Understanding the How and Why of

Electrical Product Safety Testing

HOMI AHMADI – CELETRON, INC.
Knowing why to perform required electrical safety tests is as important as knowing how
to perform them.
With so many electrical product safety standards currently in use and many civil and
legal actions pending in various courts around the world, electrical safety testing is more critical
than ever to ensure that all products are safe before they reach the end-user. Fortunately, the
majority of manufacturers are fully aware of the hazards associated with electrical equipment
and the ramifications of noncompliance with relevant safety standards or test house
agreements.
Electrical safety tests can be
roughly divided into two areas: those
tests carried out during the approvals
process by test houses (known as type
tests) and those carried out at the end
of each production line by the
manufacturer (known as routine
production tests).
For type tests, a product is
subjected to tests and evaluations in
accordance with a specific product
safety standard. For production tests, a
manufacturer can select a few tests,
ensuring that each product is subjected
to those tests in accordance with its
own procedures. Most manufacturers,
in particular information technology (IT)
equipment manufacturers, choose four
primary product safety tests to be
routine at the end of the production line.
These include dielectric, insulation
resistance, ground continuity, and
leakage current.
These tests are designed to ensure that the user does not get electrocuted or otherwise
hurt by operating a piece of equipment that has hazardous voltages or high fault current as a
result of electrical fault. This article looks at the fundamentals behind each test and analyzes the
reasoning behind each test, as well as discussing appropriate limits and equipment.
Dielectric Strength Test
The dielectric strength test, also known as dielectric withstand test or hipot test, is
probably the best known and most often per formed production-line safety test. It is part of
virtually every standard, which indicates its importance. The hipot test is a nondestructive test
that determines the adequacy of electrical insulation for the normally occurring overvoltage

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

transient. This is a high-voltage test that is applied to all devices for a specific time in order to
ensure that the insulation is not marginal. Another reason for conducting the hipot test is that it
also detects possible defects such as inadequate creepage and clearance distances introduced
during the manufacturing process.
During type testing, the hipot test is applied after tests such as fault condition, humidity,
and vibration to determine whether any degradation has taken place. The production-line hipot
test, however, is a test of the manufacturing process to determine whether the construction of a
production unit is about the same as the construction of the unit that was subjected to type
testing. Some of the process failures that can be detected by a production-line hipot test
include, for example, a transformer wound in such a way that creepage and clearance have
been reduced. Such a failure could result from a new operator in the winding department. Other
examples include identifying a pinhole defect in insulation or finding an enlarged solder footprint.
Most safety standards use the 2U + 1000 V formula as the basis for testing basic
insulation, where U is the operating rms voltage. Although this formula is a guideline, each
standard— in particular IEC 60950—refers the user to a specific table in the standard showing
the exact test voltage based on the working voltage measurements. The reason for using 1000
V as part of the basic formula is that the insulation in any product can be subjected to normal
day-to-day transient overvoltages. Experiments and research have shown that these
overvoltages can be as high as 1000 V.
Test method. Normally the high voltage is applied between the two parts across the
insulation being tested, such as the primary circuit and metal enclosure of the equipment under
test (EUT). If the insulation between the two is adequate, then the application of a large voltage
difference between the two conductors separated by the insulator would result in the flow of a
very small current. Although this small current is acceptable, no breakdown of either the air
insulation or the solid insulation should take place. Therefore, the current of interest is the
current that is the result of a partial discharge or break down, rather than the current due to
capacitive coupling.

One of the advantages of using a dc test voltage is

that the leakage current trip can be set to a much
lower value.
Another example would be to test the insulation between the primary and secondary
circuits of a power supply. Here, all the outputs are shorted together. The ground probe from the
hipot tester is placed in contact with this cable bunch, and the high- voltage probe is placed in
contact with L and N connectors, which are shorted together (see Figure 1). The EUT does not
run during the hipot test. It must also be noted that when applying the high voltage during the
type test, the ideal situation would require that not more than half of the prescribed volt age be
applied, and then raised gradually over a period of 10 seconds to the full value and maintained
for 1 minute. Most test equipment, however, either turns on directly to the full voltage or has an
electronically controlled ramp.
Test Duration. If the test is part of an agency certification process, then the test duration
must be in accordance with the safety standard being used. For instance, the test time for most
standards, including products covered under IEC 60950, is 1 minute. However, when testing
products in the production line, it is normally not practical to hipot test each product for 1 minute,
and manufacturers normally conduct the test to a much shorter time, such as a few seconds,
but with higher voltages. A typical rule of thumb is 110—120% of 2U + 1000 V for 1—2
seconds. The duration and procedure should be in agreement with any test houses concerned.
It should be noted that although the reduced time and increased voltage are approximate,

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

experiments and the manufacturers’ data sheets indicate that each insulating material has its
own specific voltage-time characteristics.
Current Setting. Most modern hipot testers allow the user to set the current limit.
However, if the actual leakage current of the product is known, then the hipot test current can be
predicted. Choosing the trip level really depends on the product being tested. The best way to
identify the trip level is to test some product samples and establish an average hipot current.
Once this has been achieved, then the leakage current trip level should be set to a slightly
higher value than the average figure.
Another method of establishing the current
trip level would be to use the following
mathematical formula:

E (hipot) I (hipot)
=
E (leakage) 2 x I (leakage)

The reason for the factor of 2 is that

the line leakage current provides current
through a single Y capacitor while the hipot
test provides current through capacitors on
each line. By solving the equation for I
(hipot), one can predict the hipot test current. Therefore, the hipot tester current trip level should
be set high enough to avoid nuisance failure related to leakage current and, at the same time,
low enough not to overlook a true breakdown in insulation.
Test Voltage. The majority of safety standards allow the use of either ac or dc voltage
for a hipot test. When using ac test voltage, the insulation in question is being stressed most
when the voltage is at its peak, i.e., either at the positive or negative peak of the sine wave.
Therefore, if one decides to use dc test voltage, one must ensure that the dc test voltage is ‘ff(or
1.4 14) times the ac test voltage, so the value of the dc voltage is equal to the ac voltage peaks.
For example, for a 1500-V-ac voltage, the equivalent dc voltage to produce the same amount of
stress on the insulation would be 1500 x 1.414 or 2121 Vdc.
One of the advantages of using a dc test voltage is that the leakage current trip can be
set to a much lower value than that of an ac test voltage. This would allow a manufacturer to
filter those products that have marginal insulation, which would have been passed by an ac
tester. It must be noted that when using a dc hipot tester, the capacitors in the circuit could be
highly charged and, therefore, a safe-discharge device or setup is needed. However, it is a good
practice to always ensure that a product is discharged, regardless of the test voltage or its
nature, before it is handled.
Another advantage of a dc hipot tester is that it applies the voltage gradually. By
monitoring the current flow as voltages increase, an operator can detect a potential insulation
breakdown before it occurs. A minor disadvantage of the dc hipot tester is polarities. that
because dc test voltages are more difficult to generate, the cost of a dc tester may be slightly
higher than that of an ac tester.
One of the advantages of an ac hipot test is that it can check both voltage polarities,
whereas a dc test charges the insulation in only one polarity. This may become a concern for
products that actually use ac voltage for their normal operation. The test setup and procedures
are identical for both ac and dc hipot tests.

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

A minor
disadvantage of the ac
hipot tester is that if the
circuit under test has
large values of Y
capacitors, then, de
pending on the current
trip setting of the hipot
tester, the ac tester
could indicate a failure.
Most safety standards
allow the user to
disconnect the
capacitors prior to
testing or, alternatively,
to use a dc hipot tester.
The dc hipot tester
would not indicate the
failure of a unit even
with high Y capacitors
because the capacitors
see the voltage but don’t
pass any current.
Insulation
Resistance
The insulation resistance test is also known as a Megger test. Its objective is to measure
the total resistance between any two points separated by insulation. The test, therefore,
determines how effective the insulation is in resisting the flow of electrical current. The voltage is
typically around 500—1000 V dc; hence, the current is very low. Because the current is so low,
this test is useful for checking the quality of the insulation not only when a product is first
manufactured, but also over time as the product is used.
Test Procedure. The EUT is connected to the measuring instrument, and the voltage is
ramped up from zero to the final value, which in most cases is 500 V dc. Once the voltage
reaches the selected value, it is kept .at that value for a brief period (typically up to 5 seconds)
before the resistance test is measured. The measured value should be very high (typically in the
megohm region). The insulation resistance test is mandatory in some product safety standards,
including IEC 60065 and UL 6500.2,3
Ground Bond Test
Also known as the ground bond continuity test, the ground bond test must be conducted
on all Class I products. The purpose of the test is to ensure that all accessible conductive parts
of the product that could become live in the event of a single insulation fault are connected
securely to the final earth point of the supply input. In other words, a ground bond test verifies
integrity of the ground path by applying a high-current, low- voltage source to the ground-path
circuit.
Compliance is checked by measuring the resistance of the connection between the
protective earthing terminal or earthing contact and the parts to be earthed to ensure that
resistance does not exceed certain values when subjected to a high cur rent as specified in

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

various product safety standards. It is important to bear in mind that from the constructional and
de sign points of view, the protective earthing conductors should not contain switches or fuses.
Test Requirements. Most safety standards require the following parameters for
conducting the ground bond test:
• The EUT must be subjected to a
high ac or dc current with a low
test voltage for a certain period.
• The voltage drop between the
protective earthing terminal or
earthing contact and the part to
be earthed must be measured.
• The resistance must be
calculated from the current and
the resulting voltage drop using
Ohm’s law.
• The resistance should not
exceed certain values as stated
in various safety standards. For
example, IEC 60950 requires
that the test voltage not exceed
12 V.
• The current can be either ac or dc at 1.5 times the current consumption of the product or
25 A, whichever is greatest.
• The test duration must be 1 minute, and the resistance of the connection between the
protective earthing terminal or earthing contact and parts required to be earthed must
not exceed 0.1 I. This value does not include the resistance of the power cable. Some
standards, such as CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 60950-00 or UL 60950 with Canadian
deviation, require the test to be conducted at 30 A and for 2 minutes if the current rating
of the circuit under test is 16 A or lower.
Understanding Resistance Values. With the exception of the Canadian standard, most
standards require 25 A for 1 minute. The value of 25 A for 1 minute represents the worst current
and the longest operation time of a mains overcurrent device. The maximum 25 A is
approximately 1.5 times the mains circuit breaker value installed for most pluggable type A cord-
connected equipment rated up to 16 A. The Canadian National Wiring Code requirements are
very similar to these in the sense that they assume that fuses are expected to operate no more
than 1 minute at twice their rated current. Because most mains circuits are protected with a
15—16 A fuse, the fault current would be 30 A for no more than 2 minutes.
Earth Leakage Current
Some standards, including IEC 60950, 3rd ed., have named the leakage current test
“touch current”. This refers to the electric current through a human body or through an animal
body when it touches one or more accessible parts of installation or equipment. There is also
another concept known as “protective conductor current:’ and this refers to the current that flows
in a protective conductor. A protective conductor current, there fore, can never be the source of
an electric shock because, by definition, the protective conductor is connected to earth.

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

If touch current is excessive, an operator could receive an electric shock, which could
result in a serious injury, depending on a person’s body weight. Typically, currents of more than
1.0 mA can cause an electric shock to an operator. The shock may or may not be serious,
depending on the amount of the current and the body weight.
Like the other tests, the leakage current test is also a very important safety test, and
most safety standards require the test to be conducted under various conditions such as normal
operating condition, switches open as well as closed, reversed line polarity, and so on. The
measured earth leakage current must not exceed specified limits during any of the tested
conditions. Table I shows some typical limits.
One of the biggest contributors to leakage is the capacitance between ac lines and
earth, i.e., the capacitors. These capacitors are normally placed in the circuit to control
electromagnetic interference. It should be noted that some standards, such as IEC 60950, allow
higher earth leakage current

Typically, currents of more than 1.0 mA can cause

an electrical shock to an operator.
than 3.5 mA only for Class I stationary equipment that is either permanently connected
equipment or that is pluggable equipment type B, provided certain conditions are met. These
conditions are listed in Clause 5.1.7 of IEC 60950.
Equipment. When measuring the earth leakage current of IT equipment, it must be
noted that the measuring instruments should satisfy the requirements of Annex D of IEC 60950,
which simulates the worse-case impedance of the human body. The use of an isolating
transformer during the test is also highly recommended (see Figure 2).
Any capacitive leakage in the transformer must then be taken into account. If for any
reason the use of an isolating transformer is not possible, then the EUT must be mounted on an
insulating stand, and appropriate safety precautions must be taken. Such measures
compensate for the possibility that the body of the EUT may carry a hazardous voltage.
Test Method. Most standards—in particular IEC 60950— require that the EUT be
energized for this test. The input volt age applied to the EUT is typically adjusted to 110% of the
highest rated mains voltage and the highest rated line frequency. As mentioned previously, for
safety reasons, it is highly recommended that the EUT be powered via an isolating transformer.
These tests are performed on both Class I and Class II products. For Class II equipment,
the test is made to accessible conductive parts and to a metal foil with dimensions of
approximately 10 x 20 cm, which is attached to the enclosure of the product. The metal foil
simulates a human hand contact.
This test should also be conducted in all possible combinations such as normal
operating condition, switches open as well as closed, reversed line polarity, etc. Equipment
designed for multiple power sources, only one of which is required at a time (e.g., for backup),
must be tested with only one source connected. Although most standards do not require the
earth leakage current test to be carried out for 100% of the units in a production line, some
standards, such as those for medical products, do require a 100% production-line test.
Safety Precautions
Because any electrical safety test involves some risk of electrical shock, it is crucial that
certain precautions be taken to avoid shock and injury to operators. Listed below is a sampling
of precautions that can minimize the danger of electrical shocks and ensure all-around safety:

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

• Train operators in the basic theory of electrical circuits and explain the object of each
test.
• Review and update all safety test procedures regularly.
• Locate the testing area away from walkways and crowded areas on the shop floor.
• Guard the testing area with nonconductive barrier.
• Mark the testing area with a clear and visible sign such as “Danger” or “High Voltage
Present.”
• Mark the testing area with a clear sign indicating “Qualified Personnel Access Only’
• Ensure that all test equipment is properly connected to a re liable earth.
• Reconfigure all testers (where possible) with push-button switches so that operators
must use both hands to activate the test equipment or, alternatively, provide the
equipment with a safety interlock that automatically shuts down the high voltage when a
safety switch on the EUT is opened.
• Connect the complete test setup to a palm-type switch that can shut off the power to the
test bench in case of an emergency
Record Keeping and Identification
CENELEC has released a standard, EN 50116, which essentially defines the routine
electrical safety tests and their procedures to be applied during or after the manufacturing
process of IT equipment certified or declared as complying with EN 60950.6,7
It is extremely important for manufacturers of electrical products to ensure that all test
results, including routine production tests, are clearly and adequately documented and kept on
file for possible inspection. Although this may not be required by all agencies, keeping accurate
test records is not only good engineering practice, but could also be vital in de fending a legal
action should such a case arise. Most modern test equipment can produce test results in an
electronic format that can be stored or printed when needed.
It is also necessary for manufacturers to ensure that all test equipment is calibrated
regularly and that such records are kept on file. In fact, most test houses expect to see a log for
daily calibration of the hipot tester on the production line. This log confirms that the hipot tester
has indeed been applying high voltage to the EUT. It is also vital to ensure that all electrical
safety tests are carried out on units that have been returned for repair or service.
On the production line, there are generally three product states: not tested, tested-
passed, and tested-failed. The status

It is necessary to ensure that all test equipment is

calibrated regularly and that such records are kept
on file.
of any product must be clearly apparent to ensure that untested products are not shipped and
that only tested-passed products are shipped. For instance, a red tag attached to the unit can
indicate tested-failed. Untested products are those that have neither a tested-passed nor a
tested-failed indicator.
Conclusion

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Understanding the How and Why of Electrical Product Safety Testing

Electrical safety testing at the design and development stages as well as at the
production stage is vital to ensure that all products are safe before reaching the end-user. The
four tests described in this article are among the most fundamental tests that manufacturers of
electrical and electronic products should conduct routinely. It is important to use correct test
equipment and adequate and accurate test procedures so that sufficient testing is conducted
and operator safety is considered.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Rich Nute of Hewlett-Packard for his valuable help.
References:
1. IEC 60950,3rd ed., “Safety of Information Technology Equipment:’ International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), Brussels, 1999.
2. IEC 60065, “Audi Video and Similar Electronic Apparatus—Safety Requirements,” IEC,
Brussels, 1998.
3. UL 6500, “Audio/Video and Musical Instrumental Apparatus for Household, Commercial,
and Similar General Use,” Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL), Northbrook, IL.
4. CAN/CSA-C22.2 No.60950-00, “Safety of International Information Technology
Equipment,” GSA International, Toronto, ON, Canada.
5. UL 60950, “Safety of Information Technology Equipment,” UL, Northbrook, IL, 2000.
6. EN 50116, “Information Technology Equipment—Routine Electrical Safety Testing in
Production:’ European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC),
Brussels, 1996.
7. EN 60950, 2nd ed., “Safety of Information Technology Equipment, including Electrical
Business Equipment,” CENELEC, Brussels, 1992.
Homi Ahmadi is the approvals manager for Celetron Inc. (Simi Valley, CA). He can be
reached at Hahmadi@celetron.com.

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