.

Spray gun is often fitted in applicators in order to dilute or thin the foam
or reduce the thick foams viscosity when required.

4) Foam Wetting Power

-

For an even surface distribution

Rapid wetting by foam or rather by the liquid formulation collapsed and
released by the foam upon contact with the textile material, is a very
important property where application in textile finishing is concerned.

5) Bubble Size and Distribution

-

Narrow range or distribution of bubble size is required (less variations =

better dispersion).

Foam Processing (Block Diagram)

Sequence of Processing:-

1)

Liquor Preparation

Essential ingredients go into the recipe for the preparation of the liquor to be
used. Careful attention is needed with regard to the individual components
mixed.

Recipe for liquor:-

Functional reagents (Colorants like dyes or pigments, finishing formulation

chemicals etc.)

Foaming agents (Surfactants)

Viscosity modifiers (Thickener)

Foam stabilizer (Stabilizer)

An emulsion polymer copolymer

Other additives, e.g. catalyst, wetting agent, fillers, pH buffer, biocides,

bactericides, insecticides etc.

(l) Functional Reagents

Includes colorants and finishing chemicals

(ll)

Foaming Agents (Surfactants)

Use of a mixture of surfactants of different ionic nature in the liquor helps to

obtain synergistic effects in the foam to be produced.

Surfactants help promote foam generation under mechanical action. It helps

to hold the two phases together and prevents their separation.
Surfactants used. E.g. Anionic, Cationic, Non-Ionic, Amphoteric (or
zwitterionic) All are suitable as foaming agents.

Class

Surfactant
Sodium or Ammonium Stearate
Sodium Oleate

Anionic

Sodium Dodecyl (or Lauryl) Sulphate

Sodium Dodecyl Benzenesulphonate

Cationic

Dodecylamine hydrochloride

Non-ionic

Polyethylene oxide condensates /

ethoxylated alcohols, carboxylic acids,
amines, amides etc.

Amphoteric

Alkyl betaine surfactant

(lll) Viscosity Modifier

Thickeners are used which modify the viscosity so that the bubbles
remain separate and homogeneous.
Thickeners increase the viscosity of the compound thus slow down the
drainage of the interlamellar liquid (increase foam stability). Foam life
is thus prolonged.
Examples of suitable thickeners (both natural and synthetic) include:-

Locust bean gum

Guar gum
Methyl cellulose
Hydroxy methyl cellulose
Polysaccharides
Sodium alginate
Xanthan gums (These give highest thickening ability)

(IV) Stabilizers
These are used in combination with thickeners.
These are substances that doesnt thicken but are added to improve
foam stability further, through enhancing thickening ability.
Eg. Sodium polyphosphates and Dodecanol (Lauryl alcohol) C12H25 OH
(V) Emulsion Polymers or Copolymers
Colloidal dispersions (aqueous or water based) used to modify physical
properties of finished fabrics (these are only used in special cases
when processing with foam).
E.g. Common types of polymer emulsions used include PVC and
Polyacrylates

2)

Foam Generation

Considered to be the heart of foam processing

There are various foam generations that are available and principles on

which they operate.

Quality of foamed compounds is influenced by the quality of air dosing.
An accurate blow ratio is required. Smallest fluctuations in air content
changes the liter weight of the foam and consequently the quality of

the product.
Air injections have to be controlled with the liquor being flowed in at

the same time.

Measurement of the flow rate is of equal importance in controlling the

foam quality and thus the end product as well.

Foam generator: used for the mixing of both air and liquor to create
the foam.

Sample diagram of a foam generator:

There are two methods available

- Air blowing method

- Stirring method
Foam generation is achieved by vigorous mechanical agitation, air being
supplied or injected at high pressure (Air Blowing) or captured from the
atmosphere by the turbulence of the liquid (through agitation by the stirrer),

a combination of these two methods may also be used.

Air Blowing type of foam generation may be either static or dynamic.
In the static mixer, a stream of air under pressure is introduced into the liquor
to produce irregular shaped bubbles.
Liquor & air are brought into contact with
each other in a mixing head containing
glass beads / stainless steel shavings/
plastic shavings.

The static mixer can also have a vertical arrangement too instead of a

horizontal one.
In this static foam generator, a stream of air under pressure is introduced to
the liquor to produce irregular shaped foam bubbles. Foam can also be
generated by feeding a liquor together with air through a chamber containing
a number of closely packed glass balls, stainless-steel shavings, plastic or

chips.
Both air and liquid are metered into the head where they are mixed to

produce the foam.

The liquid and air pressure push the foam out- to the point of application.

A dynamic mixer or foam generator consists of a stator and a rotor as shown:

Air under pressure + liquor are metered into the mixing head and the
foam exits after getting produced .

The rotor and stator are constructed to have a close arrangement by

which the air+liquor mixture is repeatedly sheared and mixed during

this mixtures passage through the head.

Speed of the rotor, Clearance between the protruding components,
Input rate of air and liquor are factors influencing the pressure

developed in the mixing head.

Equally important is the hose length between the foam generator and

the application point to provide sufficient back pressure.

Size of this system is somewhat reduced, the ease of cleaning is
improved and the system offers more constant conditions that the

static mixer.
This system has better control over foam supply quantity, air dosing
and gelling agent quantities according to the speeds of the coating

plant.
These computer assisted systems represent the present state-of-theart.

Stirring Method

Combination
of Air-

Blowing and
Stirring
Method

*Note that all methods of foam generation mentioned so far are all batch methods.

3)
-

Foam Application
The systems of foam application include:
Direct System (Pressurized and Non-Pressurized)
Indirect System

Direct systems involve foam directly being applied to the fabric with this foam being
held under pressure in the distribution box. Foam application to the fabric is done
through a variable-dimensional slot applicator or through a rotary screen with the
fabric pressed against a backing roller.

1. Direct system (Pressurized System)

2. Direct system (Non- Pressurized System)

-

In the non-pressurized system, the reservoir of foam is not maintained

under pressure, but this doesnt mean that there is no pressure involved
during application. The foam gets applied to the fabric by a horizontal pad
or by a knife-over-roller, knife-on-air or knife-over-blanket application
system.

In the horizontal pad-system, the fabric is introduced vertically through

the nip point between two rotating rollers and the foam can be fed at the
appropriate rate to either or both sides of the moving fabric. This allows
simultaneous application of different finish on both sides of the fabric!

In the knife-over-roller, the knife- on- air and the knife-over-blanket

techniques, the foam is supplied to the moving fabric at a certain point
against the knife, and the gap between the knife and the fabric controls
the application of foam. These techniques require the use of stable foams
which are to be destroyed after its application because the gap setting is
the major controller of pick-up (%) and the foam must not collapse and
wet the fabric before reaching the doctor knife, since otherwise a higher
wet pick-up (%) may result.

3. Indirect system
-

The first indirect system involves the use of a carrier/transfer or kiss roller.
This carries the foam along the circumference of the roller and transfers it
onto the fabric.
The foam is metered by some means which is transferred to the fabric by
the carrier roller. The carrier doesnt necessarily have to be a roller but
can also a drum or a blanket.

Transfer of the foam is achieved as the carrier and fabric come into
contact.

Other systems have a similar approach. Foam is metered by some means

on a carrier before being transferred to the fabric. The carrier can be a
drum (Janus) or blanket (Monforts), and both there applicators are shown
as follows:-

Transfer of foam is achieved as the carrier and fabric come into contact. In
the Monforts system, transfer of foam is assisted by vacuum through the
perforations of the carrier drum.

Monforts Vacu-Foam System

The Monforts Machine, also known as Vacu-Foam, uses a knife-over-roller

to meter a uniform layer of foam on a rubber blanket.

Transfer of the foam to the fabric occurs when the blanket makes contact
with the fabric.

Penetration of the foam into the fabric is assisted by vacuum as the fabric
passes round a perforated drum.

Add-on is controlled by the foam density and knife clearance.

Rate of foam collapse is depends on capillary forces, the vacuum created

inside the perforated drum and the pressure on the fabric.

Wpu (%) for cotton is 35-40% and that for PET fabric is 10%.

Even elastic warp-knitted fabrics and pile fabrics can be treated by this
system. Its been claimed that crease-recovery angle and abrasion
resistance of the cotton fabrics treated with foam were much better than
conventional padding techniques.

Janus Mini-Foam System

Kusters developed two foam processing systems, the Mini-Foam applicator

for woven, knitted and non-woven fabrics and the Maxi-Foam system for
carpets and heavy pile fabrics.

The Mini-Foam system is built in three standard models, for one sided
application on the face side of the fabric, for one-sided application on the
back side of the fabric, and for simultaneous two-sided application. The
latter model being called Janus Mini-Foam applicator.

In the Janus Mini-Foam system, the foam is fed into the foam through a
trough by an oscillating feed pipe.

The trough has adjustable sides, set to appropriate fabric width.

An adjustable doctor roller at the lower end of the trough controls the
amount of foam and thickness of the foam layer (0.4 40 mm) on the
rotating application roller.

Foam is transferred and pressed into the fabric as it passes 180 around
the application roller. The foam is collapsed by capillary forces and
pressure.

The two distinct mechanisms involved are the application of foam to the
application roller and the transfer of foam to the fabric.

The twin-roller Janus machine consists of two such applicators, enabling

both face and back of the fabric to be treated. Two different foam liquors
can be applied separately but simultaneously to the two sides of the
fabric.
Parameters affecting the wet pick-up are
Speed of the application roller
Width of the gap between the doctor roller and the application
roller
Foam density
Speed of the fabric

Wet pick-up ranges from 15-30%

Certain finishing chemicals are applied at a wet pick-up of about 35%.

The two-sided application with one or two different foams is normally

recommended for woven and knitted fabrics of 150 gsm and above.

4)

Foam Destruction

Foam needs to be destroyed on the fabric shortly after it is applied,

releasing the finishing liquor contained to take over as the transport
medium. This allows the reagents to penetrate and spread on the

fabric before any fixation treatment is applied.

Manner of destroying the foam depends according to the method of

application and depends on the actual conditions of use.

Foam destruction is carried out mainly by

Squeeze rollers of a conventional padder installed in front of a stenter

Vacuum application
Combination of these two methods

Foam destruction is promoted by:

Capillary forces withdrawing the liquid from the foam lamellae and so

reduces their film thickness until the bubbles burst.

Pressure, occurring during direct and indirect application, bringing the
bubbles into close contact with fibers, promoting bubble penetration and

destruction.
High drying or ambient temperatures causes lowered foam viscosity,
increasing motion of molecules in the lamellae and increasing the bubble
volume. Plus, when surfactants are heated beyond their turbidity point/
cloud point, they close their foaming ability and instead function as

destabilizers.
Shear forces cause foam bubbles to burst by increasing their volume and

weakening their walls

Defoamers; these are emulsions of an insoluble substance that contains
organic solvents to cause rapid spreading of the defoamer, as the
defoamer is adsorbed onto the lamellae there is a local increase in surface
tension! The defoamer spreads out, carrying with it a thin film of
underlying liquid , therby thinning the lamella until it finally bursts.

5)

Drying and Fixation

Drying and curing/fixation of foam-impregnated fabrics are usually

done on traditional machines (curing chambers and stenters).

Higher speeds and lower temperatures should be used since amounts

of water to be evaporated are much lower than those with a
conventional pad-mangle finish application system.

Advantages of Foam-application Techniques

 Drying-energy costs are lowered due to low- add-on techniques used in foam
application. Drying-energy costs can be reduced by about 50%. The actual
savings differ considerably and range from as little as 15% to as high as 80%.
Drying temperature can be reduced considerably (by 65C). Its also possible
to maintain a relatively high drying temperature but to increase the
processing speed.
Water consumption is reduced by 30-90%. Reduction in the volume of
effluent water. Effluent treatment costs could be reduced by 50-80%. Air
pollution is also reduced.
Chemicals are utilized more productively. Chemical consumption costs are
reduced. Reduced concentrations of auxiliary chemicals like printing
thickeners. In some cases, some auxiliaries can be completely removed from
the formulation. Less dyestuff can be used than in conventional padding
processes. Chemical savings of less than 10% to up to as high as 50%.
Migration of DP or CRF resin finishes during drying is one of the most serious
problems with conventional finishing methods of cotton fabrics. This
migration effect is reduced if wet pick-up is reduced. Foam application this
way reduces or eliminates this migration to produce a uniform distribution of
chemical on the fabric. This improves qualities like crease-recovery angle,
abrasion resistance, tear strength, tensile strength, bursting strength and
resistance to flex abrasion. Width shrinkage during washing can be reduced.
Handle and wash-and-wear properties of the fabric are also improved.
Elimination of pre-drying, making it possible to do wet-on-wet applications.
Different finishes can be applied to the face and back of a fabric. It is possible
to dye the two sides of a fabric independently in one process, for example,
applying a basic dye to an acrylic fiber pile face and a direct dye to a cotton
back. Alternatively, one sided application is possible too.
Delicate fabrics can be processed under low tensions by foam-application
techniques.

 Dye-yield can be improved. Rate of fixation of dyes is higher. Steaming times

reduced. Washing-off process time shortened. Rubbing fastness can be
improved.
Volume of dye liquor can be reduced by 25-35%.
Printing with foam gives better quality, good definition with less strikethrough and softer handle. Washing-off of the printed fabrics can be reduced
or even eliminated.

Disadvantages of Foam Application Techniques

Its essential to have well prepared fabric for foam processing. Variations in
fabric absorbency causes variations in wet pick-up leading to an inadequate
and non-uniform chemical application.
At very low wet pick-up values, uniformity of application is critical and
penetration of the chemical into the fabric can be inadequate.
In cases where production speeds could be increases as a result of the lower
wet pick-up, certain drying units are not designed for such high running
speeds.
In any low add-on application system, it is more critical. To maintain the same
solids- add-on level, concentration of chemical in these liquors are normally
considerably higher than those in conventional liquors!
Solvents and mineral oils used in certain processes will inhibit foam
formation.
Certain optical brightener and softeners and the presence of sulfate ion from
reagents reduces foam stability.
Foams should generally be applied to both sides of a fabric.
Shades are difficult to match at low add-on levels.

 It is difficult to produce deep shades at low wet pick-up (%) because of the
limitations of dyestuff solubility.

One important application method for chemical finishes is the use of

foam to apply the finish to the fabric. By replacing part of the water in
the chemical formulation with air, the amount of water added to the
fabric can be significantly reduced!

Surfactants are included in the formulation to be foamed.

The chemical formulation is mixed with air in a foam generator

producing high volumes of foam that can be applied to fabrics in a
number of ways.

The ratio of liquid to air in a foam is referred to as the blow ratio,

determined by the equation:-

Foam densities in the order of 0.1 g/cm3 are routinely used.

Stability of the foam is influenced by the components of the chemical

system, the viscosity of the foam and the method of foam preparation.

The half-life of a foam is the time in which 50% of the liquid is a given
foam has been drained from the foam to the bulk-liquid phase. Foams
for textile applications can have half-lives from a few seconds to
several hours.

One side applicators apply foam to only one side of the fabric, leaving
open the possibility of two different finishes on different sides of the
fabric. The two side applicators, on the other hand, apply the same
foam to both sides of the treated fabric.

Two side applicators normally employ two slots to apply the foam to
the fabric. Two distinctly different finishes can be applied to different
sides of the same fabric simultaneously.

Foam application on fabrics with large open spaces or non-uniform

porosity often causes uneven finish distribution.

Foam application systems also include horizontal pad mangles, kiss

coating systems, knife-over-roller or knife-on-air systems, screen
printing and slot applicators.

Proper fabric preparation is required in order to achieve uniform

finish distributions. A well-absorbent fabric is the best guarantee of a
proper finish application.

To maintain the same chemical add-on with lower wet pickups, the
concentrations of the finish bath components must be increased
according to the equation:-

conc2 = component concentration at the lower wet pick

conc1 = original concentration

density2 and density1 are the densities of the modified and original
solutions, respectively.
wpu2 and wpu1 are the lower and the original wet pickups
respectively.
Since the density of the more concentrated solution cannot be
determined until after the solution has been made, an initial estimate
of density2 is used in the equation, to calculate the approximate conc2.
Through successive iterations, more accurate values of density2 and
conc2 can be obtained if necessary.

Foam applicators:

Foam applicators limit the amount of water added to the fabric by

replacing a portion of the water in the formulation with air.

A chemical formulation is mixed with air in a foam generator to create

a foam usually having fine bubble size.

Incorporating air into the formulation creates a large volume which

can be spread on the textile fabric more uniformly than can the
unfoamed liquid.

Relative amount of liquid and air in the foam are usually expressed as
the blow ratio of the foam. Blow ratio is the reciprocal of specific
gravity of foam. For instance, if a foam (made of only air and water)

weighs 0.1g/ml, the blow ratio is said to be 10:1 or 10 to 1. This

means that a foam having 10:1 blow ratio is 90% air and 10%
chemical formulation by volume.

Foams are inherently unstable and will separate into gaseous and
liquid phases as the foam ages. Relative stability of a foamed
formulation is important in foam application systems. Some methods
require very stable foams while others require very unstable foams.
Stability of a foam has to be tailored for the particular application.

Foam stability is expressed in terms of the half-life the foam. Half-life

of a foam is the time length of time required for half of the liquid in
the foam to drain out and become a separate liquid phase. Half-lives
of foams used in textile applications range from a few seconds to
many hours.

Two general types of foam applicators are called open foam and
closed foam processes. An open foam process is one in which the
foam leaves the particular generator and come in contact with the
atmosphere before being applied to the fabric.

In a closed foam process, the foam is trapped in the applicator under

pressure up to the point at which it contacts the fabric being treated.

Open foam applicators include knife coaters which spread the foam on
the fabric surface and the horizontal nip pad which coats the fabric
with foam and crushes the foam into the fabric as the fabric passes
through the nip of the rolls.

Wet pickup is determined mainly by the blow ratio of the foam.

An open foam process requires a foam of relatively long half-life since

the blow ratio must remain essentially constant at all times.

The closed foam applicator forces the foam under presser through a
slot, which is sealed by the fabric passing continuously across the slot.
The wet pickup is determined by the feed rate of the foam generator
and the speed of the fabric crossing the slot.

Foam having a relatively short half-life is preferred because the foam

should collapse upon contact with the fabric! The blow ratio and foam
pressure affect the degree of penetration of formulation into the
fabric.

Curved Blade Applicator

This applicator is designed for application of chemicals using limited

amounts of water, meters formulation onto the fabric at a
predetermined rate.

Formulation is delivered to the curved blade through a perforated

distribution pipe. Formulation accumulates in the weir (barrier or
block) and overflows down the blade to be deposited on the fabric
passing the tip of the blade.

Wet pickup is determined by the relative

rates of formulation feed and speed of the
fabric passing the blade.

Flow characteristics of the formulation are

critical since the blade must be completely
wet by the formulation to prevent
occurrence of untreated spots on the fabric.