Electrical Energy in the Home

Section 1: Society has become increasingly dependent

on electricity over the last 200 years.

Discuss how the main sources of domestic energy have changed over
time.
o Wood (to produce fire)
Chemical energy in wood converted into heat energy.
First energy source used by humans.
Wood allowed food to be cooked and helped to keep fierce
animals at bay.
Provided warmth.
o Domesticated animals
Source of mechanical energy.
Used to pull carts and turn grindstones.
Improvement of agricultural practices.
Transportation increased.
o Wind and water
Source of mechanical energy.
Wind for boats and mills.
Water wheels used to move grindstones.
More efficient production of food.
o Coal
Main fuel in 19th century due to dwindling supplies of wood
and superior energy content of coal.
Development of steam engine.
High energy content allowed production of steel.
Atmospheric pollution of cities.
Driving force of modern industrial age.
o Coal gas
Produced by burning coal in absence of air.
Source of heat and light in houses in cities. No longer requires
wood to keep warm.
Assess some of the impacts of changes in, and increased access to,
sources of energy for a community.
o Advantages
Increased production of food and construction methods
leading to increased population.
Improved transport and trade.
Increased convenience and improved quality of life.
Increase in efficient for human labour and production
methods.
Greater employment opportunities for people with expertise
in electrical energy generation and management.
o Disadvantages
Overcrowding in cities leading to poverty.
Overcrowding also leads to disease.

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Pollution and climate change from coal-fired power stations.

Discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be provided in remote
locations.
o Electricity is produced at a power station at a voltage of around
10000 volts and 10000 amps.
o This is then sent to transformers which change the voltage and
current to suitable values for each section of the distribution
system.
o Step-up transformers increase voltage but decrease current to
minimise energy loss in transmission through heat. From 10000
volts to 500000 volts.
o Step-down Transformers near homes gradually decrease the voltage
from 330000 volts to 240 volts.

Power
station.

Step-up
transformer

Transmission
lines

10,000V

500, 000V

500, 000V

Street
transformers
240V or 415V

Suburban
substation stepdown
transformer

Step-down
transformers
33, 000V

Hom
es
Industr
y
o
o
o
o

240V

As the number of power stations increased, they become linked

together in a power grid.
Power stations connected this way can exchange energy so a
station with low demand can assist stations with high demand.
Grids can also connect remote energy sources such as solar panels
or wind farms.
Some remote areas are not connected to the main grid.

Remote areas not connected to the main grid frequently use small
generators in which a coil is rotated by an internal combustion
engine using diesel or petrol.
o Solar cells and small wind generators are also used.
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse secondary information
about the differing views of Volta and Galvani about animal and chemical
o

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electricity and discuss whether their different views contributed to

increased understanding of electricity.
o Luigi Galvani
Galvanic found that a dissected frogs leg would contract if a
scalpel touched the frogs nerves when the electrostatic
machine was working or when there was a lightning strike in
vicinity.
Later he found that he could make a frogs leg contract with
just 2 different metals attached to the dissected frog one to
a leg muscle and the other to the spinal cord. The leg muscle
would contact if the 2 metals touched.
Believed that his observations showed that electricity was
being generated in frog tissue. Called animal electricity.
o Alessandro Volta
Carried out experiments to verify Galvanis work.
Believed that muscle movement was due to the contact
between two different metals. The contact of two different
metals produced electric charge.
He believed that when 2 different metals are brought into
contact, one becomes positively charged and the other
becomes negatively charged.
Created the Voltaic pile using zinc and brass discs to
demonstrate this.
o Voltas construction of the Voltaic pile became the forerunner of
modern batteries and so increased our understanding of producing
electricity through chemical reactions.
o Galvanis observation of frog leg contractions suggested that there
were electrical nerve signals from the brain to the nerves in muscles
and increased our understanding of the human body and
bioelectricity.

Section 2: One of the main advantages of electricity is

that is can be moved with comparative ease from one
place to another through electrical circuits

Describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and the properties of the

fields associated with them.
o Electric charge a property of electrons and protons by which they
exert electric forces on one another.
o There are 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
o Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
o Protons (+), Electrons (-) and Neutrons (no charge).
o A body which has equal number of protons and electrons will be
neutral.
o If a body has gained electrons it will acquire a negative charge due
to excess electrons.
o If a body has lost electrons it will acquire a positive charge due to a
deficiency of electrons.

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A charge on a body due to excess or deficiency of electrons is called

an electrostatic charge.
Define the unit of electric charge as the coulomb.
o 1 C = charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons. OR
o 1 e- = - 1.60 x 10-19 C.
o 1 p = +1.60 x 10-19.
o Q or q used to represent electric charge.
Define the electric field as a field of force with a field strength equal to the
force per unit charge at the point: E=f/q
o An electric field is a region of influence in which a charged object
will experience a non-contact electrostatic force.
o An object can be charged by:
Friction (rubbing).
Conduction (by bringing in contact a charged object)
Induction (by moving a charged object close to an uncharged
object, this will induce charges).
o The Strength of an electric field is given by:
E=f/q
Where E is the electric field strength in N C -1 (newtons
per coulomb).
F is the force acting on the charge.
Q is the charge.
o In other words, the electric field strength is the force which a
coulomb of charge experiences when placed in an electrical field.
o The direction of the electric field a t a point is defined as the
direction of the force that acts on a positive electric charge placed
at the point.
o i.e.
o

F
F

Treat the electric field as a gravitational field.

The electric field strength is the force acting on the charge in the
field.
o The spacing of the lines indicates the magnitude of the electric
field. The closer together the lines, the stronger the field.
Define the electric current as the rate at which charge flows (coulombs/
second or amperes) under the influence of an electric field.
o The electric current is the net movement of electric charge.
o SI unit: A or ampere.
o Moving charges are referred to as charge carriers.
o This is given by:
I = Q/t
Where Q is charge,
o
o

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o
o
o

o
o

t is time in seconds.
Other definition.
1 ampere = 6.25 x 1018 electrons passing through a crosssection of a conductor in 1 second.
In a metal, there are free electrons which are detached from the
atoms and are able to move around freely.
These free electrons are the charge carriers.
If there is an electric field in a metal, the free electrons, being
negatively charged, will experience a force in the opposite direction
to the field.
When the electric field is superimposed on the random movement
of free electrons, there will be a net movement in the direction
opposite of the electric field.
This net movement is known as electron drift and constitutes an
electric current.
When a negative charge moves in the opposite direction to an
electric field, it lsoes electric potential energy and gains kinetic
energy.
As the free electrons gain kinetic energy and collide with the
positive ions in the electron drift, the kinetic energy is transferred to
the positive ions causing them to vibrate with greater energy.
Thus when an electric current flows through a metal, the electric
potential energy is transformed into heat energy.

Current is measured using an ammeter. Denoted by an encircled A.

The ammeter must have very low and optimally no resistance.
This is because it is connected in series with the circuit.
Its purpose is to sample the current and so as little
interruption with the circuit is desired.
Identify that current can be either direct with the net flow of charge
carriers moving in one direction or alternating with the charge carriers
moving backwards and forwards.
o DC (Direct current)
The current flows continuously from the positive to the
negative terminal. (Conventional current)
The polarity of the terminals remains the same.
E.g. batteries, power packs in school.
o AC (Alternating current)
The polarity of the terminals continuously alternate.
This results in an alternating voltage.
The charge carriers move backwards and forwards
periodically.
o Conventional current consist of positive charges and flows from
positive to negative.
o Real current is the flow of electrons and goes from negative to
positive terminal.
o The negative current moving in one direction is equivalent to the
same amount of positive current.
o
o

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When doing any work involving current direction always follow

conventional current.
Describe electric potential difference (voltage) between two points as the
change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one point to the
other (joules/coulomb or volts).
o The potential difference across a resistor is the number of joules of
electric potential energy dissipated by each coulomb of charge that
passes through the resistor.
o In other words, the change in electric potential energy per coulomb
of charge that moves between two points.
o This is given by:
V=W/Q
Where W is work done. Energy (joules).
Q is the amount of charge.
V is voltage.
o Let +q be a charge that moves from A to B under the influence of
the electric field of strength E. (Blue is +q)
Plate A
o

o
o

Plate B

The force acting on q, F = E x q

The work done by the field is therefore:
W = F x d = E x q x d.

As +q moves from A to B, its electrical potential energy changes to

kinetic energy through work done by the electric field.
o Therefore:
V=ExQxD
Where E is electric field strength.
Q is charge.
D is distance between the 2 plates.
o Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
This is connected in parallel to the circuit.
The voltmeter should have a large amount of resistance.
This is so that it would be able to use up as much of the
electrical potential energy as possible to determine the
voltage across a resistor.
Discuss how potential difference changes at different points around a DC
circuit.
o In a circuit, the electric power supply provides the source of electric
potential energy.
o The strength is described by its voltage between the two terminals.
o

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As the electric current passes through various resistors of the

circuit, electrical potential energy is converted into other forms
which include heat and light.
o This is achieved through work done by appliances.
o In a circuit, the sum of the voltages across the resistors must equal
to the voltage setting of the terminal.
o If there are no resistors, then the energy will not be used up and will
continue to circulate faster and faster in the circuit leading to a
short-circuit as energy builds up.
Identify the difference between conductors and insulators
o A conductor is a material that let electric charges (current) flow
easily with minimal energy loss.
o This is because electrons are free to move. They are typically
metals such as copper, silver and gold.
o Insulators are materials that do not let electric current flow at all.
o The electrons are held tightly by the atomic nuclei or by covalent
bonds. Commonly non-metals such as glass and plastics.
Define resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular
conductor: R = V/I.
o Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrical charge.
o Resistance is defined by: R = V/I
Where R is resistance in ohms ().
V is voltage in volts (V).
I is current in amps (A).
o This is also known as Ohms law
The potential drop across a resistor is proportional to the
current passing through the resistor.
Ohms Law only applies to resistors with constant resistance.
o Ohmic resistors.
Resistors that obey Ohms Law are called ohmic resistors.
For an ohmic resistor, its V vs. I graph will be a straight line.
o Non-ohmic resistance.
A resistor that does not obey Ohms Law is known as a nonohmic resistor.
One of the reasons this occurs is because as more current
passes through the resistor its temperature increases.
An increase in temperature means that the atoms vibrate
more energetically and so the electrons bump into the atoms
more often resulting in high resistance.
For a non-ohmic resistor, its V vs I graph is curved.
These resistors do not obey Ohms Law.
o A good conductor is one in which there is negligible conversion of
electric potential energy into heat energy.
o Therefore a good conductor has 0 resistance as V=0 and I=0.
Describe qualitatively how each of the following affects the movement of
electricity through a conductor: length, cross sectional area, temperature
and material.
o

Length
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o
o
o
o

The longer the wire, the higher its resistance.

This is because as the wire gets longer, there is a greater chance of
a collision between the free electron with an ion in the lattice.
If two conductors differ in length only, then:
R1 / R2 = l1 / l2.
If the length of a conductor is doubled and all other factors are kept
the same, then its resistance will double.

Cross-sectional area
o
o
o
o

The smaller the area of cross-section of a wire, the greater its

resistance.
This is because a small cross-sectional area means that there is a
greater chance for an electron to collide with an ion in the lattice.
If 2 conductors differ in length only, then:
R1 / R2 = A2 / A1.
If the area of cross-section is doubled and all factors are constant,
then resistance is halved.

Temperature
o
o

When the temperature of a conductor is increased, the resistance

will increase.
This is because as temperature increases, the ions in the lattice will
vibrate with greater amplitude. This increases the chances for
collision between an electron and ion.

Material
o

When a free electron travels through a conductor, the chances it will

collide with an ion in the lattice is dependent on the material the
conductor is made of.

The factors contributing to the resistance of a material can be

combined to form the equation:
R = (P x L x T) / A
Where P is material type (given as a constant).
L is the length of the conductor.
T is temperature.
A is cross-sectional area.
Present diagrammatic information to describe the electric field strength
and direction: between charged parallel plates, about and between a
positive and negative charge.
o

Electric field surrounding a positive point

o
o

If a small positive charge +q is placed near the electric field

surrounding +Q, it will move away from +Q.
If a small negative charge q is placed near the electric field
surrounding +Q it will move towards +Q.

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o
o

This can be used to determine the direction of the electric field

lines.
Notice that as the distance from +Q increases the electric field
strength decreases.

Blue is +q
E
Red is -q

+Q

+
Q

Electric field surrounding a negative point

o
o
o

When a positive charge +q is placed close to Q it will move

towards Q.
When a negative charge q is place close to Q it will move away
from Q.
This can also be used to determine the direction of the electric field
lines.

Blue is +q
-Q

-Q

Red is q

Solve problems and analyse information applying: R = V/I.

o Resistance can be added in a circuit.
o Series
In a series circuit, the resistance can simply be added up.
i.e. Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn.
o Parallel
In a parallel circuit the resistance cannot be added up
i.e. 1 / Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ... 1/Rn.
Or
Rtotal = (R1 R2 R3 ... Rn) / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ... Rn )

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When performing calculations, apply Ohms Law only to a certain

region or aspect of the circuit each time.
i.e. Only apply Ohms Law to resistor 1 when concerning
resistor 1. Use only R1, V1 and I1.
Only apply Ohms Law to the whole circuit when concerning
the whole circuit. Use only Rtotal, Vtotal and I total.
o In a series circuit, the voltage is the only value that changes in the
circuit. Current remains constant.
o In a parallel circuit, the current is split at each branch but the
voltage at the beginning of each branch is constant.
o Thus in a parallel circuit, the more branches there is, the greater the
current is. However, the voltage is the same across each branch and
so it is more efficient than a series circuit.
Plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to
gather data and use the available evidence to show the variations in
potential difference between different points around a DC circuit.
o Equipment: Power pack, rheostat, light globe, alligator clips,
voltmeter, ammeter.
o In a circuit the sum of the voltages across the circuit should be 0.
o Connect the ammeter in series with the rheostat, power pack and
light globe.
o Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the globe.
o Take reading on the ammeter.
o Set the voltage setting on the power pack to 12V.
o Take voltmeter reading at the light globe.
o Change voltmeter position to the ends of the power pack.
o Take another reading on the voltmeter.
o Change the voltmeters position to the rheostat.
o Take another reading on the voltmeter.
o Change the voltage setting to 10V and adjust the rheostat so that
the amps is the same as the previous circuit.
o Repeat with different locations for voltmeter.
o The sum of the volt readings around the circuit should add to give
the voltmeter reading at the power pack.
Gather and process secondary information to identify materials that are
commonly used as conductors to provide household electricity.
o Materials commonly used to provide household
o Aluminium and iron (steel) are often used for transmission lines as
copper is too expensive and not mechanically strong enough.
o Copper is often used in household circuits due to its high
conductivity and its cheapness.
o

Section 3: Series and parallel circuits serve different

purposes in households

Identify the difference between series and parallel circuits.

o Series
A series circuit is where there is only one current pathway.
The current is constant throughout the circuit.

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If one appliance does not work then the whole circuit breaks
down.
o Parallel
A circuit where there are multiple current pathways.
The current splits at each branch of the circuit.
If one appliance does not work then the others connected in
parallel will continue to function.
Compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage across
components and current through them.
o Series
The voltage drop across each resistor adds up to give the
voltage provided by the power pack.
The resistance of a series circuit can be added simply by
adding the resistance of each resistor.
i.e. Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn.
The current throughout the circuit is constant.
i.e. Itotal = I1 = I2 =I3 = ... = In.
The greater the resistance of a resistor, the greater the power
dissipated in it.
The greater the resistance of a resistor, the greater the
voltage drop across the resistor.
o Parallel
The voltage drop across each branch is the same as the
voltage provided by the power source.
However, the current from the power source is split at each
branch of the circuit.
Thus, the more branches you have, the greater the current
flow must be so sufficient current can split at each branch to
power the resistors.
This is the cause of overloading in a circuit as connecting too
many resistors greatly increases the current which leads to
vast temperature increases in the wires. This makes the wire
hot and increases its resistance until the current can no
longer support the resistors.
Sum of current in circuit branches equals the current
provided by the power source.
i.e. Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +... +In
The sum of resistance in a parallel circuit is given by:
Rtotal = (R1 * R2 * R3 ... * Rn ) / (R1 + R2 + ... Rn ).
1 / Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... 1/Rn.
The greater the resistance of a resistor, the smaller the
current passing through it.
The greater the resistance of a resistor, the smaller the power
dissipated in it.

In a combined circuit add the resistance in the minor circuit first. i.e.
if there was a parallel circuit connected in series with the rest of the
circuit. First add the resistance in the parallel then it becomes one
resistor in the series circuit.

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If there was a series circuit in a parallel circuit, then add the

resistance first in the series circuit. Treat the series circuit as one
resistor and continue as normal.
o When dealing with each current. i.e. current of entire circuit or
current over a certain resistor. Only use the other factors associated
with that particular component only.
o i.e. When dealing with entire circuit use I total, Rtotal and Vtotal.
o When dealing with one particular resistor use I 1, R1 and V1.
Identify the uses of ammeters and voltmeters.
o Ammeter
The ammeter is used to measure the current size of a circuit.
It is connected in series with the other resistors as it needs to
sample the current in the circuit.
Thus it must have minimal resistance as minimal interference
is desired in the circuit.
o Voltmeter
The voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference
across each resistor.
The potential difference between two points across a power
source is called a potential rise.
The potential difference between two points across a resistor
is called a potential drop.
It is connected in parallel to each component of the resistor.
It also has extremely high resistance.
This is because it must use all the energy per coulomb of
charge across the resistor to see how much energy is used or
gained across the component.
Explain why ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently in a
circuit.
o See previous dot point.
Explain why there are different circuits for lighting, heating and other
appliances in a house.
o Each type of circuit has different voltage and current requirements.
Thus different circuits are required to support different types of
appliances. This allows for specification in design of circuit capacity
and installation of appropriate fuses.
o If one circuit fails, then the rest will not be affected as other circuits
are separate. i.e. if the lighting circuit fails then the hot water
system will not be affected. This makes it easier to maintain and
isolate problems.
o Each circuit has a design capacity.
Separation of circuits helps divide the current as opposed to
having only one circuit. Too many appliances connected in
parallel will raise the current to unsustainable levels.
o The separation of circuits allows for the turning off of certain circuits
such as those supporting the air conditioner while leaving vital
circuits on such as those supporting the alarm system.
o Each individual circuit has a safety feature known as a fuse or
circuit breaker.
o

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A fuse is made of a metal wire with a low melting point.

When more appliances are added to the circuit, the current
increases which also leads to a rise in temperature.
When the current is too strong, the heat will melt a
component in the fuse/circuit breaker thereby activating the
fuse.
Plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand
investigation to gather data and use available evidence to compare
measurements of current and voltage in series and parallel circuits in
computer simulations or hands-on equipment.
o Series
Set up 2 or more resistors in series.
Use an ammeter to measure the current between the
negative terminal and one resistor, between the positive
terminal and the other resistor, and between both resistors.
Use voltmeter to measure the voltage across each resistor,
across both resistors and across the power pack.
Current same throughout circuit.
Voltage across each resistor is proportional to resistance.
Sum of voltages across all resistors is equal to the potential
rise across the power pack.
o Parallel
Set up 2 or more resistors in parallel.
Use ammeter to measure the current before the 1 st branch,
along the 1st branch and along the 2nd branch. Also measure
current after the branches have re-joined.
Use voltameter to measure voltage across each resistor and
power pack.
Current across each resistor is inversely proportional to its
resistance.
Sum of currents across both resistors equals the current
before and after the branching.
Voltage drop across each resistor (or branch) is equal.
Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to construct simple model household circuits using electrical
components.
o Household circuits are roughly divided into the following
components:
Ring main circuit (in the wall surrounding house).
Lighting.
Kitchen.
Hot water / heater.

Section 4: The amount of power is related to the rate at

which energy is transformed.

Explain that power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one
form to another.

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o
o
o

o
o

Power is the rate at which work is done per unit time.

P=W/t
Where P is power (Watts).
W is work (joules).
T is time (seconds).
Work is the transformation of different forms of energy.
Therefore, power is the rate at which energy is transformed.
How power is defined in electricity.
The current is I amps.
Therefore, I coulombs of charge passes through the resistor in
one second.
Each coulomb of charge dissipates V joules of electric
potential energy.
Therefore in one second, VI joules of electric energy are
dissipated.
There are 3 different formulas for power relating to voltage,
resistance and current.
P = V x I.
Where P is power (Watts).
V is voltage.
I is current.
This is only used when current does not change across the
resistor.
i.e. in series only.
P = I2 x R
Where R is resistance.
I is current.
Only used when current does not change.
i.e. in series only.
P = V2 / R.
Where R is resistance.
V is voltage.
To be used in parallel circuits when other 2 formulas cannot
be used.
More useful formulas relate to work:
W = V x I x t.
Where W is work (Joules).
V is voltage.
I is current.
T is time (seconds).
W = I2 x R x t.
Where W is work.
I is current
R is resistance.
T is time.
Finding power helps to calculate the work done by a load.
This is useful in brightness questions where the question asks
which of the light globes in the circuit are brightest.
To find the brightest globe, find the power of each globe and
whichever one has the highest is the brightest.

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Identify the relationship between power, potential difference and current.

o See previous dot point.
Identify that the total amount of energy used depends on the length of
time the current is flowing and can be calculated using: Energy = VIt.
o Power is the amount of energy transformed per unit time.
o Thus the total amount of energy used depends on the length of time
the current has flowed.
o W = Pt.
Where W is work.
P is power and t is time (seconds).
o This in turn gives rise to Energy = V x I x t.
Where V is voltage.
I is current
T is time (seconds).
o A Watt is the same as 1 Js-1.
If the currents through 2 resistors are equal, the resistor with the
greater resistance will have the greatest power dissipation. (Series
circuit).
o If the voltage drops across 2 resistors are equal, the resistor with
greater resistance will have the smaller power dissipation. (Parallel
circuit).
Explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to measure electrical energy
consumption rather than the joule.
o The kilowatt-hour is used because the joule is too small to be used
for practical purposes.
o When expressing the amount of energy used in everyday life in
joules, the figure becomes too large and unmanageable for
calculations.
o 1 kw-hour of energy is the amount of energy used by an appliance
of 1000 watts in power over 1 hour.
o Energy in kilowatt-hours = Power in kilowatts x time in hours.
Perform a first-hand investigation, gather information and use available
evidence to demonstrate the relationship between current, voltage and
power for a model 6V to 12V electric heating coil.
Solve problems and analyse information using: P =VI and Energy = VIt.
o

Section 5: Electric currents also produce magnetic fields

and these fields are used in different devices in the
home.

Describe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of bar magnets when they
are brought close together.
o A magnet is always made of two poles: North and South.
o There is no such thing as a magnet with only one pole. i.e. if a
magnet was cut in half, then one end will automatically become the
conjugate pole of the existing end.
o Unlike poles attract and like poles repel.

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There is a magnetic field around each pole which allows poles to

exert non-contact forces on each other.
o The forces between 2 magnets are the interaction between 2
magnetic fields.
o Magnetic field A region of influence in which another
magnet/magnetic material will experience a non- contact force.
o B is the label magnetic field.
o Magnetic field lines never intersect.
Define the direction of the magnetic field at a point as the direction of
force on a very small north magnetic pole when placed at that point.
o The direction of a magnetic field can found be placing a small
magnet in the magnetic field.
o The direction in which the north pole on the magnet points is the
direction of the magnetic field.
B
o

When a compass is placed on Earth, the suspended needle is

allowed to be influenced by the Earths magnetic field.
o The direction in which the compass points is the geographic North
pole which is really the magnetic south as the north end of the
compass is attracted to it.
Describe the magnetic field around pairs of magnetic poles.
o Field lines never intersect.
o All field lines form self-enclosed loops.
o Inside the magnet, the field lines flow from South to North.
o Outside the magnet, the field lines flow from North to South.
o

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Describe the production of a magnetic field by an electric current in a

straight current-carrying conductor and describe how the right hand grip
rule can determine the direction of current and field lines.
o An electric current flowing through a wire is always accompanied by
circular magnetic fields.
o The shape of this magnetic field depends in a way on the shape of
the conducting wires.
o Straight wire.
The magnetic field lines around a straight wire are concentric
circles.
This can be determined by the right hand grip rule.
When the thumb points in the direction of the conventional
current passing through the wire, curling the other 4 fingers
will give the direction of the concentric magnetic fields.

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o Solenoid.
The magnetic field lines in a solenoid are similar to the ones
found in magnets.
The direction of the magnetic field can also be determined by
the right hand grip rule.
Determine the direction in which current is flowing in the
curled wires around the solenoid.
Curl the 4 fingers in the same direction as the conventional
current flow.
The thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field. (It
will also point at the north pole of the solenoid.).
Like a magnet, the magnetic field lines outside the solenoid
will curve in a loop back to the other end.

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Another way to determine which end is north and south is to look at

the end of a solenoid.
o If the conventional current is rotating anti-clockwise then the end is
a north pole.
o If the conventional current is rotating clockwise then the end is a
south pole.
Compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields by solenoids and a
bar magnet.
o Both a bar magnet and the magnetic fields of solenoid form self
enclosed loops from N to S on the outside and from S to N inside.
o A permanent magnet is created by placing a hard iron core inside
a solenoid for a sufficient amount of time.
These magnets can be demagnetised by hitting or heating.
This is because through hitting and heating, the magnetic
domains of the magnets are randomised once more resulting
in no overall magnetism.
Hard iron is used to refer to any alloy of iron that magnetises
slowly but retains its magnetism for longer periods of time
after it is removed from the magnetic field.
o Soft iron is a type of iron that becomes magnetised quickly but loses
its magnetism quickly once it is removed from the magnetic field.
o A solenoid with a soft iron core can be turned into an electromagnet
by passing an electric current through the coils of the solenoid.
However, when the current ceases to pass through the
solenoid, the soft iron core quickly becomes demagnetised.
o Materials commonly used in magnets:
Fe, Ni and Co.
o Domain theory
A ferromagnetic material is made up of many magnetic
domains.
In each domain, nearly all the atomic magnets are lined up in
the same direction.
o

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When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field,

the directions of magnetism of domains line up in the
direction of the magnetic field.
When all domains are lined up, the material is fully
magnetised.
When demagnetised, the domains are all magnetised in
random directions resulting in no overall magnetism.
Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first hand
investigation to build an electromagnet.
Perform a first hand investigation to observe magnetic fields by mapping
lines of force: around a bar magnet, surrounding a straight DC currentcarrying conductor, a solenoid, present information using x and to show
the direction of a current and direction of a magnetic field.
o Solenoid and straight DC current.
Equipment: Uninsulated wire, cardboard piece, solenoid,
power pack, wires, alligator clips, retort stand, G-clamp, retort
ring, compass.
Use a hole-puncher to punch a hole in the cardboard piece.
String the piece of uninsulated wire through the cardboard.
Balance the cardboard on the retort ring.
Connect wires to the two ends of the wire.
Wind one end of the wire onto the G clamp at the top of the
retort stand so the wire is taught.
Apply voltage from power pack and place the compass on the
cardboard.
Record the direction in which the compass is pointing.
Repeat by placing compass in various positions.
Switch the positive and negative end of the wires to reverse
current direction.
Place compass on cardboard again in various positions.
The magnetic field direction should be reversed when current
is reversed.

Set up solenoid and power pack.

Turn on power pack and place compass close to solenoid.
Record direction and place compass in various places.
Swap the positive and negative terminals to reverse current.
The magnetic field direction should be reversed when current
is reversed.
An x surrounded by a circle and is used to indicate current
direction.
An x surrounded by a circle indicates that current is going
away from you. i.e. into the page.
indicates that current is coming towards you. i.e. out of
the page.
An x and a are used to indicate magnetic field direction when 2 D
field lines cannot describe the 3 D magnetic field.
An x means that the magnetic field is going away from you.
i.e. into the page.

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A indicates that the magnetic field is going towards you. i.e.

out of the page.

B (Out of page)
Conventional

current

B (Into page

Conventional current going

Conventional current coming
into the page. The concentric
out of the page. The
rings are magnetic field lines.
concentric rings are magnetic
field lines.
Identify
data sources, gather, process and analyse information to explain
one application of magnetic fields in household appliances.
o Loudspeakers
Circular permanent magnet surrounding a freely moving coil.
Coil attached to cone-shaped diaphragm.
When a current passes through the coil, magnetic forces will
act on the coil causing it to move in or out depending on
current direction.
If an alternating current passes through the coil, it will move
alternately in and out as current changes direction.
Coil vibrates at same frequency as alternating current.
Alternating current derived from sound waves converted by a
microphone.
Vibrations in coil causes the diaphragm to vibrate and
generate sound waves that reproduce the sound waves from
the original source.

Section 6: Safety devices are important in household

circuits

Discuss the dangers of an electric shock from both a 240 volt AC mains
supply and various DC voltages, from appliances, on the muscles of the
body.

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o
o

An electric shock is caused when electric current passes through the

body and causes a violent disturbance of the nervous system.
DC current
Produced when the positive and negative terminals do not
change while the current flows.
E.g. batteries.
A continuous flow of current flows through the circuit at a
constant rate.
DC shocks are not fatal, they do however cause burns and
other physical injuries.
DC shocks do not lead to fibrillation.
AC current
Produced when the positive and negative terminals alternate.
The current changes direction according to the frequency of
the alternating power supply.
AC shocks are more fatal as its alternating frequencies are
close to the frequency of heart beats, thus increasing the risk
of fibrillation of heart muscles.
Fibrillation is a condition in which the heart stops beating
regularly and oscillates rapidly.
The time the current passes through the body affects severity of
shock. The longer the exposure, the more serious the shock.
Sometimes, when a current passes through a muscle, it
contracts and the person can no longer pull away.
When this happens someone else needs to hit the person
with a non-conducting material to break his or her hold from
the wires.
Resistance of the body affects severity of shock.
Current depends on the voltage across the body and the
resistance of the body.
This is determined by the relationship I = V /R.
Thus the larger the resistance, the smaller the current.
Wet skin has much lower resistance than dry skin.

Effects of alternating currents with a frequency of 50Hz from hand to hand.

(240V)
Current (mA)
01
1 15

15 100

100 200
Over 200

Physiological effects
Not perceptible
Pain at points of entry and exit of
current.
Involuntary contraction of muscles in
path of current.
Inability to release grip. Muscular
contractions of chest and diaphragm.
Contractions may prevent breathing
and if prolonged leads to death.
Fibrillation leading to death.
Reversible stopping of heart. Loss of

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consciousness.

Describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses, earthing, double

insulation and other safety devices in the home.
o A short circuit occurs when the active wires comes in contact with
the neutral wire or with a conductor connected to the Earth.
This creates a circuit with very little resistance leading to an
extremely high current.
Can cause fire.
o Overloading
Current is proportional to temperature.
Each piece of wiring is designed to carry a certain max
current without overheating.
Wires that have to carry a high current are made thicker to
reduce resistance and decrease heat generated.
If a wire is overloaded, it can become sufficiently hot to cause
fire.
Most likely occurs when too many appliances are connected
in parallel to the household circuit raising the current through
the wire.
o Circuit breakers
Same function as fuses.
Uses an electromagnet to mechanically break the circuit
when current exceeds max value.
Can be reset after being tripped.
o Fuses
Used to prevent overloading of household circuits.
Fuse made of resistance wire with low melting point.
Fuse is in series with rest of circuit.
The greater the current, the higher the temperature.
Fuse designed to melt when current through circuit exceeds
limit and this breaks the circuit.
Fuse wire is placed inside an insulated, high melting point
casing to prevent fuse from becoming fire hazard.
Made with different ratings to melt at different currents.
Must be replaced every time a fuse blows.
o Double insulation
Prevent live electric current from escaping wires and causing
shocks.
Normally insulated with plastics (PVC). Must be flexible as
wires are flexible.
Some appliances are double insulated in case the inner
insulation fails.
o Earth wire
There are usually 3 slots on power outlets: active, neutral and
earth.
The earth wire is connected to the fuse box and to the earth..

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The earth wire provides protection in case the active wire

comes in contact with the casing of the appliance or someone
touches the active.
A large current will flow to the earth through the earth wire as
soon as the active wire touches the appliance.
This is because the current will flow through the
shortest path towards the Earth.
This is through the earth wire which goes through the
fuse box.
The large current will go to the fuse box and cause the fuse to
blow or circuit breaker to trip.
Double insulated appliances do not need earth wires.
Residual current devices.
Detects any leakage of current to the Earth.
Designed to switch current off before it reaches harmful
levels.

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