1.

Feasibility of Hydrogen Combustion for “Nero/Tesla Style” Reaction Turbines-

The primary “thrust” of the proposal is the investigation of using Plug Flow Reactors (Cells) to
supply steam input to a reaction turbine. Advances in shaft seals and machining tolerances since their
time spark new interest in localized power generation techniques. It is proposed for instance, to create
shaft rotation by supplying steam input via the exhaust port of a Tesla Turbine, operating the turbine as
a Nero style Reaction Turbine. The reaction is very hot with a fast burn rate. Consequently, it is
proposed that the reaction be tempered by the injection of water that controls the rate of reaction, adds
mass to the propellant, and still produces viable “dry” steam pressure. Using the equations below the
Plug Flow Reactor and Laval nozzle concept is examined using finite element techniques that describe
its operation.
For some background for those who look up values in Chemistry Handbooks without fully
understanding their meaning, power plants have considered the use of hydrogen-oxygen combustion in
the past, but only as a “flue gas conversion” of their existing boiler designs, not in the context of
mechanical energy extracted from the Plug Flow Reactor connected to impulse or reaction turbines
needed to drive the generators directly. The efficiency of the Plug Flow Reactor reaches 90%. A
common misconception that might form is the energy output of the Plug Flow Reactor compared to
using hydrogen-oxygen combustion as a flue gas where both may be expressed in BTU’s. Compared to
the 165 BTU's normally published in combustion tables, the Plug Flow Reactor yields well over 400
BTU’s, a performance that is economically significant when evaluating the capacity to do mechanical
work in turning a “peaking power” generator or pressurize a vessel. The reactor is also intrinsically
safe or self limiting. The reaction will continue to be exothermic until it reaches a temperature that
begins to disassociate water. This disassociation of water is the limiting factor for efficiency, at which
point the “endothermic” reaction of disassociating water removes about 467 BTU's per mole. Why the
published values were low appears to go at least as far back as work done Babcock & Wilcox when
considering hydrogen-oxygen fuels for use in boiler making. In fact, the figure of 165 BTU’s is given
based upon an old calorimeter study where the temperature of water is measured after circulating
around the flue until such time as all the water vapor condenses. The Plug Flow Reactor is essentially
nearly instantaneous in delivery of kinetic energy and more efficient in design than a boiler. Although
it is reasonable to conclude that Hydrogen is a poor flue gas fuel, it is the best fuel, as theorized by
Laval, when he proved the lightest fuel is the most efficient thruster. Gustav had some success in using

1
 hydrogen-oxygen combustion directly in his turbine, with the annoying problem that it ran
uncontrollably too fast. If Gustav had modern non-Newtonian electronic controllers, his problem may
have been solved as demonstrated in the mathematics that follows.

As can be seen below, the Plug Flow Reactor and Laval Nozzle are essentially made of pipe
that is about 4 feet long and only an inch or two in diameter. The design varies non-linearly with output
requirements and the geometry causes rate sensitivity. Consequently, an algorithm appears below to
make considerations and calculations easier to implement. In essence, the hotter the reaction, the
greater is the rate constant. The rate of reaction is also dependant upon the concentration of reactants.
The basics of the design follow. The basics of experimental design (not included herein) to control the
reactions follow the design.

2. The Design Proposal and Plug Flow Analysis

Figure 1. Plug Flow Reactor (Not to Scale)

2
a. Reaction-

H2 + 2O2 2H2O

A + 2B 2C in variable form.

Let Xa be the fraction converted to product

Let v be the volumetric flow rate
Let V be the volume of the reactor
Let T be the time for one volume to come to reaction (approx V/v)

3
 Fa dXa = Ra dV where Ra is the rate at which conversion occurs.

Fa / dV = Ra / Xa which is equivalent to dV / Fao = dXa / -Ra

(Generally, but not necessarily, the reaction doubles every 10C)

Integrating both sides with respect to volume and concentration respectively:

Equation 1. Volume and concentration are expressed in terms of the rate of reaction, volume and
concentration.

Xc
V / Fao = dXa / -Ra
0

b. Reaction Balance. (In terms of H2 or A as substituted)

Recalling that A + 2B = 2C, note that the coefficients in balance equation equal the exponents
in the rate equation.

Ra = - k Ca Cb2
where C(n) is an expression for the concentration. The concentrations are expressed
accordingly.

Ca = Cao – Cao * Xa = Cao * (1-Xa)

4
 Cb = Cbo – 2Cao * Xa (Cb is defined in terms of Ca where Cb is twice Ca1)
M= Cb / Ca or the concentration ratio = 2/1 or 2.

Ra = -k [Ca (1-Xao)] [Cao (M -2Xa)]

Substitution of Ra into the General Definite Integral (Equation 1) gives the basis for Analysis governing
the rates of reaction as follows:

V / Fao = dXa / -Ra = dXa / -k [Ca (1-Xao)] [Cao (M -2Xa)]

V / Fao = 1/ 2k Cao2 [ 1/ 2(1-Xac)2 -4] and the ratio of Volume to initial feed rate of H2 can be
expressed in terms of concentration of reactants.

Constants used in Plug Flow Reactor

EA := 372000 Reaction Activation Energy in J/mol
dHR := 285830 Heat of Reaction in J/mol
CPA := 28.82 Heat Capacity if Hydrogen in J/mol
CPB := 29.38 Heat Capacity of Oxygen in J/mol
CPC := 33.58 Heat Capacity of Water in J/mol
r := 8.315 in J/mol/K
1
CAO := in mol/L
22.4

FAO := .5 in mol/sec

Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate in L/sec

FAO
vflowrate :=
CAO
vflowrate = 11.2

Function to Calculate the kinetic rate constant in 1/sec

− EA
r ⋅T

KR( T) := ( 10
22.8)
e

Function to Calculate the differential of Conversion with respect to volume in 1/L

CAO
XV( X , T) := KR( T) ⋅ ( 1 − X) ⋅
FAO

Function to Calculate the differential of Temperature with respect to volume in K/L

1
The procedures place the rate of reaction in terms of one variable to simplify the math.

5
 XV( X , T) ⋅ dHR
TV( X , T) :=
CPA⋅ ( 1 − X) + CPB⋅ ( 1 − X) + CPC⋅ X

Program to Solve for Conversion, Temperature, Volume and Heat Generated

EulersX( DV, n ) := X ←0
0
T ← 300
0
for i ∈ 1 .. n
X1 ← X
i−1
+ XV X ( i− 1
,T
i− 1 ) ⋅ DV
T1 ← T
i− 1
+ TV X ( i−1
,T
i− 1) ⋅ DV
 XV( X1, T1) + XV( Xi−1 , Ti−1) 
X2 ← X  +  ⋅ DV
i−1  2 

T2 ← T

+
TV( X1, T1) + TV ( i−1 i−1)  ⋅ DV
X , T
i− 1  2 
X ← X2
i
T ← T2
i
X

EulersT( DV, n ) := X ←0
0
T ← 300
0
for i ∈ 1 .. n
X1 ← X
i−1
+ XV X ( i− 1
,T
i−1 ) ⋅ DV
T1 ← T
i−1
+ TV X ( i−1
,T
i−1 ) ⋅DV
 XV( X1, T1) + XV( Xi−1 , Ti−1) 
X2 ← X
i−1
 +  ⋅ DV
 2 
 TV( X1, T1) + TV( Xi− 1 , Ti−1) 
T2 ← T +  ⋅ DV
i−1
 2 
X ← X2
i
T ← T2
i
T

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EulersV( DV, n ) := X ←0
0
V ←0
0
T ← 300
0
for i ∈ 1 .. n
X1 ← X
i−1
+ XV X ( i− 1
,T
i−1 ) ⋅ DV
T1 ← T
i−1
+ TV X ( i−1
,T
i−1 ) ⋅DV
 XV( X1 , T1) + XV( Xi−1 , Ti−1) 
X2 ← X  +  ⋅ DV
i−1  2 

T2 ← T

+
TV( X1 , T1) + TV ( i−1 i−1)  ⋅DV
X , T
i−1  2 
X ← X2
i
T ← T2
i
V ← DV⋅ i
i
V

EulersH( DV, n ) := Heat ← 0

0
1
CAO ←
22.4
dHR ← 285830
X ←0
0
V ←0
0
T ← 300
0
for i ∈ 1 .. n
X1 ← X
i−1
+ XV X ( i− 1
,T
i− 1 ) ⋅ DV
T1 ← T
i− 1
+ TV X ( i−1
,T
i− 1 ) ⋅ DV
 XV( X1, T1) + XV( Xi−1 , Ti− 1) 
X2 ← X  +  ⋅ DV
i−1  2 
 TV( X1, T1) + TV( Xi− 1 , Ti−1) 
T2 ← T +  ⋅ DV
i− 1  2 
X ← X2
i
T ← T2
i
V ← DV⋅ i
i
Heat ← Heat + X ⋅ CAO⋅ dHR⋅ DV
i i− 1 i
Heat

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Set the Differential Volume and the Number of steps
DV := .01
n := 5000
Conversion := EulersX( DV, n )
Temperature := EulersT( DV, n ) 3 Final Temperature in K
Temperature = 6.598× 10
Volume:= EulersV( DV, n ) n
5
Heat = 4.974× 10 Total Heat Generated in J
n
CAO
Time:= Volume⋅
FAO

Heat := EulersH( DV, n ) Time = 4.464 Total Time in sec

n

Conversion vs Volume(L)

0.8

0.6
Conversion

0.4

0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Volume

T em perature(K) vs T im e(sec)
8000

6000

Temperature
4000

2000

8
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time
 Temperature(K) vs Volume(L)
8000

6000

Temperature
4000

2000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Volume

Conversion vs Time(sec)

0.8

0.6
Conversion

0.4

0.2

9
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time
3. Equations governing the Laval Nozzle should a “cell” be desired over charging the space between
the space between the Mineshield@ and the Test Enclosure,

The association of the Laval Nozzle to the Plug Flow Reactor requires basic knowledge of the
Laval nozzle in order to match the two components. The sizing of the two components begins with and is
limited by the work required to be performed by the Laval Nozzle. The force generated (thrust) is given
by the following equation. What follows is calculations need to match the two components.

F = q * Ve + (Pe – Pa) * Ae

q = m(dot) or mass propellant flow rate (kg/sec) [q * Ve = momentum or velocity thrust]

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 Ve = Velocity of exhaust gas (m/sec)
Pe = Pressure at exhaust exit (mPa) [(Pe-Pa) * Ae = Pressure thrust]
Pa = Ambient Pressure (mPa)
Ae = Area of nozzle exit (m2)

As the nozzle area goes from “under extended” to “over extended,” momentum thrust will increase
as Ve increases, and pressure thrust decreases as Pe decreases. The increase in momentum thrust is
greater than pressure thrust, thus total thrust increases as Pe = Pa. Thus, Ve is inversely
proportional to Pe; [q * Ve] is inversely proportional to [(Pe - Pa) * Ae]; and maximum thrust
occurs when Pe = Pa.

The problem of balanced reaction in the Plug Flow Reactor and optimal thrust in the Laval Nozzle is not
altogether simple, but manageable as Ve, Pe, Pa and Ae are presented below.

a. Throat Temperature and Pressure

The gas pressure and temperature at the nozzle is less than the combustion chamber due to the
loss in thermal energy in accelerating the gas to the local speed of sound in the nozzle throat. If it weren’t
for this gradient, the Plug Flow Reactor may “plug” thermally as opposed to “flow” thermally. (The
proportionality constant (k) used below k is the specific heat ratio at constant volume and constant
pressure and not as used in reaction rates above.)

Pt = Pc * [1 + (k-1) / 2] –k / (k-1) Pt = Pressure at throat and Pc = Pressure in chamber.

Tt = Tc * {1 / [1 + (k-1) / 2]} Tt= Temperature at throat and Tc= Temperature in chamber.

b. Area of Nozzle Throat

At = (q / Pt) * [(R * Tt) / (M * k)]0.5

R is the ideal gas constant

M is the exhaust gas molecular wt.

c. Mach Number

The gasses must be expanded in the diverging section of the nozzle to achieve maximum thrust.
The Mach number Nm at which this occurs is given by:

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 Nm2 = [ 2 / (k-1)] * [(Pc/Pa) (k-1)/k -1]
If you use this equation, be sure to take the square root of the result also before determining nozzle
exit area.

d. Nozzle Exit Area

The nozzle exit area corresponding to the required Mach number in order to achieve proper
expansion is given by:

Ae = (At / Nm) * [1 + (k-1) / 2 * Nm2 / (( k +1) /2)] (k+1) / 2(k+1)

e. Velocity of the Exhaust Gas at the Exit Area

Ve = [ (2 * k / (k-1)) * (R *Tc / M) * ( 1 – (Pe / Pc) (k-1) / k ] 0.5

Conclusion:

If you got this far in your reading and understanding of the process, two things may be intuitively
obvious. First, all that is needed for the cell to pressurize the container is first to quantify the force
required, [F = q * Ve + (Pe – Pa) * Ae], that is satisfied via Laval Nozzle components using the equations
for the Plug Flow Reactor. Secondly, in addition to pressurization is the requirement of temperature
testing. The time at which pressurization takes place based upon rate of chemical reaction is well
described, but the reaction must go significantly longer (seconds as opposed to millisecond) to reach the
temperatures prescribed in other tests within a certain time frame. Simply put, more mass of reactants are
required, so the Plug Flow Reactor/Laval Rocket will run significantly longer than just the pressurization
time. It is a simple matter of controlling over pressurization by the use of blow out plugs and flow rate
designs of the atmospheric stand pipe manifolds while the exothermic reaction generates the required heat
in the required time. Consequently, it is possible to combine both tests in one operation.

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